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PART-DLOADS & STRESSES

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DLOADS & STRESSES on AIRCRAFT PARTS

[IP-TXT-BG: (De-2013)+(Ia-2014)GSD]

I - WING ANALYSIS
Problem formulation: For the given aircraft
determine the wing loading and stressing in a specified design case
Airplane/wing geometry and weight data
The overall airplane and wing data are summarized in the attached Table D-1. Further, because of
symmetry, only the right wing will be depicted and analyzed as in Figure D-1
Table D-1: Airplane/wing geometry and weights
1700 [daN]
Airplane design weight
GAV
of which (both wings)
220 [daN]
Wing structural weight
Ga
2x160 [daN]
2xGm
Engines (incl. propellers)
2x37.5 [daN]
2xGtp
Main landing gear
2x160 [daN]
2xGc
Fuel
11.75
[m]
Wing span
2b
17.90
[m2]
Wing area (gross)
S
Wing stations & chords:
C0 = 2.1 [m]
The plane of symmetry (0)
y0 = 0
yr = 0.6 [m]
(Cr = 1.97 [m])
Wing root (R)
ym = 1.85 [m]
Cm = 1.7 [m]
Engine station (M)
ye = b = 5.875 [m]
Ce = 1.0 [m]
Wing tip (E)
yCMA = 2.50 [m]
CMA = 1.59 [m]
* CMA (calculated)
yCMG = 2.87 [m]
CMG = 1.52 [m]
* CMG (calculated)
Landing gear
3.20 [m]
Wheel track (ecartament)
E
2.59 [m]
Wheel base (ampatament)
D
Other data
1.88 [m]
Propeller diameter

Design case: From the Maneuver & Flight Envelope (DMR) any case with n = n1
Theory
As well known, within rational approximations, the loads and stressing on the wing can be
established to an acceptable degree of accuracy exclusively from the airplane geometry, weight balance
and a minimum of flight data In the following, the loads normal to the wing surface will be first
investigated within the assumption of small angle of attack (that is, lift approximately perpendicular to
the wing chords, etc).
1. The wing running lift (portana repartizat)
Lets denote by Pa [N] the total lift on the wing in the specified design case; with the usual
definition, this reads
Pa [N]

SV 2 C za

(a)

In a similar manner, the running lift pa [N/m] can be expressed as

pa [N/m] 2 V 2C ( y ) C z ( y )

(b)

In these formulae C za and C z ( y ) represent the wing total and local lift coefficients
Pa

Extracting the dynamic pressure from the first, 2 V 2

, inserting it into the second and
S Cza
letting by definition S 2b CMG , leads to the following qualitative expression for the local lift
P C ( y ) Cz ( y )
pa [N/m] a

(c)
2b CMG C za

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This last formula can be interpreted as follows: the local lift on a finite span wing can be
successively approximated by a uniform value Pa / 2b , corrected for the local geometric chord
C ( y ) / CMG and for the aerodynamic finite-span effect C z ( y ) / C za (the last correction factor depending
on the wing planform geometry, etc is known in principle from the aerodynamics).
For preliminary calculations, approximate expressions can be derived from (c) by truncating the
formula from right to left
For instance, by neglecting the aerodynamic finite-span effect, two simplified expressions result
P C( y)
P
; pa [N/m] a
pa [N/m] a
(d)
2b CMG
2b
The first one (more rational!) assumes that the local lift is proportional with the local chord; the
last one, on the other side, corresponds to a uniform lift distribution (this is evidently a rather crude
approximation for a trapezoidal wing). Both approximations will be considered in this text for
evaluation.
Further, one can directly relate all these formulae to the a specific load case if we assume that
the airplane lift is entirely generated by the wing and make use of the known definition of the load factor
in a symmetric evolution, that is
def !

Pa PAV = n G AV
(e)
With this one and n1 the load factor in this example, the final expressions (d) become explicitly
n G
n G
C( y)
(f)
; pa [N/m] 1 AV
pa [N/m] 1 AV
2b
2b
CMG
2. The running wing inertia force (sarcina masic proprie repartizat)
As known from definition, in an ordinary evolution of the airplane, any item having a weight G
feels an inertia force n G , n being the corresponding load factor. The wing itself, having the total
weight Ga , feels then the total inertia force n Ga
The wing being a spatial body, its weight must be entered in the analysis as a running force.
The wing weight builds up primarily from its structural weight so that, in order to correctly represent it
through a running force, one needs information on its structure, and so on Unfortunately, these data are
not at all at hand in a preliminary calculation; therefore one must rely on approximate expressions.
Two such simplified formulae can be considered following the same reasons as above: local
weight ga [N/m] proportional with the local chord or even a uniform distribution (both are evidently less
or more approximate!...). Further, the running inertia force of the wing will be pg [N/m] n ga [N/m]

With these considerations, the wing running inertia force will be given (analogous to (f)) by
n G C( y)
n G
; pg [N/m] 1 a
pg [N/m] 1 a
(g)
2b
2b
CMG
Note. In this formula we have assumed - as a simplification, but somewhat in accord with the
definition of "gross" wing - that the "wing" includes the so-called "central plane"; this approximation can
be evidently removed if more elaborate calculations are envisaged
3. The concentrated inertia forces (forele concentrate de pe arip)
The engine, the alighting gear or the fuel reservoir constitute a system of solid items acting at
their specific locations on the wing semi-span; their effect on the wing is that of a system of concentrated
forces. For the direction normal to the wing, only the inertia forces are to be considered; with Gk [N]
denoting the weight of such an item, the corresponding inertia force will be
Z k [N] n1 Gk
(h)
Note. The sign of all these forces will be entered in the analysis in accord with the sign
convention used for the wing itself as an elastic body

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The complete wing loading

Fig. D-1 depicts the right wing with all running and concentrated forces acting on it; the model is
that of a cantilever beam under general loading
Further, the interior forces Tz and M x (shear force / bending moment) are introduced at a current
section y in conformity with the sign convention for beams. The calculation follows standard definitions
and usual procedures known from the Strength of Materials and will be shown in detail for clarity
Numeric values
Running lift (constant - see approximate formula in (f))
nG AV 3.8 1700 [daN]

550 [daN/m]
(i)
pa
2b
11.75 [m]
Wing running inertia force (constant - see approximate formula in (g))
nGa 3.8 220

(j)
pg
daN/m 71 [daN/m]
2b
11.75
Engine+propeller and reservoir concentrated forces (cf. (h)) - all acting at "ym"
Z m n1 Gm 3.8 160 [daN] 608 [daN] ; Z c n1 Gc 3.8 160 [daN] 608 [daN]
(k)
Z m c 1216 [daN]
The main landing gear (right leg) with weight Gtp is considered retracted in this flight loading
case; therefore the corresponding inertia force must be introduced in a rational manner. We assume the
weight of the leg in retracted position to be equally distributed on two points, one being the actual
trunnion, the other a secondary suspension point (somewhere on the wheel) also lying on the wing
structure; the corresponding concentrated forces will be then
Z tp n1 Gtp 3.8 45 [daN] 171 [daN]

Z1

Z tp
2

Z2

85.5 [daN] ... at y1 E / 2 1.6 [m] (trunnion )

Z tp
2

(l)

85.5 [daN] ... at y2 0.95 [m] ( estimated )

The shear force diagram Tz(y) (fora tietoare)

When a general beam is analyzed, the first step is to determine the reaction forces at the supports.
In case of the cantilever wing this operation can be avoided since the calculation can start from the free
end. Let's denote by "y" the current section and introduce, for convenience, an auxiliary coordinate "" to
be used for integration. As known from equilibrium considerations, a differential relation exists
between the local shear and the applied distributed load Alternatively, one can use directly the
practical "rule of thumb" ("right-section convention"): the shear load at the current section "y" is given by
the resultant of all external forces acting on the "right" beam-segment, entered with their actual signs,
that is (here "p" is presumed positive)
b

Tz ( y ) p ( ) d
y

Are any concentrated forces Zk present, then these must be entered into calculation at their
specific locations with their actual signs.
A complete explicit formula for the wing analyzed in Fig. D-1 should read then
Tz ( y )

b
y

pa pg d Zk

(m)

where the symbol indicates that the force Zk must be entered in accord to its sign
*
We proceed step-by-step from the right end of the wing to the middle plane. Since, as known, the
presence of concentrated forces introduces discontinuities ("jumps") in the shear force diagram, we must
distinguish between the "right side" and the "left side" of the corresponding sections; this will be
indicated by + or indices, as follows

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Cz(y)/Cza
1
Lift distribution
- Prandtl lifing-line theory

CGAV

y
ytp

CGm

xm

C0

CGc

CMA

Ce

CMG

Cm
ym

yCMA

yCMG

pd =
(pa - pg) d

pa (y)

z
Z
Z22

Mx+

Z
Z11

ym

Tz+
y

Zm+c

pg (y)

y
b
1927

2000

Tz

[daN]

(1425)

1138

1000
711
y2

0
6000

Mx

[daNm]

4000

y1

(5793)
5024
3877

Fig. D-1
Wing loads and stresses
- uniform aero/mass distribution -

2000
0

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a) y b [wing-tip (free...)] :

D5

Tz (b) 0

b) ym y b : Using the formula (m) given above, since the running loads pa and pg are
constant, we get
Tz ( y )

b
y

pa pg d pa pg (b y )

Alternatively, as known, the resultant of a distributed load is given by the area beneath its curve;
taking into account the signs of pa and pg , leads evidently to the same result
at

ym

The shear force in the entire interval is a linear function of the current coordinate y; in particular
we have

Tz ( ym
) pa pg (b y ) (550 71) (5.875 1.85) 1927[daN]

c) At y ym the shear force has a discontinuity; the "jump" is equal to the value of the
concentrated force Z m c present at that station (with proper sign!), that is
d) For y ym

Tz ( ym
) Tz ( ym
) Z m c 1927 1216 711[daN]
the calculation proceeds in the same manner and will be not detailed here (it is

recommended to the reader to do all remaining calculations!); in particular, since the argument
pa pg in (m) is constant, the curve of Tz will be also a straight line with the same slope as in outer

interval The remaining characteristic values are indicated on the figure D-1.
e) The last "veritable" station to be considered on this cantilevered wing will be evidently the
wing root yr
not!

Tz ( yr ) Tzr 1056 [daN]

f) For y yr the curve has no physical meaning, because the wing "central plane" is part of the
wing-fuselage assembly and must be analyzed separately. Despite that, we still can extend the calculation
up to the wing centerline; the value there, denoted Tz (0) or Tz0 , being purely informative (and useful for
some verification)
Tz0 1425 [daN]
*
Discussion. On figure D-1 we have drawn for y ym with dotted line the contribution in shear of
the distributed loads, that is the integrated term in (m). The conclusion is evident: the presence of some
"passive" items on the wing (engines, reservoirs, pylons, etc.) determines a significant stress relief in the
wing, a fact which is clearly very advantageous from a structural point of view (the same effect should be
mentioned relative to the wing weight itself). This aspect becomes even more interesting in case of big
transport airplanes by which usually the fuel is stored in large "integrated" tanks in wings
The bending moment diagram Mx(y) (momentul ncovoietor)
We proceed as above
As known from equilibrium considerations, a differential relation exists between the local
bending moment and shear force, or, between local bending moment and the applied distributed load
Alternatively, one can use directly the practical "rule of thumb" ("right-section convention"): the bending
moment at the current section "y" is given by the moment with respect to "y" of all external forces acting
on the "right" beam-segment, entered with proper sign, that is (here again "p" is presumed positive)
b

M x ( y ) p ( ) ( y )d
y

Are any concentrated forces Zk present, then these must be entered into calculation with their
actual contribution. A complete explicit formula for the wing analyzed in Fig. D-1 should read then

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b

M x ( y ) p ( ) ( y ) d
y

Z k ( yk y )

(n)

where the symbol indicates that the term in the summation must be entered in accord to its sign
As an even more efficient algorithm, we can make use of a known analytical relation: "the
bending moment is given by the integral of the shear force"; it means that the bending moment can be
computed by direct "integration" of the shear force
Geometrically, this means that the bending moment M x ( y ) at a current section "y" is given by
the area beneath the curve Tz ( y ) between the current section and the wing tip.
*
The successive numeric values are:
a) y b [wing-tip (free...)] :
M x ( b) 0
b) ym y b : Using the formula (n), since the running loads pa and pg are constant, we get
b

(b y )2
M x ( y ) ( pa p g ) ( y )d ( pa p g )
y ( pa p g )
2

y
2

y
b

with a parabolic variation (see figure); in particular, the value at ym is

( b ym ) 2
(5.875 1.85)2
M x ( ym ) ( pa pg )
(550 71)
3880 [daN m]
2
2
Alternatively, the area beneath Tz ( y ) curve would lead to
1
1

) (5.875 1.85) 1977 3878 [daN/m]

M x ( ym ) (b ym ) Tz ( ym
2
2
(Small differences from the values indicated in figure explain through the fact that these last have
been computed through a very simple numeric integration)
c) At y ym the value of M x is preserved To the left of this point, the slope of the curve

M x ( y ) has a jump equal to the local concentrated force Z m c

d) The remaining values can be computed in the same way The complete curve is drawn on
figure with all the characteristic values indicated numerically.
Discussion. As by the shear force, we have drawn for y ym with dotted line the contribution in
bending of the distributed loads The conclusion is the same as above, with the special mention that, for
a wing, the relief in bending is even more significant because this effect depends not only on the forces
themselves but also on the positions where they act. On the other hand, the structural benefit of a bending
relief is even more important as long as this stress condition is known to be critical for a wing
*
The "proportional" model
As already said, the "uniform" model used in this example represents only a rather crude
approximation for a finite wing. In order to evaluate the degree of approximation thus introduced, a new
calculation has been undertaken based on a more rational "proportional" model - formulae (f) and (g) - in
which the loads are considered to be proportional with the local chord. The results are indicated on the
Figure D-2 together with the previously derived ones, for direct comparison. The conclusions are:
The shear loads are virtually comparable in both situations, the values in the "proportional" case
lying somewhat below those in the "uniform" approximation; this explains through the fact that in the
"proportional" case the external aero and mass loads are greater in the region adjacent to the fuselage as
compared with the tip region of the wing (to note that the reference values Tz0 in the plane of symmetry
are identical, which is otherwise logical).
The bending moment, on the other side, shows a significant relief in the "proportional" case, a
fact which explains through the same reason
In a few words, one can say that the simple "uniform" model seems to be conservative
(in Romanian: acoperitor) and therefore fully justified at least for a preliminary design

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p [daN/m]

p [daN/m]

750

750

pa (y)

550

614

550

500

250
Z2

Z2

71

(1425)

pg (y)

Zm+c

() 100

71

98

2000

Tz

[daN]

1138

1000

(1425)

1707

1041

1000
711
y2

0
6000

Mx

491

y1

(5793)

Mx

y1

(4817)

[daNm]

3877

4000

2000
0

y2

6000

5024

[daNm]

4000

pg (y)

Zm+c

ym

1927

47

80

2000

Tz

Z1

() 50

ym

[daN]

361

Z1

() 50
() 100

pa (y)

500

250
0

758

4078
3140

2000
y

Fig. D-2 _ Wing loads and stresses _ Comparison between uniform and proportional models

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