Basic Tenets of Structural Linguistics

Author(s): George P. Faust

Source: College Composition and Communication, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Dec., 1953), pp. 122-126
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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122

COMPOSITION AND COMMUNICATION

tersecting monologues, that is all.

when life is being lived, not when

We speak; we spread round us with

it is being talked about, not when

sounds, with words, an emanation

the intellect is holding the field.

from ourselves. Sometimes they

Then, of course, ideas can be for-

overlap the circles that others are

mulated, can be passed from one

spreading round themselves. Then

mind to another. It is not easy, but

they are affected by these other

it can be done with care, like hand-

circles, to be sure, but not because

ing around a pearl, on which you

of any real communication that has

wish an opinion, to a circle of ex-

taken place, merely as a scarf of

perts. You cup the palm to hold it,

blue chiffon lying on a woman's

you keep the hand very steady. No

dressing-table will change color if

such caution is possible when one

she casts down on it a scarf of red

is really living. Then there is no con-

chiffon. I am talking now of times

versation.9

Basic Tenets of Structural Linguistics'

GEORGE P. FAUST2

In writing about structural linguistics,

I am making two assumptions to begin

with: that so far some readers know the

subject only by name, and that the great

majority are looking for explanation

from someone who, like me, is a teacher

rather than a professional linguist. For

the first group I should make the point

clear that structural linguistics can be

applied to any language, not just Eng-

lish, though English will be our concern

here. The simplest possible definition is

that structural linguistics analyzes a lan-

guage into its significant sounds, the pat-

terns of sounds we call words (for Eng-

lish), and the patterns of words we call

phrases, clauses, and sentences. This

means that structural linguistics sets up

an alternative grammar to the one we

learned in school. It has a different basis,

it is constructed differently, and its re-

sults coincide only in part with those of

traditional grammar.

Before we go further, it will be well

to take care of possible sources of mis-

understanding. To all but perhaps the

youngest teachers, linguistics mostly has

to do with history, or at least with his-

torical explanations. Structural linguis-

tics is different. Its aim is to come as

close as possible to describing the char-

acteristics of a language at a given time.

History is simply beside the point. Now

this is certainly not fully understood. In

Our Language, a recent British book

along traditional lines, Simeon Potter

says at one point: "No one who is ac-

quainted only with the living language

as it is, or, to use the more fashionable

expression, no one who studies [the ex-

ample] synchronically (and not dia-

chronically or historically), would ven-

ture to say which of these three uses [of

1 This article is a development from the

panel discussion, "The Structural Analysis of

while] is the original one .. ." Cer-

English and Its Implications for Teaching," at

tainly not, but it is hard to see why an

the 1953 Spring Meeting of the CCCC in Chi-

cago. The purpose is given in the opening para-

account of present structure should be

graphs of the article, which is the first of a

concerned with the history implied in

series of three. The second and third articles

by the same author will appear in the Febru-

ary and May issues of College Composition and

9 Rebecca West, "There Is No Conversation,"

Communication.
The Harsh Voice. Garden City, N. Y.: Double-

2 University of Kentucky.

day, Doran & Co., 1935, p. 67.

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123

STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS

"the original one." Historical (diachron-

is only natural that we should tend to

ic) linguistics is an honorable field of

regard writing as superior to speech. As

study; so is structural (synchronic) lin-

a result, we tend to think of writing as a

guistics. They serve different purposes,

norm instead of a specialized form of

and while they can be useful to each

language.

other, they properly do not use the same

For the structuralist, writing is second-

methods.
ary to speech. This position is not taken

One more possible misunderstanding.

Structuralism is such a novelty to most

of us that we may fail to realize that

every paradigm in any grammar has been

presented as a structural set, though not

arbitrarily or for the sake of irritating

others. It seems to have much to justify

it. For instance, children lear to speak

long before they learn to write. Again,

grammars traditionally introduce stu-

necessarily the most valid or useful one.

dents first to the sounds and pronuncia-

In the last generation or so, much more

tions of a language. It is strong circum-

rigorous analyses have been made of

stantial evidence that every script pre-

many languages, especially the so-called

supposes a spoken language; and the

primitive ones that had no system of

fact that no human community has been

writing and so had to be treated syn-

found without a language fully develop-

chronically. Structural analysis has been

ed for the purposes of its users is an

focused on English partly in connection

even more powerful argument that

with the teaching of English to for-

speech preceded writing by a very long

eigners, where it has been reassuringly

time. The point is that without speech

successful. However, a language like

there can be no writing.

ours, with a tradition of writing and

Insistence on the primacy of speech is

a considerable number of dialects, is

not an esthetic judgment. A linguist qua

very complex, and the study of it is not

linguist is interested in all forms of lan-

complete. This does not imply that what

guage, but he takes each on its own

has been learned is not usable already.

terms. "Better" and "worse" have no lin-

The basic structural techniques have

guistic meaning, except better or worse

been proved by trial, and there is no

for analysis. Our conventional writing

reason to suppose that they are not apdoes not show unambiguously the pat-

plicable to English.
terns of accent and intonation that we

have to use when we speak. Since these

The prestige of our literature accounts

turn out to be grammatically important,

for at least one of the two major differ-

speech is better for analysis than writences between the traditional and struc-

ing, from which different patterns may

tural ways of looking at language. These

sometimes be inferred by different readdifferences are in the view we take of

ers. Also, some grammatical arrangethe relation between spoken and writ-

ments are actually used in speech which

ten English and in our thinking about

would be ambiguous or misunderstood

the correspondences between meaning

in writing. "Thank whoever put my slipand form. The writing we deal with in

pers there for me" (with a break after

the classroom is in standard English; at

there and a primary accent on for) clearthe same time we are all keenly aware

ly means "Thank for me. . .," but canof non-standard speech around us. In

not be used in normal writing. We make

addition, writing and speaking seem to

some such substitution as "Give my

represent extremes of permanence and

thanks to . ..
evanescence. From these experiences and

from our training in literary studies, it

Knowledge of what happens in speech

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COMPOSITION AND COMMUNICATION

124

helps a teacher explain the ways of edit-

mitting "messages." They discriminate

ed English. For instance, many Ken-

between lexical and grammatical mean-

tuckians regularly say "I'll have him to

ing, for instance, and concentrate on the

stop in" and "I'd like for you to wait."

grammatical. What this means is that if

Merely telling them that the to and for

a student presented a paper with the

are errors is likely to produce one or

title "The Sprillickams Grapchids," you

both of two effects: They come to feel

would be completely in the dark about

that their speech is inferior, or they de-

lexical meaning, but you would feel an

cide that classroom English has little

impulse to indicate that an apostrophe

or nothing to do with realities outside

was needed in Sprillickams. And you

of teacherdom. If, on the other hand,

would be right, for you would have un-

they can be shown that edited English

derstood the grammatical signals: In

is based on a dialect different from

English the form could hardly be any-

theirs, but not better, they can under-

thing except a possessive. What is the

stand without resentment or possible

conclusion? To me it is that much of the

loss of self-respect why they should not

heat of fruitless controversy would be

reflect their own speech in general writ-

ing. Punctuation, too, can be simplified

by approaching it through spoken Eng-

dissipated if we all recognized that the

term language is used with different em-

phases-the familiar one that stresses

lish. For years I taught the difference

general or referential meaning and the

between restrictive and non-restrictive

novel one that limits itself at present to

by using "My brother, who lives in . . .

the mechanisms.

and then going on to a rather compli-

The structural objection to the tradi-

cated explanation involving the size of

tional use of language is that the account

the family I grew up in. Of course I re-

of the mechanisms becomes distorted be-

peated the sentence over and over, with

yond reason. Not long ago I found on a

and without the comma, so to speak.

blackboard the legend MEANING DE-

But I never suspected until last year that

TERMINES FORM. Put grammatical

if my students learned anything, it was

before each noun, and the linguist would

from listening to my intonation, not my

reverse the legend. An individual may be

explanation. Now I teach them to listen

able to choose from among current

for the cadence, and decide their punc-

forms, but meaning cannot possibly de-

tuation on that basis. With a very few

termine obsolete or non-existent forms.

restrictions to take care of arbitrary edi-

English once had dual forms of person-

torial practice, the system works, and

al pronouns, and it is pretty safe to as-

the students are spared the details of my

sume that speakers have never stopped

family.

meaning "we two" and "you two." But

In addition to seeing in speech an im-

portance unfamiliar to most of us, struc-

the dual forms have disappeared and

cannot now be revived. Or again, we

tural linguists strike us as practically ig-

sometimes includes the listener, some-

noring meaning if not denying its exist-

times excludes him. Some other lan-

ence. We are mistaken. No linguist

would think of denying the constantly

guages have separate forms for the two

meanings, but not English. Here again

certified fact that language conveys

meaning cannot and does not determine

meaning. The basic difference seems to

form. On the other hand, if we use forms

be that we tend to think of language

like boys and children, we can't help

as produced by meaning, and the struc-

meaning what we call plural. We say

turalists regard it as a medium for trans-

one car, several cars; we do not say one

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125

STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS

cars, several car.

Now suppose a student wants to try

out but and however. With his auto-

Traditional grammar often produces

semantic whirlpools: In "He wore a blue

matically appropriate intonation pat-

terns he can use them both in the frame

tie," blue is the name of a color, yet we

do not call it a noun. Structural linguis-

and produce utterances that his friends

tics, on the other hand, takes its cues

will agree are English. The test lies in

from signs that are either overlooked or

trying each connective also between the

taken for granted in traditional teach-

subject and verb of the second clause.

ing, and its explanations in terms of lin-

The resulting pairs, together with my re-

guistic behavior are more accurate and

action to each utterance, are these:

easier to understand. Let me offer an in1. Jack came but the others were gone (Yes)

complete but serviceable illustration.

2. Jack came the others but were gone (No)

3. Jack came however the others were gone (Yes)

Comma splices and sentence fragments

4. Jack came the others however were gone (Yes)

are the result of a student's inability to

classify the connective between two

The "No" after 2 classifies but as a con-

clauses. The result of appeals to the

junction; the "Yes" after 4 classifies how-

meanings of the words, or to "sentence

ever as a conjunctive adverb.4

sense," or even to dictionary classifica-

Formulas like C11+X+C12 are some-

tion, often is confusion. The student con-

times objected to as cardinal pomposities

tinues to be unable to see the "essential"

of structural linguistics, on a par with ad-

difference of meaning between so and

vertising's "Scientists say . . ." They are

therefore, and anyway the dictionary

certainly discomforting at first, because

lists therefore as a conjunction. One

they are unfamiliar, but after you have

teacher proclaimed that a comma before

worked with them a while, you come to

therefore produces a reader block-and

realize the advantages of their brevity,

this to a class which had been guessing

clarity, and immediacy. Students like

wildly at what was wrong with a sen-

them. As for their making language seem

tence that read all right to them. I am

too mechanical, the insistence of struc-

told that in some quarters comma splices

tural linguistics is precisely that language

are still regarded as signs of iniquity,

is a complex set of mechanisms. This

and the student must be flunked. Of

should not be a shock-but it is-to those

course most of us are far beyond that

of us who maintain that person should

stage. Still, we prefer editorial orthodoxy.

be mechanically referred to by pronoun

How can a student find out for sure

forms related to he. To which the struc-

whether a connective is a conjunction or

tural objection is that the formula is not

a conjunctive adverb? By using a set of

consistent with the facts of language.

linguistic frames and trying a test. The

formula for such frames is Cll+X+C12,

Beneath any haggling over individual

in which C1 stands for clause and X for

points lies the difference in approach.

the connective to be identified.3 Here is

Traditionally we have started out arm-

one frame which can be used for a re-

stricted list of forms:

4 It goes without saying that the test applies

only to connectives between clauses in the stu-

Cli

C12

dent's own writing or his reading of contem-

porary American English. Some previous preJack came

the others were gone

paration is assumed. For instance, the student

must have learned to notice the differences be-

tween however followed by a break in intona-

3 This formula assumes that clause is known.

tion and however without a break. Otherwise

I myself prefer SVC1 X SVC2, in which SVC

he might be confused by something like "Make

stands for subject-verb-complement(s).

your corrections however you like."

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126

COMPOSITION AND COMMUNICATION

ed with canonical lists of conjunctions

verbalized. Classification is based on

and conjunctive adverbs, and with def-

such definitions and produces results

initions designed to justify the lists. If

which can be expressed as lists. Thus

such a test as the one proposed here sup-

the starting point of the traditionalist is

ports the lists, it is acceptable; if not, it

the end point of the structuralist. Which

is inadequate. On the contrary, the struc-

is better, then, to start with the facts-in-

turalists first observe the facts and for-

cluding the facts about edited English-

mulate definitions to match the facts.

and work to the lists, or to start with the

Many prefer to express the definitions as

lists and try to bend the facts? In the

formulas, though formulas are no more

long run, I am afraid, we will look a lit-

essential in linguistics than they are in

tle foolish if we refuse to face the lin-

chemistry, where every formula could be

guistic facts.

A Maryland Project in Articulation

NICK AARON FORD1

We, the Department of English at

the College are awarded to the graduates

Morgan State College, have been greatly

of these schools upon recommendation of

benefited by the reviews and summary

the principals. The collegiate athletic

statements of projects in articulation be-

teams which, incidentally, enjoy a na-

tween high school and college English

tional reputation rely heavily upon the

that have been reported in College Com-

products of these schools. But only re-

position and Communication during the

cently have any joint projects been un-

past two years. From these reports we

dertaken in the academic realm.

have gained not only encouragement to

In November, 1952, at the informal

continue our efforts along this line, but

annual luncheon sponsored by the Col-

also helpful suggestions in methodology.

lege for high school principals and col-

It is, therefore, with a sense of gratilege department heads, the new program

tude for benefits received from similar

for Freshman English2 recently institut-

experiences that we offer a brief report

ed at the College became the predom-

on a project that has proved both interinant topic of discussion. After hearing

esting and helpful to us and to our high

that approximately 40% of the entering

school colleagues who participated in

freshmen failed to achieve a passing

it.
grade in one semester, that 20% failed

Morgan State College may be classito achieve such a grade in two semesters,

fied as a small college, having a reguand that 10% failed to pass after hav-

lar campus enrollment of approximately

ing been subjected to three semesters

sixteen hundred students and an Eng-

2 The four most significant features of this

lish faculty of eighteen. Nearly seventy

program are: (1) No failing grades are given

per cent of its students come from thirto students who are enrolled in the course for

the first time. "No credit" is recorded on the

ty high schools in Maryland. Adminis-

permanent record cards of students who do not

tratively there is a fairly close working

demonstrate a mastery of the required skills

in one semester. (2) For Freshman English

relationship between the College and the

only, the passing grade is C. (3) Students who

principals of these schools. Many schol-

do not earn the grade of C or above are re-

quired to repeat the course in special Repeater

arships and part-time jobs available at

Sections, which employ methods different from

those used in regular sections. (4) Sub-fresh-

1 Morgan State College, Baltimore.

man English has been abolished.

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