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Relative
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GPS ROBUSTNESS FOR

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The GNSS simulator in the SMBV100A vector signal generator
Expensive, inexible simulation of GNSS scenarios is a thing of the past.
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Comes with a variety of predened environment models such as
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Allows exible conguration of realistic user environments including
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To nd out more, go to
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VO L . 27 N O. 4

APRIL

G P SWO R LD.CO M

FEATURE

2016

18 AUTONOMOUS

RELATIVE NAVIGATION

BY Shahram Moafipoor,

Jeffrey A. Fayman, Lydia Bock

and David Honcik
Future UAVs will require relative
navigation capability to fulfill a
broad range of assisted manned and
unmanned missions. A new approach,
demonstrated in application to aerial
refueling, provides access to accurate
relative time-space positioning
information between platforms.

MARKET WATCH
APPLICATIONS, TRENDS AND NEWS

26 OEM
28 SURVEY
30 MAPPING
32 TRANSPORTATION
34 UAV

SECTOR UPDATES
37 MACHINE CONTROL
38 DEFENSE
39 MOBILE

COVER STORY

42 INNOVATION

FLYING SAFE

GNSS Robustness for Unmanned Aircraft Systems

BY Joshua Stubbs and Dennis M. Akos

When siting the antenna of a GNSS receiver or designing a GNSS-based

navigation system, electromagnetic compatibility is an important concern.
This is particularly true for airborne platforms. In this months cover
story, we take a look at how radio-frequency interference can impact GNSS
equipment on unmanned aircraft systems and how robustly the equipment
can navigate those systems.

OPINIONS AND DEPARTMENTS

4 ONLINE NOW
6 OUT IN FRONT
Buckle Your Seatbelt
BY Alan Cameron

8 EXPERT OPINIONS
8 TAKING POSITION
Mining the Magic More Menu
BY Tracy Cozzens

10 SYSTEM OF SYSTEMS

14 LAUNCHPAD

OCX to Cost More, Come Later; OCX Must

Navigate Latest Acquisition Reforms;
LightSquared Testing: the Sequel;
IRNSS Nears Completion; GLONASS Special K

New OEM, Survey, UAV and Transportation

products

12 PNT ROUNDUP
Navigating GPS-Free and MEMS Inertial
Trends; Exploiting Fingerprints, Other
Smartphone Features
APRIL 2016

49 RESEARCH

ONLINE + AD INDEX
50 SEEN & HEARD

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

GPS WORLD 3

ONLINENOW
READER POLL

WHAT IS THE KILLER APP FOR DRONES?

WHAT UAV MARKET SECTOR WILL MOST
POWERFULLY DRIVE ADOPTION AND
INFLUENCE NEW REGULATIONS?
Aerial survey and
mapping

14%

Aerial Infrastructure
inspection (utilities,
pipelines)

43%

Aerial delivery

29%

Aerial news coverage and

other film/tv/media use

14%
0%

10%

Timing in MissionCritical Systems

Sponsored by

Aerial surveillance and

security

D O W N L OA D N O W

20% 30% 40% 50%

60%

Next: When would you trust an autonomous car

for a 100-mile drive
Now? In 5 years? In 10 years? 15? 20? Never?
GO TO WWW.GPSWORLD.COM/APRPOLL.
Complete survey by April 21. See results in May issue.
All poll takers entered in drawing for $50 gift card.

BYOD GPS Gets Real: Lessons

Learned with the New Rules of
GPS Data Collection
Sponsored by

Simulation: Fundamentals
and New Fronters
Sponsored by
REGISTER AT W W W.GPSWORLD.COM/WEBINARS

U P C OM I N G W E B I NA R S

HOTTEST PAGES
@ GPSWORLD.COM
FEB. 20 MAR. 21, 2016

World dodges GPS bullet (GNSS Design &

Test newsletter)

US Coast Guard issues GPS jamming

alert

ENEWS

New Garmin smartwatch combines GPS,

heart-rate monitor

ENEWS

Unlicensed UAV services threaten

survey profession (Survey Scene
newsletter)

u-blox brings GNSS RTK precision to the

mass market

Inspector Gadget: Drones could solve

gas-leak detection issue

FROM THE
MAGAZINE

Thursday, May 19

Anti-drone system for airports passes

tests

ENEWS

Virtual Reality and More New Survey Tools

Driverless future revealed at upcoming

conference

ENEWS

US military leads autonomous trend

(Defense PNT newsletter)

10

INSIGHTS

INSIGHTS

ENEWS

INSIGHTS
FROM THE
MAGAZINE

Egg drone hatched

4 GPS WORLD

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

UAVs: In the Air,

on Land and Sea
Sponsored by

Thursday, June 17
Time for both webinars:

10 a.m. Pacific / 1 p.m. Eastern

7 p.m. Central European Tme
REGISTER AT W W W.GPSWORLD.COM/WEBINARS

OUT IN FRONT
Buckle Your Seatbelt

BY Alan Cameron

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF AND GROUP PUBLISHER

ur world has changed, thanks

to GPS and GNSS. Of that there
can be no doubt. But in terms
of sheer change, both qualitative and
quantitative we aint seen nothing yet.
We are in at the creation of another
industry now. This will be very disruptive.
Weve seen change instituted by GNSS,
we know what that looks like. We havent
yet experienced a true revolution.
While witnessing the birth of
something entirely new, we dont yet
have a clue about many of its aspects.
What will happen to that great American
institution, the private car?
These notes come from my seat in the
audience at the Driverless Conference in
San Francisco in March.
Were at the confluence of great
technological developments, said Steve
Wollenberg of Automatiks, opening
the conference. Were seeing great
acceleration of all of them. A bit wistfully,
he foresaw the new control technology
taking over public roadways. In ten
years, racetracks may be the only place
where youre allowed to drive your own
vehicle.
We see ride-sharing as the stepping
stone to a world in which people no
longer drive vehicles, said Emily Castor
of Lyft. Getting an autonomous vehicle
on demand through a shared network
will be much easier and cheaper than
owning a private vehicle.
Amitai Bin-Nun of Securing Americas
Future Energy seeks to reduce U.S.
6 GPS WORLD

petroleum dependence. This is a hard

process. It takes a long time to overturn an
established system. An obstacle is the lack
of compelling new consumer experience.
Using connected and autonomous
vehicles in a ride-sharing network is an
opportunity to get this new experience,
and drive the transformative process.
In fairly conservative industries
automotive and insurance with longestablished partners and practices, the
efforts to move and change are quite
frankly surprising and faster than
anticipated.
Trucking fleets can serve a critical
role in pushing the technology forward,
according to Steve Boyd of Peloton.
Getting state approvals without having to
go federal is the route pursued now. This
will enable early adoption of commercial
pathways: freight truck, platooning and
drafting. Volvo, Intel, Nokia, Denso, UPS
and a numer of others are involved.
Fleet trials start later this year in Texas,
a very truck-friendly state. Legislative
approval to enable trials is passed or
pending in several other states. In Europe,
an April EU Platooning Challenge took
place in Rotterdam. The Netherlands
leads the EU in truck platooning, poised
for approval in 2018.
A platooning gap has opened
between the U.S. and Europe. Silicon
Valley may lead on technology, but if
this is not matched by activity on the
regulatory side, it will lose out to other
areas that aggressively pursue approvals
as well as technology.
All this and more; for a complete
account, see March GNSS Design & Test
enewsletter, www.gpsworld.com/buckle.
Why concern ourselves about this
application sector? After all, we only
provide the tools. Its because of the
feedback loop: requirements of this sector,
gigantic as it is, have the potential to affect
GPS system and product design, both.

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
EDITORIAL
Editor-in-Chief & Group Publisher Alan Cameron
editor@gpsworld.com | 541-984-5312
Managing Editor Tracy Cozzens
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Published monthly

APRIL 2016

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TAKING POSITION

Mining the Magic More Menu

BY Tracy Cozzens

MANAGING EDITOR

n our redesign of the GPS World

website, which coincided with our
magazine redesign in November
2015, we endeavored to make
the website even easier to use. Part of
that effort consolidated some of our
most popular features under the More
dropdown menu. The little word appears
at the far right of the menu row under
our logo. Within it is a world of data and
information to explore.
For those seeking current and
historical data on the satellites in the
various GNSS constellations, we have

a full Almanac, which we update at least

twice a year for the print magazine. If
you want to stay on top of Upcoming
GNSS Satellites Launches, we provide a
handy table that is updated frequently
by the one and only Richard Langley,
our GNSS guru. Richard also oversees
the numerous and informative Innovation
columns, all of which are available under
the Innovation tab right there under
More.
Our most current issue can be
accessed through the words Digital Edition
at the bottom of the page. Or, again

under More, go to Magazine Archive for a

full collection of every digital issue that
reaches back a decade to 2005.
Other great resources under More
are our annual Receiver Survey and
Antenna Survey. Both of these products
are time intensive to produce, pulling
together data and specs from amost 100
companies in an effort to provide a full
picture of the products available and their
capabilities.
Similarly, the Buyers Guide link will take
you to a special section on our website,
allowing you to search manufacturers
by product category and subcategory.
Our next major update of the Buyers
Guide will appear in print in June, but
our gathering of the data now takes place
year round as companies sign up to take
part. If your company isnt in our Buyers
Guide, click on the Add My Listing
link in the top right corner of the Buyers
Guide page.

||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Q: What is the killer app for professional use of drones? What UAV market
sector will most powerfully drive adoption and influence new regulations?
JAN
LEYSSENS

TONY
MURFIN

ERIC
GAKSTATTER

PRODUC T MANAGER
SEPTENTRIO

CONTRIBUTING EDITOR,
PROFESSIONAL OEM & UAV
G PS WORLD

CONTRIBUTING EDITOR,
G I S & U AV
GEOSPATIAL SOLUTIONS

A:

The mapping market is opening

up. On construction and mining
sites, surveyors walk between dozers
and dump trucks to create digital
terrain models, a time-consuming and
dangerous job, which drones can do
more efficiently and safely. These jobs
are performed in non-public areas,
without significant risks or privacy
concerns, facilitating public acceptance.
Subsequently the potentially larger
inspection market will open up. Drones
provide an easy, safe way to inspect
wind turbines or other installations that
are difficult or dangerous to reach.

8 GPS WORLD

A:

The agriculture industry seeks

even greater Improvements in
crop yields. GNSS systems in the cabs
of combines/harvesters have already
helped significantly, but drone use for
crop-growth monitoring, data collection
and pesticide-prescription application
is the big breakthrough once rules
for large-scale low-level drone flight
over farmland are approved. Ag will
push for published rules just as hard as
the movies, real-estate and all types
of aerial survey for construction and
utilities.

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

A:

Amateur photographers and

hobbyists are where the
volume is. The worlds largest UAV
manufacturer now exceeds $1B annual
revenue. Its growth is being driven
by the hobby market. Commercial
use of UAVs is a very small piece of
the worldwide UAV market. The UAV
market will be very similar to the GPS
receiver market, just not at the same
scale. The volume in the UAV consumer
market will drive the technology
(sensors, motors, software) that will
benefit commercial UAV manufacturers.

SMALL FORM FACTOR,

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Security & monitoring
Industrial inspection
Follow-me drones

SYSTEM
OF

Policy and System

Developments
GPS

Galileo

GLONASS

BeiDou

SYSTEMS

OCX to Cost More, Come Later

GPS III Program Slowed by Funds Diversion

he White House budget

request for the Next
Generation Operational
Control System (OCX)
comes to $393.3 million
for fiscal year (FY) 2017.
The updated OCX budget appears as
the Air Force officially acknowledges
a two-year delay in the program,
which could slide as late as 2023 for
implementation.
The total cost for OCX now amounts
to $4.81 billion.
In a cautionary move meant to span
a suddenly yawning gap in ground
control capabilities, the GPS Directorate

awarded a $96 million contract

modification to Lockheed Martin Space
Systems to provide GPS III Contingency
Operations services (COps).
By the end of 2019, Lockheed will
modify the current GPS control
segment to operate all GPS III satellites
that are launched prior to the transition
to OCX, as well as GPS III satellite
vehicle simulation modules, a GPS
simulator and updates to the GPS
Positional Training Emulator.
Late delivery of OCX Block 1 puts
GPS constellation sustainment at risk
since the current control segment
cannot operate GPS III satellites,

according to a Pentagon statement.

The Air Force will re-phase the GPS
III space vehicle procurement profile,
delaying procurement of the 11th and
all following GPS IIIs to FY18.
User Equipment. In contrast, the
Pentagon substantially increased its
request for developing user equipment
to $278.2 million for FY17.
The added funds for Military GPS
User Equipment (MGUE) seek to
speed platform integration of M-code
capability for munitions, warfighters,
armored vehicles, planes and all military
platforms: a stronger signal and data
authentication capability.

OCX Must Navigate Latest Acquisition Reforms

cquisition reform
mandated by Congress
for the U.S. military, and
known as Better Buying
Power 3.0 guidance and initiatives,
poses a tough new challenge for the
Pentagon, not least for the Air Force
and GPS.
T h i s co m e s i n t h e f a ce o f a n
impending (some say already
underway) cyberwar targeting core
infrastructure, much of it controlled
or metered to some extent by GPS.
U n d e r-S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e
for Acquisition, Technology and
Logistics Frank Kendall stated in
2 0 1 4 t h a t t h e Un i t e d St a t e s i s
under attack in the cyber world

10 G P S W O R L D

and weve got to do a better job

protecting our things.
The cyber realm changes and
innovates much faster than the
material weaponry realm to which the
acquisition cycle is obsolescently tied.
Currently, funding, developing and
fielding a new capability is a multiyear cycle.
At the heart of this storm is OCX, a
new ground control system for GPS
that is meant to be cyber-hardened.
The dynamic nature of the cyber
threat, the catastrophic implications
to attacks on our GPS-related
infrastructure, and the relatively
slow acquisition cycle demands the
Air Force follow through with added

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

funding to OCX, wrote Robert

Newton, a retired Air Force acquisition
officer, in Defense News.
Consideration of scrapping such
an important program may sound
politically correct, but would be
disastrous and place us years behind
an already escalating threat, Newton
said.
In the longer term, Newton wrote,
both the Pentagon and Congress must
develop new methods and closer
cooperation to quickly anticipate
and counter threats before they fully
materialize.
GPS OCX will be a key test of the
governments and the militarys joint
sability to function.

SYSTEM
OF

SYSTEMS

LightSquared Testing: the Sequel

he U.S. Department of
Transportation (DoT)
announced in March that
testing for the Adjacent
Band Compatibility
(ABC) Assessment will start in April.
Conducted at the U.S. Army Research
Laboratory, White Sands Missile Range,
the tests seek to determine power limits
for spectrum bands near the GPS L1
signal.
Later tests will focus on potential
interference with the L5 signal and
frequencies of other satellite navigation constellations.
In 2012, after tests at that time
demonstrated that the proposed
LightSquared network of ground-

based transmitters would interfere with

GPS, the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) denied
L i g ht S qu are ds p e t it i on w h i l e
authorizing further tests never
conducted until now.
Testing will take place across a
200-megahertz band spanning 1575.42
MHz, GPS L1. An interference tolerance
mask is defined as the point at which
the interference test signal power level
causes a one-decibel degradation in the
signal-to-noise ratio.
GPS and GNSS receivers designed
for aviation (noncertified), cellular,
general location/navigation, precision,
timing, network-, and space-based
application will be run through the

high-powered gauntlet.
The Department requests
voluntary participation in this study
by any interested GPS/GNSS device
manufacturers or other parties whose
products incorporate GPS/GNSS
devices. the DOT said.
Ligado, the renamed LightSquared
company from 2012, came to separate
legal settlements with GPS companies
Garmin, Trimble and John Deere in
2015; the terms have not been disclosed.
Use of a defined change in the
noise floor (1 dB), wrote a Deere
attorney to the FCC, provides a readily
identifiable and predictable metric
that all interested parties can take into
account now and in the future.

Use of a defined change in the noise floor (1 dB) provides

a readily identifiable and predictable metric that all interested
parties can take into account now and in the future.

IRNSS Nears Completion

he sixth satellite in the Indian

Regional Navigation Satellite
System (IRNSS) launched on
March 10, and all subsequent orbital
steps proceeded according to plan.
IRNSS-1F was injected to an elliptical
orbit very close to its intended final
orbit.
T h e In d i an Sp a c e R e s e arc h
Organizations (ISROs) Master Control
Facility (MCF) at Hassan, Karnataka,
took over the control of the satellite.
Maneuvers will position the satellite in
geostationary orbit at 32.5 degrees East
longitude.
IRNSS-1F is the sixth of the seven
satellites constituting the space segment
of the Indian regional system. All

GLONASS Special K

five previosly launched satellites are

functioning satisfactorily from their
designated orbital positions.
A complete constellation of seven is
planned for the second half of this year.
The first IRNSS position fix
announced by ISRO, providing
longitude, latitude and altitude, took
place in April 2015. Since then, position
fixes using stand-alone IRNSS receivers
have obtained accuracies of better than
15 meters for a minimum of 18 hours
in a day over India.
The regional SBAS broadcasts
navigation signals in the L5 and S-band
frequencies, and computes user position
solutions for a restricted service and a
standard positioning service.

APRIL 2016

new-generation Russian
GLONASS-K satellite began
regular broadcasts on Feb. 15.
The K model line transmits five
navigation signals in the GLONASS
L1, L2, and L3 bands and carries
a CO S PA S -SA R SAT p a y l o a d f o r
international search and rescue.
K satellites will gradually replace
the GLONASS-M generation,
bringing with them new CDMA civil
signals compatible with GPS and
Galileo.
Eleven new K satellites will take
to space starting in 2018, using
European and Chinese components
as well as those being developed
under an accelerated Russian import
substitution program.

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

G P S W O R L D 11

Inertial

Ranging & eLoran

Wi-Fi

Bluetooth

INERTIAL

Navigating GPS-Free and MEMS Inertial Trends

eynotes at Februarys Inertial Sensors conference

summarize initiatives to provide continuous, highfrequency and high-accuracy position spanning
GPS outages or obstructions.
GPS-Free. Robert Lutwak, program manager at the U.S.
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA),
spoke on Precise Robust Inertial Guidance for Munitions:
Navigating in a GPS-free World.
Over the past decade, the DARPA Micro-Technology for
Position, Navigation, and Timing (micro-PNT) program
developed low-CSWaP inertial sensors as a backup or flywheel
PNT solution for GNSS augmentation, validation and holdover
in obfuscated environments. New programs, such as the
Precise Robust Inertial Guidance for Munitions (PRIGM)
program, seek to ruggedize and deploy devices developed
under micro-PNT and to extend the performance to support
longer and more dynamic mission scenarios. In addition to
maturing micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and
atomic technologies developed under micro-PNT, PRIGM is
exploring new sensing modalities and architectures, including
those enabled by integrated photonics and by the tight
integration of photonic and MEMS technologies.
Accuracy One-Thousandfold.Lutwak also gave an overview of
DARPAs new Atomic Clocks with Enhanced Stability (ACES)
program. A technology challenge budgeted for up to $50
million, ACES goal is to design and build a new generation
of palm-sized, battery-powered atomic clocks that perform up

to 1,000 times better than the current generation DARPAs

Chip-Scale Atomic Clock.
The new clocks must fit into a package about the size of a
billfold and run on a mere quarter-watt of power. Success will
require advances that counter accuracy-eroding processes
in current atomic clocks, among them variations in atomic
frequencies that result from temperature fluctuations and
subtle frequency differences that can occur if the power shuts
down and then starts up again.
It will take a collaboration of teams with skill sets from
diverse fields, including atomic physics, optics, photonics,
microfabrication and vacuum technology, to achieve the
unprecedented clock stability that we seek, Lutwak said.
MEMS Transition. Stephen Breit, director of engineering for
Coventor, gave his predictions for the Future of the Commodity
MEMS Inertial Sensor Design and Manufacturing.
Emerging trends that could lead to disruptive changes
include commoditization of MEMS process technology,
consolidation of advanced semiconductor technology, Morethan-Moore integration, and the Internet of Things (IoT).
These trends motivate industry efforts toward a transition
similar to the one that occurred in the CMOS industry: from
integrated device manufacturers to a fabless/foundry business
model.
This will require a design automation flow that provides
a platform for process design kits (PDKs) that foundries can
supply to their fabless customers.

INERTIAL + CELLULAR

Exploiting Fingerprints, Other Smartphone Features

iny irregularities in an
A n d r o i d o r i P h o n es
accelerometer can be turned
into a unique signature
to track users, Stanford researchers
found in 2013. These flaws essentially
fingerprint an individual smartphone
and allow it to be traced. Highly
focused activity since then, some of
it summarized here, has advanced

12 G P S W O R L D

the frontiers of non-GPS tracking.

Developments could prove interesting
to privacy advocates, online marketers
and law enforcement.
Security researcher Hristo Bojinov
demonstrated how, in a matter of
seconds, he induced his smartphone
to give up its fingerprints. Code
running on a website in the devices
mobile browser measured the tiniest

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

defects in the devices accelerometer,

producing a unique set of numbers
exploitable to identify and track most
smartphones. Marketers could use
the ID the same way they use cookies
to identify a particular user, monitor
their online actions and target ads.
The res e arch te am was a ls o
able to identify phones using their
Continued on next page

>>

INERTIAL + CELLULAR
>> Continued from previous page
microphones and speakers. They
found they could produce a unique
frequency response curve, based
on how devices play and record a
common set of frequencies.
A m p l i f i e r s a n d O s c i l l ato r s . A
team at the Technical University
of Dresden developed a tracking
method that exploits variations in
the radio signal of cell phones. The
collection of components such as
power amplifiers, oscillators and
signal mixers can all introduce
radio-signal inaccuracies.
Bojinov and colleagues presented
further work at the RSA Conference
2 0 1 5 , i n S e n s o r I D : Mo b i l e
Device Identification via Sensor
Fingerprinting. Among findings:

We have found ways to construct a

device ID by sensor fingerprinting.
All the sensors fingerprints may
sum up to enough bits to identify
all devices.
It is hardware dependent.
It can be used by web application.
A related presentation stated that
this is only the beginning. Many more
unexpected information leakages will
be found in the coming years. Treat
every app you install as having root
on the phone. And think twice before
installing that harmless game.
Engineers at Robert Bosch GmbH
in Germany focused on MEMS-based
gyroscopes and showed via wafer-level
measurements and simulations that
it is feasible to use the physical and
electrical properties of these sensors
for cryptographic key generation, a

key requirement for full rollout of the

Internet of Things.
Te a m s f r o m Vi r g i n i a Te c h
and the University of Essex have
published papers detailing similar
approaches, basically turning this
vulnerability into a tool. We prove
that device identification can be
generated by using the accelerometer
found in many pervasive devices,
wrote the Essex researchers. Our
experiments are based on a set
of health sensors equipped with
a MEMS accelerometer. Periodic
readings are obtained from the sensor
and analyzed mathematically and
statistically to generate a stable
ICMetric number.
ALISSA FITZGERALD aided in assembling this
overview report.

One team with one goal:

accurate and reliable GNSS positioning anywhere
APRIL 2016

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G P S W O R L D 13

LAUNCHPAD | OEM
1

3
4

1. GPS COMPASS

ALTERNATIVE TO MAGNETIC-BASED
SENSORS FOR MANNED OR UNMANNED

The VN-360 OEM GPS-Compass module

provides an accurate, True North heading
solution for systems integrators seeking
a reliable alternative to magnetic-based
sensors to improve the capabilities and
performance of next-generation manned
and unmanned systems. Unlike digital
magnetometers that can be affected by
ferrous materials, the VN-360 heading
solution provides a cost-effective GPSbased alternative. With two onboard
GNSS receivers, the VN-360 calculates the
relative position between its two GNSS
antennas to derive a heading solution an
order of magnitude more accurate than a
magnetic compass. It supports a variety of
GNSS antennas that can be mounted on the
host platform with a separation distance
from a few centimeters to several meters.
Applications include antenna pointing,
multirotor UAVs and aerostats, automated
agriculture, heavy machinery, ground robots,
weapons training, warfare simulation and
direct surveying.
VectorNav Technologies, vectornav.com

2. GNSS SIMULATOR UPDATE

SYNCHRONIZE MULTIPLE SIMULATORS

The SDX software-defined GNSS

simulator is now available in version 16.2.

14 G P S W O R L D

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For real-time kinematic application, it

is now possible to synchronize multiple
simulators using a 10-MHz reference and
pulse-per-second (PPS) signal. Users can
modify pseudorange from the graphical
user interface or the application program
interface (API) in real time. Each satellite
can be controlled individually or together.
Trajectories can be imported from CSV
files, and raw datalogging is improved. The
navigation message can be changed in real
time during the simulation. There is now
an alternative to python API with the C++
open source API (other programming
languages, such as C#, will be supported in
the future.)
Skydel, www.skydelsolutions.com

3. INERTIAL SENSORS

DESIGNED FOR HYDROGRAPHIC TASKS

FROM SHALLOW TO DEEP WATER

The Apogee-M motion reference unit

and the Apogee-U inertial navigation
system (INS) are both made of titanium
and have a depth rating of 200 meters. The
Apogee Series is an accurate INS based on
robust micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) technology with a high degree of
precision 0.008 degrees in roll and pitch
in real time while delivering a robust
and accurate heading from the continuous
fusion of GNSS and IMU data. Apogee-M
and Apogee-U are designed to mount close
to the sonar head for hydrographic tasks in
shallow or deep water. They provide a real-

APRIL 2016

time heave accurate to 5 centimeters, which

automatically detects the wave frequency
and constantly adjusts to it. When wave
frequency is erratic or in case of long-period
swell, the delayed heave feature can allow
survey in rough conditions with a more
extensive calculation, resulting in a heave
accurate to 2 cm displayed in real-time with
a short delay. Apogee sensors can be paired
with any survey-grade GNSS receiver or
with one offered by SBG Systems.
SBG Systems, www.sbg-systems.com

4. RTK GPS RECEIVER

FOR AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES,

SURVEYING AND RESEARCH

Piksi is a low-cost, high-performance GPS

receiver with real-time kinematic (RTK)
functionality for centimeter-level relative
positioning accuracy. With its small form
factor (53x53mm), fast position solution
update rate and low power consumption
(500mW typical), Piksi is designed for
integration into autonomous vehicles,
UAVs, portable surveying equipment
and GNSS research projects. Its opensource firmware, digital signal processor
and flexible correlation accelerator allow
customization for end users GNSS
applications. Features include centimeteraccurate relative positioning (carrier-phase
RTK); 10-Hz position/velocity/time
solutions; external antenna input; USB and
dual UART connectivity .
Swift Navigation, www.swiftnav.com

SURVEY & MAPPING | LAUNCHPAD

1

1. RENTAL PROGRAM

2. DATA CONTROLLER

Anatum Field Solutions (AFS) has

launched a nationwide Bring Your Own
Device (BYOD) submeter GNSS and
centimeter real-time kinematic (RTK
) GNSS receiver rental program. AFS
rentals target high-accuracy users in
GIS, UAV, environmental, engineering,
surveying, agriculture, electric/gas/
water utilities, pipeline, forestry, mining,
transportation, construction, architecture
and government markets. AFS offers
all mobile GIS devices including Apple
iOS, Android, Windows and Windows
Mobile/EHH. It also stocks various GNSS
receivers such as Eos Arrow (submeter
and centimeter), SXBlue (submeter
and centimeter), Trimble R1 (1 meter)
and BadElf (13 meters) in a variety of
configurations.

The FC-5000 field controller, with its 7-inch

sunlight-readable display, is designed to
provide operators a larger, more versatile and
faster handheld computer for the modern
construction site. The display has a capacitive
touch interface with finger, glove, smalltip stylus and water-capable options that
is optically bonded to increase visibility.
With the press of a key, a user can change
the orientation of the screen from portrait
to landscape to increase visibility when
viewing maps or drawings. The controller is
compatible with all Topcon GNSS receivers
and total stations, operating MAGNET Field,
Site and Layout software. It has two built-in
cameras: an 8-MP camera with autofocus
and LED flash for field photography, and
a 2-MP camera on the front for video
meetings. Additional features include 64 GB
of flash storage, an optional 4G LTE cellular
modem, internal GPS navigation, Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi, and a battery life of 10-plus hours.

BYOD PROGRAM OFFERS A RANGE OF

CONFIGURATIONS FOR A VARIETY OF JOBS

Anatum Field Solutions,

anatumfieldsolutions.com

FOR CONSTRUCTION AND SURVEYING

PROFESSIONALS

Topcon Positioning Group, topcon.com

Performance in real-time

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G P S W O R L D 15

LAUNCHPAD | UAV
1
3

4
1. QUADCOPTER

PHANTOM 4 FEATURES OBSTACLE

AVOIDANCE, ACTIVE TRACKING

The Phantom 4 quadcopter uses advanced

computer vision and sensing technology
to make professional aerial imaging easier.
Its onboard intelligence makes piloting and
shooting images easier through features
such as its Obstacle Sensing System and
ActiveTrack functionality. The Obstacle
Sensing System features two forward-facing
optical sensors that scan for obstacles and
automatically direct the aircraft around
impediments, reducing risk of collision,
while ensuring flight direction remains
constant. Obstacle avoidance also engages
if the user triggers the drones Return
to Home function to reduce the risk of
collision when automatically flying back to
its takeoff point. With ActiveTrack, the user
can keep the camera centered on a subject.
ActiveTrack allows users running the DJI
Go app on iOS and Android devices to
follow and keep the camera centered on the
subject as it moves by tapping the subject on
their smartphone or tablet.
DJI, dji.com

2. PHOTOMAPPING TOOL

DELIVERED AS A COMPLETE SYSTEM

The Pteryx UAV is a photomapping tool

designed to help with photogrammetry,
land property surveillance, environmental

16 G P S W O R L D

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survey, search and rescue, precision

agriculture, research, and in the energy
sector. With a two-hour flight time,
missions can be planned with the
endurance reserve needed to overcome
the large distances and worst-case
changing weather conditions. Pteryx
is designed to fly at speeds of about 50
km/h in light or medium wind speeds.
The Pteryx can lift up to 1 kilogram of
cargo: cameras, camcorders or other
research equipment. The payload is
housed in a roll-stabilized head on the
front of the fuselage. The Pteryx can also
accommodate a wide variety of sensors,
which are installed in an easy to replace
camera head. The Pteryx is delivered with
a 16 MPx APS-C (crop sensor) daylight
camera and wide lens, with other sensor
options available.
Trigger Composites, www.pteryx.eu

3. INFRARED CAMERA

CAMERA CAN READ LICENSE PLATES

FROM 500 FEET AWAY

The M2-D is a minature stabilized gyro with

electro optical (EO) and infrared imagers.
The system is designed for mobile, marine
and aerial unmanned applications. The M2-D
is compact at 3 inches tall and 2 inches in
diameter. The gimbal is fully gyro stabilized
and packs sensor technologies previously
only available in much larger payloads. The
infrared FLIR brand pan-tilt-zoom thermal

APRIL 2016

imaging camera has an optical telephoto

zoom in a lightweight 160-gram payload. The
high-resolution thermal imaging sensor with
digital zoom integration lets users capture
stable video in total darkness. For daytime
operations, the gimbal has a full-color visual
camera with optical 6x zoom to ~4 degrees.
The optical zoom is then enhanced with
digial zoom integration for stable long-range
imaging.
SPI Infrared, www.x20.org

4. SURVEYING HEXACOPTER
SURVEYS LARGE AREAS OR OBJECTS
TO GENERATE FAST, PRECISE DATA

Version 2 of the AibotX6 hexacopter

features high-precision (HP) GNSS for
surveyors. The system also can be installed
in existing AibotX6 hexacopters. With
Version 2, the precision and quality of
surveying data is significantly improved
with RTK technology based on the Leica
Geosystems SmartNet correction data
service. Post-processing is also possible.
The new AibotX6 HP GNSS workflow
guarantees precision of up to 2-centimeter
position accuracy. Besides allowing the
use of existing surveying hexacopters,
continuing generation and processing of
data can be done with the fully integrated
software Aibotix AiProFlight. The Aibot X6
can carry a variety of sensors weighing up to
2kilograms.
Aibotix, www.aibotix.com

TRANSPORTATION | LAUNCHPAD
1

2
1. REFERENCE SYSTEM

INTEGRATES GNSS FOR CHALLENGING

MARITIME POSITIONING

The new DPS 432 combines full decimeter

accuracy with high integrity and
availability of GNSS data, supporting the
safety and efficiency of offshore operations
that rely on advanced dynamic positioning
(DP) systems. It integrates signals from
GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou and Galileo,
and regional correction signals including
SBAS and G4 services from Fugro, to
ensure high flexibility for DP operations
globally. Suited to complex operations,
the system increases satellite availability,
improves integrity monitoring and enables

more precision under challenging signal

tracking conditions. The DPS 432 features
a sophisticated engine that runs in a safe
mode protected from unintended user
operations.
Kongsberg Maritime,
www.km.kongsberg.com

3. PORTABLE NAVIGATOR

COST-EFFECTIVE, FEATURE-RICH DEVICE

FOR AVIATION

The aera 660 features a 5-inch capacitive

touchscreen display that has been
optimized for cockpits and various types
of flying. It has a built-in GPS/GLONASS
receiver and rich, interactive maps that can

be viewed in portrait or landscape modes.

Cost-effective database options along
with Wi-Fi database updating capabilities
allow customers to access up-to-date
data, including daily U.S. fuel prices.
Bluetooth supports the display of ADS-B
in traffic and weather from a variety of
sources, including the GDL 39/GDL 39
3D, Flight Stream and the GTX 345 ADS-B
transponder. The aera 660 withstands the
harshest environments, meeting stringent
temperature tests and helicopter vibration
standards. Depending on settings and
external connections, pilots can receive
up to four hours of battery life on a single
charge.
Garmin, www.garmin.com

3 constellation simulator
Recreate real world conditions
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou, QZSS and SBAS
One touch record/replay of RF signals
Signal simulation software available
Free library of worldwide recordings and simulations
APRIL 2016

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G P S W O R L D 17

AUTONOMOUS NAV

AERIAL REFUELING
REQUIRES HIGHLY
PRECISE RELATIVE
NAVIGATION

AUTONOMOUS RELATIVE NAVIGATION

FUTURE UAVS WILL REQUIRE RELATIVE NAVIGATION CAPABILITY
to fulfill a broad range of assisted manned and unmanned missions. A new approach, demonstrated in application to aerial refueling,
provides access to accurate relative time-space positioning information (R-TSPI) between platforms.
BY Shahram Moafipoor, Jeffrey A. Fayman, Lydia Bock and David Honcik

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AUTONOMOUS NAV

he advent of unmanned aerial vehicles

(UAVs) highlights the importance of precise
relative navigation information for safe use
of UAVs in many application areas. Future
military and civilian UAV applications will
increasingly require capabilities such as
sense and avoid
swarming
vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) platooning
docking
autonomous landing and
autonomous aerial-refueling,
all of which require access to accurate relative time-space
positioning information (R-TSPI) between platforms.
In this article, we present the foundation for a generic
approach to relative navigation capable of meeting the full
range of relative assisted manned and unmanned operations.
We present a relative extended Kalman filter (R-EKF) that
integrates line-of-sight relative observations from GPS as
well as non GPS-based onboard sensors measuring relative
bearing and/or relative distance. Multi-sensor fusion provides enhanced system integrity and robustness to partial
or total lack of GPS-satellite navigation (GPS-denied). The
relative navigation system described here uses these technologies, providing up to 100 Hz R-TSPI with an accuracy
of up to 1.0 m (a function of relative distance), 0.1 m/s
velocity and 0.5 attitude. The system can be applied to a
variety of relative navigation applications; here we focus on
its use in aerial refueling.

AERIAL REFUEL CHALLENGES

Automated aerial refueling for manned and unmanned

platforms is a challenging problem requiring accurate
R-TSPI. The Geo-RelNAV system provides a key measurement for aerial refueling: the vector closure rate, the differential velocity between the tanker and refueling aircraft. The
closure rate is monitored in real time onboard the tanker.
The measurement can be used to:
maintain safety-of-flight by ensuring refueling aircraft
do not exceed a certain velocity,
determine whether or not a refueling aircraft is approaching the tanker with sufficient velocity, and
provide data to drogue-control engineers to improve
control law design.
As a GPS/INS system, Geo-RelNAV can produce a relative
navigation solution at a faster sample rate than GPS alone.
Solutions are available via serial and/or Ethernet (both TCP
and UDP) providing input to external systems as well as the
tools for analysis engineers to monitor the data in real time

/
using standard monitoring and recording tools. The system
provides R-TSPI in different frames, including the body
frame of the platforms, local navigation frame (wanderazimuth) and Earth-fixed frame, as well as transferring the
solution to arbitrary points of interest on the aircraft such
as the refueling aircrafts refueling probe.

RELATIVE INERTIAL NAVIGATION

We use the terms primary and secondary in this article

to identify the platforms for which R-TSPI data is being
generated. R-TSPI is always provided for the primary with
respect to the secondary. Referring to FIGURE 1, the tanker
is considered the primary and the refueling aircraft, the
secondary (or vice versa, depending on the location of the
control segment). Data is always transmitted through the
data link from the secondary to the primary. Figure 1 sum-

FIGURE 1 Primary/secondary geometry and corresponding body

frames fixed to the vehicle body.

HARDWARE for the relative navigation system.

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G P S W O R L D 19

AUTONOMOUS NAV

/
marizes the geometric relations, where the primary body
frame is labeled p-frame and the secondary body frame is
labeled s-frame. The body frame fixed to the primary (P) is
shown by (xPp,yPp,zPp), and body frame fixed to the secondary (S) is shown by (xSs,ySs,zSs ).
The relative navigation equation is set up for the state of
the secondary with respect to the state of the primary in the
center of the body frame of the primary, p-frame:
(1)
where xPp is the primary position vector established in the
p-frame, and xSp is the secondary position vector defined
in the p-frame. Note that these vectors can also be obtained
from the primary/secondary strapdown inertial navigation
solutions after transferring to the reference (eccentric) point.
Equation (1) represents the fundamental equation, from
which the relative navigation equations are derived. Once
the relative kinematic model of the position and velocity
are established, the next step is to develop the relative attitude kinematic model. The relative attitude, denoted by
the quaternion q Sp, is used to map vectors in the s-frame to
vectors in the p-frame:
(2)
where qp and qs are the quaternion attitudes of the primary
and secondary with respect to the i-frame, qp* is the conjugate of qp, and is the quaternion multiplication operator.

RELATIVE EXTENDED KALMAN FILTER

To establish the R-EKF, we must derive the relative inertial

error equations. The R-EKF has 21 basic states including
p
p
, relative velocity, v PS
,
nine for relative position, x PS
p
,
and
12
to
model
the
primarys
gyro
and relative attitude, ps
and accelerometer bias (non-constant) and non-linear scale
factors. Since the relative distance between the secondary
and primary is small compared to the radius of the Earth,
the gravity terms are negligible. Thus, in the linearized
terms, the relative gravitational terms are ignored. It should
be noted that the secondary states are assumed to be known
for retrieving the absolute primary TSPI information. Since
Equations (1) and (2) can only provide the general dynamic
model for a nonlinear state model, all these equations must
be linearized using Taylor series about nominal values (neglecting the higher-order terms). After perturbation state
equations are established, they should be discretized from
a continuous-time to a discrete-time sequence. The final
solution to the state equation can be expressed as:

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FIGURE 2 Relative observation model.

(3)
with:
(4)
FPpS is the Jacobian matrix, and the perturbation elements
are all related to the primary:
(5)

RELATIVE GPS MEASUREMENT MODEL

When GPS is available, high-accuracy relative positions are

derived from the use of carrier-phase differential GPS, a
technique commonly used in static positioning applications
such as surveying. However, unlike those applications, in this
case the reference receiver is not stationary; it is located on
a moving platform (secondary) creating a moving baseline.
The relative GPS measurement in our system is provided by
epoch-by-epoch (EBE) differential carrier-phase processing,
which measures accurate relative position between the secondary and primary systems. The EBE relative position has
a typical accuracy better than 3 cm (1-sigma horizontal) and
6 cm (1-sigma vertical). Testing of the relative measurement
was conducted using two ground vehicles configured with
10-Hz dual-frequency GPS sensors. The mean difference
was less than 5 cm. As a conclusion, the GPS relative mode
was shown to provide accurate relative positions between
the platforms. Once the relative position is measured, the
R-EKF observation model can be established as:
(6)
p
The (x PS
)GPS term is the relative position measured by
p
)INS is the relative posiusing GPS data, and the term (x PS
tion, which is predicted by using the last updated inertial
solutions. Note that in order to use this relative observation,
the lever-arm vector between the GPS and IMU of both the

AUTONOMOUS NAV

/
(7)
Equations (3) and (7) are the fundamental equations of
the R-EKF.

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

FIGURE 3 Geo-RelNAV architecture.

primary and the secondary must be accurately measured

and applied (see FIGURE 2). Here, the observation model is
represented on the condition that the vector of observations has yielded certain values based on an assumed linear
relationship to:

Relative navigation is computed and provided at one of the

units, designated the primary unit. This requires data from
the secondary unit to be transferred to the primary unit over
a data link. The primary unit uses this transmitted data to
calculate its position, velocity and attitude relative to the
secondary unit. FIGURE 3 summarizes the architecture and
data-flow. Mathematically, the data from the secondary unit
used in the relative calculations are assumed to be errorless.

OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

We distinguish the following three relative navigation stages,

illustrated in FIGURE 4, where each phase utilizes a unique processing mode. In the Approach phase, the data link between
primary and secondary units is not closed. An autonomous
navigation solution for both the primary and secondary

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/
units is computed on each platform independently. This
information will be later used when the system transitions
to the Engagement phase to initialize the R-EKF.
In the Engagement phase, the data link between primary
and secondary units is closed, and the R-TSPI solution is
computed between the platforms. Sensor observations are
transmitted across the data link from the secondary unit to
the primary unit. The primary unit implements the R-EKF
to produce the R-TSPI solution.
In the Departure phase, the activity requiring R-TSPI
(that is, refueling) is complete, and the secondary platform
pulls away from the primary platform. In this phase, we
transition from the R-EKF back to the autonomous independent navigation system.

The Approach phase is as important as the Engagement

phase in attenuating the initialization error in terms of
position, velocity and attitude. To initialize the R-EKF,
the autonomous TSPI solution from the secondary unit is
transferred to the primary unit, where the initial relative
position, velocity and attitude are estimated. There are
three conditions under which this initialization must occur:
upon transition from the Approach phase to the Engagement phase,
when in the Engagement phase and the system experiences a data link dropout, and
when there is a large latency in the data link. If the data
link latency is too large, the data arriving at the primary
can no longer be used.

VALIDATION TESTING

FIGURE 4 Relative navigation phases.

R-TSPI
Components

RMS
Mean STD
0.1 0.9

Relative Position
(m)

0.1 0.6
0.2 0.9
0.0 0.1

Relative
Velocity
(m/s)
Relative
Attitude
(degrees)

0.0 0.1
0.0 0.1
Yaw

0.0 0.3

Pitch

0.0 0.1

Roll

0.0 0.1

TABLE 1 Statistical analysis of the R-TSPI solution.

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Several system tests were conducted including static bench

testing, dynamic ground vehicle testing and flight testing.
We discuss the results for the static and bench testing here.
For static bench testing, the system was set up on two
points with a measured fixed displacement. The sensor
configuration included dual-frequency GPS receivers,
ring laser gyro-based IMUs, and a data link operating in
the 900-MHz frequency band.
The results show that relative position held to the fixed
offset with a standard deviation of less than 0.1 m in North,
East and Up. Relative velocity held to zero with a standard
deviation less than 0.01 m/s, and relative attitude was also
maintained with the accuracy up to the gyro bias stability
of the ring laser gyro IMU (1/hr for a stationary platform).
The overall performance of the system in static bench
test confirms the stability of the hardware and software of
the system, when it is not exposed to any dynamics, and
the sensors are in close proximity (no data link latency or
data dropouts).
Dynamic Drive Test. In a more realistic test to simulate the
operational phases described in Figure 4, the drive test followed a scripted path. As shown in FIGURE 5, the two platforms
left Geodetics facility and drove separately (simulated
Approach) until they met each other at the Fiesta Island
test site, where the data link was closed for the Engagement
phase. The primary and secondary navigation systems
operated independently during the Approach phase.
Once the data link was closed at the test site, the R-EKF
engaged, using initialization information transmitted from
the secondary to the primary platform. To provide a truth
source for evaluating the performance of the relative navigation solution, both autonomous GPS/IMU systems were
fed data from an external reference receiver. TABLE 1 shows

AUTONOMOUS NAV

/
the statistical data analysis in the form
of mean and standard deviation for the
collected data.
Average RMS of fit in the relative
position, velocity and attitude of approximately 1.0 m, 0.1 m/s and 0.3,
respectively, were computed for the
entire relative navigation period. In this
dynamic test, we encountered frequent
data link dropouts, data link latency, as
well as GPS outages, causing discontinuity in the R-EKF measurement updates
until GPS was reacquired. During these
periods, the R-EKF prediction model,
updated with the last calibrated IMU
data, provided the R-TSPI. This test
help confirm that system performance
is at the expected levels, even in the
presence of real-world data link and
GPS problems.

gate other vulnerabilities, systems of

the future must be robust to partial or
total lack of GPS. Advanced sensorfusion technologies are necessary to
provide capabilities in conjunction

with, and in the absence of, GPS.

In the context of aerial refueling,
sensors such as active and passive
vision systems can be used as complimentary observations by the system,

GPS-DENIED OPERATIONS

Over-reliance on GPS has exposed vulnerabilities associated with this technology. For example, GPS is easily jammed
and spoofed. While spoofing can be
addressed with Selective Availability
Anti-Spoofing (SAASM) technology,
and advances such as M-code will miti-

FIGURE 5 Drive test ground trajectory of the

primary (blue) and secondary (red).

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AUTONOMOUS NAV

/
providing a GPS-free relative distance
observation in situations where GPS
is blocked due to airframe masking,
jamming, and so on.
Data from both active (lidar) and
passive (camera) vision sensors were
added to the system, providing significant advantages in the process flow.
The use of vision sensors provides the
relative distance observation in GPSdenied conditions for continuity in
R-EKF updating. In addition, visionbased relative distance allows for the
detection of outliers by evaluating
the redundancy contribution of the
measured GPS-based relative distance,
and enables the transfer of the R-TSPI
solution from the secondary refueling
center to the on-the-fly probe-drogue
system, as shown in FIGURE 6.
For the active vision system, we leveraged a fully integrated lidar mapping
payload as shown in FIGURE 7 (LEFT). For
the passive sensor, we utilize a stereo
camera. FIGURE 7 (RIGHT) shows the test
area and the simulated drogue. Imagery observations from the passive
camera and the lidar system were processed with independent algorithms
appropriate to each data type and the
relative distance between each of the
two sensors, and the simulated drogue
was measured with an RMS error of
less than 10 cm.

INTEGRITY

While outside the scope of this article,

in addition to supplying a GPS-free
relative distance observation, the use
of vision sensors was applied to the
task of increasing system integrity. This
includes, in general, the capability to
indicate when the system should not
be used for the intended operation. We
focused on two aspects: outlier detection (inner reliability), and the effect of
undetected outliers (outer reliability).
To properly address the reliability
and integrity requirements, a quality
testing mechanism was designed to

24 G P S W O R L D

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

FIGURE 6 Vision sensor aiding increasing the integrity

FIGURE 7 Geo-MMS (left) and its application (right) for measuring relative distance.

assess the estimated/predicted relative

distance observations before passing
them in to the R-EKF module.

CONCLUSIONS

An autonomous relative navigation, in

its application for the aerial refueling
problem, places special attention on
system architecture so that it can handle most possible real-world scenarios,
including frequent data link dropouts,
data link latency and GPS outages. The
core of the system is a relative extended
Kalman filter, which uses GPS and
IMU measurements of the primary
and secondary platforms to estimate
the relative inertial navigation states.
The system is able to provide relative
TSPI at the IMU sample rate with an
accuracy of 1.0 m position, 0.1 m/s
velocity and 0.5 attitude.
An added benefit of the system
architecture is the ability to add observation models that do not rely on GPS.
Thus, redundancy can be introduced
using sensors such as vision systems.

APRIL 2016

SHAHRAM MOAFIPOOR is a senior navigation

scientist at Geodetics, focusing on new sensor
technologies, sensor-fusion architectures,
application software, embedded firmware and
sensor interoperability in GPS and GPS-denied
environments. He holds a Ph.D. in geodetic
science from The Ohio State University.
JEFFREY A. FAYMAN serves as Geodetics CTO.
He holds a Ph.D. in computer science from the
Technion Israel Institute of Technology and has
published more than 40 papers in robotics,
computer vision, computer graphics and
navigation systems.
LYDIA BOCK serves as Geodetics president
and CEO. She has more than 35 years of
industry experience spanning a variety of
high-tech industries including electronics,
semiconductors and telecommunications. She
has a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology.
DAVID HONCIK, Geodetics director of
engineering, has more than 30 years of
experience in software/hardware integration
and structured software design for real-time
embedded systems, Windows programs,
graphics, telecommunications, aerospace,
flight simulation and airborne instrumentation.
The integrated lidar mapping payload
referenced is Geodetics Geo-MMS system.

MARKET
WATCH

Segment Snapshot:
Applications, Trends & News

OEM

Microsemi Broadens Grand Master

Timing Options for Networks

icrosemi Corporation has

added two
p ro d u c t s t o
its Integrated Grand Master
(IGM) product portfolio. The
IGM-1100o is an outdoor integrated grand master, while
the IGM-1100x supports external antennas. Also added
are capacity enhancements
to the indoor version, the
IGM-1100i.
The products broaden
outdoor and indoor deployment options for mobile
network operators when
a cost-effective, precise
timing master is needed,
including small cells and
backhaul to eNodeBs for
wireless service delivery
at the long-term evolution
(LTE) network edge.
When introduced in 2015,
T h e I G M - 1 1 0 0 i s o l ve d
the problem of providing
precise time indoors where
GPS signals cannot be
received. Now backhaul to
macro eNodeBs is one of

The IGM-1100o.
26 G P S W O R L D

the biggest challenges for

network operators, and
the expanded IGM portfolio
solves that challenge by
bringing the timing source
closer to the base station.
The expanded portfolio
provides indoor and outdoor
deployment models for
mobile service providers
increasing network edge
capacity and coverage to
deliver advanced wireless
services in public hotspots,
such as K20 campuses,
public transit and retail
settings.
IGM-1100i. With its integrated GPS antenna,
IGM-1100i operates indoors without the need for
a dedicated antenna, associated cabling and installation
hurdles. With capacity increasing from eight PTP
1588 clients to 16 clients,
the IGM-1100i now also
includes support for Telecom 2008 and Default 1588
profiles and support for CLI
over SSH.
I G M -1 1 0 0 o . C o m p l e menting the IGM-1100i in
outdoor wireless deployment cases where extended
temperature range and
ruggedization are critical
factors, the IGM-1100o
integrates the PTP 1588
master and an outdoor GPS
antenna in a single device.

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

Installation of the IGM-1100i.

It can be installed at an outdoor location like a roof top
or alongside other eNodeB
antenna installations. The
IGM-1100o Power-overEthernet (PoE) capability
makes rooftop deployment
much simpler than over
coax.

The IGM-1100i.

IGM-1100x. D e s i g n e d
for scenarios with a preexisting GPS antenna and
associated cabling, or when
an indoor installation is

unrealistic, IGM-1100x
provides very quick and lowcost deployment of a PTP
1588 master by connecting
to the existing cable via a
simple cable installation to
a telecom cabinet or hut.
The IGM-1100x is designed
for IEEE 1588 deployments
of up to 16 clients with
existing GPS antennas,
with the TimeProvider 2700
supporting up to 128 clients.
Acco rd i n g t o m a r ke t
research firm Infonetics, the
first nine months of 2015
were marked by increasing
small-cell rollouts all over
the world and continue
to point to double-digit
growth. The firm expects
the total small-cell market
to hit $2.2 billion in 2019 at
a compound annual growth
rate of 20 percent.

MARKET WATCH

OEM

Spirent and Oasis Smart SIM

Partner on IoT Devices

pirent Communications and

Oasis Smart SIM have created a
strategic partnership to remove
connectivity and network provisioning
barriers for the rapid development of
connected products and devices, such
as cameras, smart vehicles, logistics and
production goods.
The partnership marks both firms
entry into the connected Internet of
Things (IoT) business, which analyst
Gartner forecasts will result in 6.4
billion connected devices worldwide
in 2016, reaching 20.8 billion by 2020.
Before launching the new product,
Spirent and Oasis undertook extensive
research into the hurdles that original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
face in making diverse connected
pro du c t s, rang ing f rom w h ite
goods in the kitchen to those used
in animal management, suitable for
sale in world markets. It became

Taoglas President Dermot OShea

in the facilitys RF chamber.

clear that old technologies and

business models based on use of the
traditional SIM were not suitable for
IoT device activation and subscription
provisioning on a global scale.
The partnership between Spirent
and Oasis will introduce a two-click
software solution, including USIM
functionality, that OEMs can embed
into products for seamless cellular
ser vice activation in any of the
worlds markets, as well as life-cycle
management.
The partnership is expected to
help manufacturers build better and
smarter products for the connected
world, according to Dennis Juul
Poulsen, general manager of Spirent.
Possible uses range from connected
trucks to smart running shoes, all of
which would have seamless instant
connectivity through any cellular
service provider.

Taoglas Opens
IoT Design Center

ntenna maker Taoglas USA has

opened a facility for its North
American customers in San Diego.
The 16,000 square foot Taoglas
IoTx Center offers a fully equipped design and test location that supports
companies seeking a competitive,
time-to-market advantage for machine
to machine (M2M) and IoT applications.
According to Taoglas, the location offers support for customers at all stages
of their product design cycle from
concept to certification readiness.

SatNav Engineering by the Book

new book by a recognized authority

in signal design
and processing, structured
as a textbook for an upperlevel undergraduate course
or a graduate course in satnav engineering, will also
admirably serve anyone
seeking to enhance his or
her skills in satnav engineering, or as a reference and
indicator of future paths for
a practicing satnav engineer.
Author John Betz contributed to the international
interoperability and compatibility efforts leading to

the design of the GPS L1C

civil signal. His binary offset
carrier (BOC) technique is
used for the GPS M-code
signal, and has been adopted
by satellite navigation systems developed by Russia,
Europe, China, Japan and
India. He played an active role
in the United States/European Union negotiations that
established compatibility and
interoperability between GPS
and Galileo. More recently, he
provided critical analysis related to GPS modernization,
recommending affordable
enhancements to address in-

creasing threats and to shape

the architecture of military
GPS for decades to come.
The book comprises four
large sections: System and
Signal Engineering, System
Descriptions, Receiver
Processing and Specialized
To p i c s ( I n t e r f e r e n c e ,
Multipath, Differential,
Assisted Satnav and more).
Engineering Satellite-Based Navigation and Timing: Global
Navigation Satellite Systems, Signals, and Receivers
John W. Betz
ISBN: 978-1-118-61597-3; 672 pages
December 2015, Wiley-IEEE Press
Hardcover print or ebook available
APRIL 2016

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

G P S W O R L D 27

MARKET WATCH

SURVEY

Hemisphere Debuts Smart Antenna

emisphere GNSS latest smart antenna,

the S321, isdesigned
for land or marine survey.
It combines Hemispheres
Athena and Atlas technologies with a new web user
interface.
For professional marine applications such
as marine construction,
hydrographic surveying or

dredging using the S321

with Athena RTK (real-time
kinematic) enables users
to achieve impeccable results and maintain peak
up-time, the company said.
The ruggedized antenna was
designed for demanding and
challenging environments
and meets IP67 requirements.
Athena RTK e xce l s i n

S321 FEATURES

Athena RTK engine

GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo, QZSS
372 channels
Atlas corrections via L-band and Internet
Wireless connectivity via Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
Powerful web user interface
Two versions (each configurable as base or rover):
UHF + GSM / WCDMA

environments where highaccuracy GNSS receivers can

be used. Features include
reliable initializations in less
than 15 seconds at better
than 99.9 percent reliability;
robustness in difficult operating environments; and
performance on long baselines and under scintillation.
The S321 ships preconfigured to receive corrections
from Hemispheres Atlas
global corrections service

including H10, which offers

8-centimeter, 95-percent
accuracy (4-cm real-meansquared, or RMS).
The S321 introduces
Hemispheres aRTK
technology. Powered by
Atlas, aRTK enables the
S321 to operate with RTK
accuracies when RTK
corrections fail. If the S321
is Atlas-subscribed, it will
continue to operate at the
subscribed service level until
RTK is restored.
The S321 also introduces
SureFix, a processor running
in combination with Athena
to provide high-fidelity
RTK quality information
that results in guaranteed
precision with virtually 100
percent reliability.

Advanced Navigation Offers Post-Processing Software

dvanced Navigation has released

its GNSS/INS post
processing software Kinematica.
Kinematica is designed to
be an easy-to-use GNSS/INS
post-processing software
that allows users to process
raw GNSS and inertial data
after collection and achieve
higher accuracy position,
velocity and orientation
than is possible in real time.
Kinematica has been
released as free software
with a time lock to Aug. 1,
2016.
The software supports
kinematic GNSS position28 G P S W O R L D

ing, which provides a 200x

increase in position accuracy over standard GNSS
with 8-mm position accuracy. Dual antenna GNSS
heading processing is also
supported.
Kinematica processes
data in forward and reverse
six times, which allows it
to fill any satellite outages
and ignore errors that would
normally affect a real-time
solution. Both loosely and
tightly coupled GNSS/INS
processing is supported and
the software automatically
switches between each
mode depending upon the
environment.

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

Kinematica supports all

of Advanced Navigations
GNSS/INS products.
Support for a wide range
of third-party systems
is scheduled for the next
update in July.

Kinematica is targeted
at sur veying, scanning
and aerial photography
applications that need to
squeeze the maximum
performance out of their
systems.

ION GNSS+ 2016

The 29th Annual International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation

September 1216, 2016

Tutorials: September 1213
Show Dates: September 1415

Oregon Convention Center

Portland, Oregon

The Worlds Largest Technical Meeting and Showcase

of GNSS Technology, Products and Services
APPLICATIONS & ADVANCES TRACKS
Mass Market and Commercial Applications
High Performance and Safety Critical Applications
System Updates, Plans and Policies

RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONS TRACKS

Multisensor Navigation
Algorithms and Methods
Advanced GNSS Technologies

NEW THIS YEAR: Autonomous navigation sessions and panels, addressing technology, applications, security and safety.

register now
Exhibitors, reserve your booth today; space is limited.
www.ion.org/gnss

MARKET WATCH

MAPPING

RAWS: Data is fed

dynamically into the
map from the Remote
Automatic Weather
Stations (RAWS) system.
RAWS is a network
of weather stations
run by the U.S. Forest
Service and Bureau
of Land Management
and monitored by the
National Interagency
Fire Center to observe
potential wildfire
conditions.

Greenness: The Greenness layer data comes

dynamically from the NASA Earth Observatory, using the

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The number
scale refers to the amount of greenness reflected and its
wavelength detected by satellite for 1-kilometer square areas,
with higher numbers showing healthier, denser vegetation.

The Predictive Services view state

uses weather, lightning strikes and NDVI data to

determine probability of wildland fire activity. Other
view states are for aviation management, fuels and
resources, base maps and current wildfire activity.

Fighting Fire with Facts

ire probability, such as on Mt. Rainier in Washington

State, can be assessed with the Fire Globe web GIS
application, which has now been transferred to
the Esri platform. Fire Globe is offered by the National
Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), the U.S. support center for
wildland firefighting.
Needing an enterprise technology solution, NIFC
transitioned to Esris ArcGIS platform and its 2D and 3D
visualization clients, such as ArcGIS Earth and ArcGIS
API for JavaScript. NIFC is the first customer to complete
the migration from Google Earth Enterprise to the Esri
platform.
Migrating our Fire Globe app to the Esri platform
was fast and didnt interrupt NIFCs situational services
to Fire Globe users, said Sean Triplett, NIFC geospatial
analysis group leader. The Esri platform accepts industry
standards, has great functionality and scalability, and
presents fire data in a 2D and 3D virtual environment.
Fire Globe is part of NIFCs GIS, Fire Enterprise Geospatial

30 G P S W O R L D

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

Portal, which also operates on the Esri platform. Each

day, during the peak of fire season, potentially thousands
of users from various agencies involved in wildland fire
response open the Fire Globe app to look at the situational
wildland fire picture. The app accesses data layers in the
large intelligence portal via a web browser.
The app accesses a variety of data layers such
as active incidents, Moderate-Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer and Visible Infrared Imager
Radiometer Suite satellite fire imagery. Fire Globe also
accesses historical fire data and predictive fire weather
information.

MARKET WATCH

MAPPING

2
Fugro Delivers Surface
Current Data

F
Containment booms hold back an oil spill in the San Francisco
Bay after 58,000 gallons of oil spilled from South Korea-bound
container ship in 2007. (Photo: CC BY-SA 3.0).

Recommended Oil Spill

Response Published

new recommended
practice has been
issued for GIS and
mapping professionals responding to an oil spill.
The final report of a joint
project guides professionals
in using GIS technology and
geospatial information to
form a common operating
picture for a spill response,
so various organizations
can deal with it effectively.
According to the report, the
2010 Deepwater Horizon
spill in the Gulf of Mexico
showed the need for a
coordinated response based
on timely geographic data.
The International Association of Oil & Gas Producers
(IOGP), through the Geo-

matics Committee and IPIECA (the global oil and gas

industry association for environmental and social issues),
issued the recommended
practice in cooperation with
the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) and Resource Data Inc.
The report lays the
groundwork for coordinated
a c t iv it i e s by mu lt ipl e
stakeholders that need to
come together quickly to
respond to a spill, said Rob
Cox, Technical Director,
I P I E C A . Hav i n g t h e
report endorsed as an OGC
Best Practice gives it the
authority it needs to act as
a focal point in support of
that coordination.

ugro has successfully delivered near real-time, synoptic,

surface current data to characterize current and eddy
conditions in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico.
Over the course of the five-month program, Fugro used the
new Remote Ocean Current Imaging System (ROCIS) to survey
currents over a distance of more than 125,000 kilometers the
equivalent of three times around the world.
The commercially available ROCIS can provide support in
emergency situations such as oil spills and search and rescue,
and in oceanographic research programs, as well as monitoring
for customers offshore current conditions in specific locations.

what3words Now on
ArcGIS Marketplace

hat3words will be providing its three-word address

and location reference system to ArcGIS Marketplace.
ArcGIS Marketplace is a destination that enables ArcGIS
users to search, discover, and get apps and content from
qualified providers.
what3words is an addressing and location reference
system based on a global grid of 57 trillion squares of 3 x 3
meters. Each square has a unique pre-assigned three-word
address. For example, recruiters.infusions.fastening is the
location of a fire hydrant on inverness Drive East highway
in Denver, Colorado. This what3words system is being used
by Esri partner Metcom911 to manage 57,000 fire hydrants
serving over a million people to ensure fast and effective response to emergencies.

AAGS Seeks Certification Input

The American Association for Geodetic Surveying (AAGS) is
exploring creating a geodetic certification program to provide official recognition that a person has the knowledge
and skills to understand and solve practical problems in
applied geodesy. Visit https://geodetic.xyz/survey/index.
php/378997 to fill out a questionnaire.
APRIL 2016

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

G P S W O R L D 31

MARKET WATCH

TRANSPORTATION

MWC Important for Automakers

BY Kevin Dennehy

G P S WO R L D CO N T R I B U T I N G E D I TO R

ost attendees at the

Mobile World Congress
( M W C ) w o u l d n t
m i s t a k e t h e hu g e
mobile phone show to
be a gathering of auto manufacturers
and their suppliers. However, the show,
which broke 100,000 participants this
year, has seen a rise in auto companies
who are outlining connected and
autonomous vehicle strategies.
MWC was held Feb. 27 to March 2
in Barcelona, Spain.
As reported in the March GPS
World, Ford CEO Mark Fields said the
company is tripling its investment in
new technologies over the next five
years with the ultimate goal of fully
autonomous vehicles. Ford also rolled
out the new Kuga SUV, which features
the companys new SYNC 3, which
Fields says should be in 43 million
vehicles by 2023 (SYNC 3 is upgraded
to include improved voice commands
and easier to get to applications on a
drivers smartphone).
Fields said Ford, which attended
its fourth straight Mobile World
Congress, was transitioning from an
auto company to one that is a dual
auto-mobility entity. In addition, just
as with GMs decision to invest $500

Harman showcased its new folding steering

wheel at Mobile World Congress 2016. (Photo:
Kevin Dennehy)
32 G P S W O R L D

Inside the Mercedes autonomous vehicle. (Photo: Kevin Dennehy)

million in Lyft, Ford is getting into

the sharing economy with its own
car-sharing, ride-sharing and other
mobility services.
This new mobility strategy includes
GoPark, an app that directs drivers to
parking spaces; FordPass, a platform
that connects services and partners;
and FordGuides, a problem-solving
app. According to published reports,
another Ford app is MyBoxMan, which
allows drivers in Europe to make
money delivering boxes.
At least one industry expert believes
that car sharing and autonomy is
the future for auto companies. Full
autonomy is coming. We will see
fleets of driverless public transport
vehicles on the roads due to their low
overheads, said Kevin Curran, senior
member of IEEE and senior lecturer
at the University of Ulster. Regarding
non-autonomy, we will see that cars
ownership will change in a number
of ways. We will start to see more ride
sharing. Uber and other ride sharing
models will rise to supersede existing
traditional models. That is quite obvious
even now, and a proper ride sharing
model should also emerge, too.
Ford displayed the Kuga in its main

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

booth, and also had a booth featuring

its developer program. Development
partner Magellan showed off its
SmartGPS in-vehicle technology.
The Magellan unit delivers local
information to the car that is equipped
with SmartGPS, including speed trap
alerts, weather, traffic and lowest gas
prices, said Matt Erstling, Magellan
product manager, connected platform.
Magellans connected auto strategy
was outlined, in part, by its new CEO,
Pierre Parent, at CES in January. Parent
said that the company will continue to
put location capability in connected
devices.
At its press conference, Hans
Vestberg, Ericsson president and CEO,
said 5G will provide the latency needed
for autonomous cars. The company
is jointly developing a connected car
with Geeley Automobile Holdings,
the Chinese owners of Volvo. Besides
Ericsson, Nokia, SK Telecom and others
believe that 5G, which is expected to
rollout in 2020, will be critical for mobile
Internet applications and, therefore,
for better safety in connected vehicles.
Qualcomm announced its partnership
with Audi to integrate the Snapdragon
See MWC, next page

>>

MARKET WATCH

2
UAV 2
TRANSPORTATION
ESA to Research Geohazard Monitoring

Live Land Project to Use GNSS, Observation Satellites to Protect Rails and Roads

perators of
UK transport
networks will
be the first to
benefit from Live Land, a
land monitoring system
developed through the
European Space Agency
(ESA).
Tr a n s p o r t o p e r a t o r s
across the UK face significant
challenges in monitoring
and detecting landslides
and subsidence. Geological
hazards nearroads and
railways can disrupt business
and communities,especially
in remote locations.
As a result, owners and
operators of transport infrastructure increasingly
need to understand geohazards to better manage
their exposure, mitigate risk
and improve planning and
response to incidents when
they occur.
The Live Land demonstration project will monitor these

cal Survey, Met Office and

Nottingham Scientific Ltd.
(who will serve as the GNSS
experts).

MILLIMETER PRECISION

A January landslide in Barnehurst, England, tumbled debris

onto the tracks and damaged a railway signaling system. (Photo:
Network Rail)
hazards with integrated data
from GNSS and Earth observation satellites.
Over the next two years,
Live Land will develop products for two prominent
Scottish transport operators,
Network Rail (Scotland) and
Transport Scotland.
Once successfully demonstrated in Scotland and
regions of England, Live Land
is expected to expand across

>> MWC, Continued

from previous page
602A into the automakers 2017
vehicles. The company showed off
connected car technologies with
Formula One Team Mercedes AMG
Petronias.
One of t he co oler pie ces of
equipment at MWC was the folding
steering wheel developed by Harman
and Rinspeed. The companies are also
co-developing an autonomous car.
Besides rolling out Galaxy S7

the UK and continental Europe.

The Live Land demonstration project follows a
previous feasibility study
concluded in 2014 and
draws on expertise from
a team of internationally
respected authorities. CGG
GeoConsultings NPA Satellite Mapping group will
lead the project, which also
includes the British Geologi-

phones, Samsung announced its

Connect Auto dongle that adds LTE
connectivity for older vehicles. The
dongle plugs into a diagnostic port
to let drivers monitor a vehicles
performance. It also makes the vehicle
a Wi-Fi hotspot. It should be available
in the second quarter, with AT&T as the
U.S. wireless partner.
Saying the partnership is a giant step
toward driverless vehicles, Panasonic
and Ficosa announced that they are
developing a Smart Connectivity
Module that enables passengers to be
APRIL 2016

Data will be collected three

ways. Radar images from
Europes Sentinel-1A observation satellite detect
surface motion changes
with millimeter precision;
geological and meteorological data will be used for hazard forecasting models; and
GNSS receivers and inertial
sensors will be installed for
in-situ monitoring in specific
locations. For example, an
area of steep slopes and wet
soil that is expecting heavy
rainfall is at a higher risk of
a landslide.
N PA C o n s u l t i n g h a s
considerable experience in
geohazard research projects
for ESA, with expertise in
satellite InSAR (surface
deformation) mapping.

securely connected through a vehicles

own internal connection. The system
provides both inside and outside
connections and works in V2V and
V2X environments.
A lot of people dont know that
33 percent of our business is in auto
and industrial systems. Consumer
is only 14 percent, said Tony
OBrien, deputy managing director,
Panasonic Systems Solutions, Europe.
For more news from the Mobile World
Congress, see page 39.

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

G P S W O R L D 33

MARKET WATCH

UAV

Keep Your
Distance

Relative Position Key

to Industrial Jobs

perating in industrial
environments, where
no margin for error is
tolerated, is complex,
stressful and delicate. The distance
from an in-flight UAV to the industrial
asset that it is observing or inspecting
obviously has critical importance
for safety, data precision nand costeffectiveness. The AiRobot Ranger
counters this problem by displaying
the distance between the UAV and the
object of interest on multiple smart
phones or tablets, ensuring the extra
situational awareness that is crucial for
professional UAV operations.
The Ranger consists of an add-on
sensor module that can be easily
attached and detached, a ground
station and iOS/Android apps.
Everyone involved in an operation can
simultaneously log in on the ground
station to receive real-time situational
feedback. In adition to visual feedback,
the Ranger also offers audio feedback,
via voice commands, beep tones and
adjustable target zones.
Passive and independent, the system

Airborne Ranger (top left) continuously monitors the distance between itself and the
silo, transmitting the separation to pilot and payload operator (foreground).

does not require connection with flight

controller or other UAV electronics. It
can be mounted externally on most
industrial UAVs.
Silo Inspection. To gather data
concerning defects or damage to an
agricultural products silo, a Ranger
was employed to take photographs of
high surfaces and inaccessible areas. It
enabled safe operation and furnished
further data enabling calculation of
the size of the photographed defects.
Everyone involved pilot, payload

operator and observer used the

Ranger application on their own iOS
or Android device. An audio warning
was set to 3 meters. Whenever the
UAV came within this geofence around
the silo, audio warning signals were
generated, ensuring operational safety.
Camera focus was calibrated at
4meters. The pilot maneuvered based
upon the target audio modus. The
target zone was set at 4 meters, with a
margin of 50 centimeters. Whenever
See JOBS, page 36

The ranger can be attached directly to the UAV platform (left)

without any additional wiring. Above, the base station, rover, and
display of distance-from-object on any iOS or Android device.
34 G P S W O R L D

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APRIL 2016

>>

MARKET WATCH

UAV

Drones Hit the Rails

Intergeo 2016 Features

Independent UAS Event

ndustrial Networks (INet) has begun

testing a new drone for railyard
automation.
The plan requires safety testing
and Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) approvals, but is expected to
give rail shippers more flexibility in
railyards. The Industrial Networks
Rail Automation Drone (IRAD1) will be
capable of fully autonomous scanning
of the railyard for inventory and
inspection of a railcar.
An elaborate collision detection
and avoidance system is built into the
drone to help avoid objects in the flight
path and reinforce safety.
The system gives the IRAD1 the
ability to be a completely autonomous

I
Photo: Industrial Networks
Automated Equipment Identification
(AEI) scanner, leading to faster data
collection and reduced workforce
requirements.
INets current collection of AEIscanning tools includes stationary and
handheld readers, and automates data
collection in the field.

UAV Market to Hit $37B by 2022

he worldwide market for drones, now $6.8 billion, is

anticipated to reach $36.9 billion by 2022, according
to a new report by RnR Market Research.
Drones Market Shares, Strategies, and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2016 to 2022 provides a comprehensive analysis of
drones in nine different categories, illustrating the diversity
of uses for remote flying devices. The use scenarios cover
agriculture, oil and gas, border patrol, law enforcement,
homeland security, disaster response, package delivery,
photography, videography and others.
Army UAS have logged more than 3 million f light
hours 88 percent in combat situations in Iraq and Afghanistan, giving drones market credibility and paving the
way for commercial drone markets to develop.
Now, UAV technology has reached a level of maturity
that has permitted DJI to garner $1 billion in revenue in
2015, doubling the companys revenue in one year. This
achievement puts drone systems at the forefront of aerospace manufacturing. According to the report, Use of
drones represents a key milestone in provision of value
to every industry. Customized cameras are used to take
photos and videos with stunning representations. Digital
controls will further automate flying, making ease of use
and flight stability a reality. New materials and new designs
are bringing that transformation forward. By furthering
innovation, continued growth is assured.

ntergeo 2014 in Berlin hosted a flight

zone event for unmanned aircraft
systems (UAS) business applications,
which led to the 2015 debut in Stuttgart,
Germany, of Interaerial Solutions as an
integrated topic platform. At Intergeo
2016 in Hamburg, Interaerial Solutions
will run as a free-standing UAS platform
Oct. 1113. It will serve as a showcase
for manufacturers, UAS users and
operators, accessories, software and endto-end solutions. About 80 exhibitors
and 3,200 visitors attended the event as
part of Intergeo 2015.
Interaerial Solutions is hosted by
Hinte GmbH. Go to www.interaerialsolutions.com for more information.

WERE
HIRING
ENGINEERS
Swift Navigation is looking for outstanding
engineers to push the state of the art in
satellite navigation technology.
Help make high accuracy positioning
ubiquitous across a wide variety of industries
and applications for UAVs, robotics and
autonomous transportation.
Learn more and apply at
www.swiftnav.com/jobs
Competitive salary, benefits, equity
Open vacation policy
In SF, close to public transport

APRIL 2016

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

G P S W O R L D 35

MARKET WATCH

UAV

>> JOBS, Continued from page 34

the pilot was too close or too far, the
Ranger respectively indicated back
or forward until the target zone was
reached.
The payload operator monitored
everything on the visual interface,
next to the camera images. When
the UAV was in place, pictures were
taken at 4 meters. With the extra depth
information, and the fixed lens and
zoom settings, the actual sizes of the
defects could be calculated.
Man versus Machine. The first flight
was performed without the Ranger and
with an extra observer, standing at 90
degrees between the UAV and the silo.
The observer indicated the distance
to the pilot and the payload operator

with a two-way radio. The pictures

taken were not sharp, but unclear and
unusable, since they had been taken
from too far away. Because of the lack
of situational awareness, the results
were insufficient.
For the next flight, the Ranger was
installed on the UAV in combination
with an extra observer at the same
location. It became clear that the
distances indicated by the observer
during the first flight were off by a
couple of meters.
Immediately, the added value of the
Ranger became clear.
The last flights were all performed
without the observer. The results were
more precise, reliable and stable than
with the observer.
In February, the European Satellite

Navigation Competition awarded

a special prize to AiRobot for the
most innovative use of high-precision
GNSS positioning in its project:UAV
Flight Path Learning through GNSS.
The Flanders Challenge of the ESNC
was sponsored by Septentrio; the prize
was an AsteRx-m UAS receiver.
AiRobot uses a form of sense-andavoid technology to ensure accurate
and robust location information when
executing waypoint flying. The sensing
technology enables the UAV to create
a temporary map of its surroundings,
ensuring that it will not collide with
objects in its path.
R anger is now commercially
available. Next, AiRobot is developing
collision avoidance solutions with
GNSS technology.

The future is here.

XPONENTIAL 2016 is the one event

that advances the entire unmanned
systems industry. It is the intersection
point for commercial and defense
applications, and it represents all
domains air, land and sea.
Experience the latest technology
you cant find anywhere else.

May 2-5, 2016 | New Orleans

36 G P S W O R L D

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xponential.org | #auvsiXPO

APRIL 2016

MACHINECONTROLUPDATE

Moving to Customized Nitrogen Fertilization

BY Yacine Bouroubi

EFFIGIS CHIEF SCIENTIST, EARTH OBSERVATION DIVISION

anadian agriculture has an international

reputation for being highly productive and
modern. It plays a major role in the countrys
economy, and contributes to 8 percent of GDP
and 12 percent of jobs.
Everyone involved in Canadas agricultural sector is aware of
the environmental issues associated with farming.To optimize
performance and revenue while respecting the environment,
for the past few years producers have been counting on a new
ally: precision agriculture.
Using technologies such as GPS, auto-guidance, variable
rate technology, yield sensors, satellite images and drones,
precision agriculture is now part of the day-to-day life of
farmers. The application of agricultural inputs based on the
four Rs (the right source at the right rate, in the right place
at the right time) must be based on scientific knowledge and
technical know-how. Such knowledge and know-how are
based on reliable, accurate and complete information, which is
often necessary on a global scale, but with a rather fine spatial
resolution. Satellite images are the ideal tool to provide much
of the information required.
Using Satellite Images. For about 15 years now, sensors
on very high spatial resolution (VHR) Earth observation
(EO) satellites have been offering a source of data that can
provide information on soils and crops at adequate spatial
scales (around 2 meters using multispectral imagery) with an
unbeatable price/quality ratio. Products derived from satellite
images for estimating the quantity of nitrogen fertilization to
meet plants nutritional requirements are a concrete example
of an operational use of this data.
Determining the optimal dose of nitrogen is not easy, since
it depends on complex interactions between plants, the soil,
weather conditions and management practices. By wanting to
avoid performance loss due to nitrogen deficiencies, current
practices favor overfertilization, which leads to unnecessary
costs as well as serious environmental problems.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada developed a model
based on statistical analyses for understanding the direct
relationship between the properties that influence nitrogen
requirements (soil, growth, weather and management) and
the response to nitrogen fertilization, based on a large number
of fertilization trials. These relationships were implemented
in a system called SCAN (Soil, Crops and Atmosphere for
Nitrogen). Satellite imagery acquired at a specific growth stage
provides information required for the operation of SCAN.
SCAN includes two major innovations: extracting

agronomic knowledge related to nitrogen fertilization and

modeling this knowledge in the form of inference rules
in a fuzzy logic system. Work is ongoing to advance these
two aspects of SCAN and validate it for various agricultural
regions, as well as adapt it to various types of crops.
A SCAN web platform will be tested by 100 users starting
in the summer of 2016, in anticipation of its commercial use
in 2017.
To read Yacine Bouroubi's full blog, go to www.effigis.com/blog.

APRIL 2016

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G P S W O R L D 37

DEFENSEUPDATE

Retrofitted Predator Stretches Its Wings

eneral Atomics Aeronautical

Systems Inc. (GA-ASI)
has successfully flown the
Predator B/MQ-9 Reaper
Extended Range (ER) Long Wing craft.
The long-wing Predator is retrofitted
with improved long-endurance wings,
greater internal fuel capacity and
additional hard points for carrying
external stores. The flight took place
Feb. 18 at GA-ASIs Gray Butte Flight
Test Facility in Palmdale, California, on
a test aircraft.
GA-ASI is a a manufacturer of remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) systems,
radars and electro-optic and related
mission systems solutions,
Predator B ERs new 79-foot
wing span not only boosts the RPAs
endurance and range, but also serves
as proof-of-concept for the nextgeneration Predator B aircraft that
will be designed for Type-Certification
and airspace integration, said Linden
Blue, CEO, GA-ASI. The wing was
designed to conform to STANAG 4671
[NATO Airworthiness Standard for
RPA systems], and includes lightning
and bird strike protection, nondestructive testing, and advanced
composite and adhesive materials for
extreme environments.
During the flight, the Predator B ER
Long Wing demonstrated its ability
to launch, climb to 7,500 feet (initial
flight test altitude), complete basic
airworthiness maneuvers, and land
without incident. A subsequent test

The U.S. Air Force Predator B ER's longer wings boost range and endurance.

program will be conducted to verify full

operational capability.
Developed on Internal Research and
Development (IRAD) funds, the new
wing span is 13 feet longer, increasing
the aircrafts endurance from 27 hours
to more than 40 hours.
Additional improvements include
short-field takeoff and landing performance and spoilers on the wings that
enable precision automatic landings.
The wings also have provisions for
leading-edge de-ice and integrated
low- and high-band RF antennas.
An earlier version of Predator B ER

featuring two wing-mounted fuel tanks

is currently operational with the U.S. Air
Force as the MQ-9 Reaper ER.
The long wings are the first components to be produced as part of
GA-ASIs Certifiable Predator B (CPB)
development project, which will lead
to a certifiable production aircraft in
early 2018.
Further hardware and software
upgrades planned for CPB will include
improved structural fatigue and damage
tolerance, more robust flight control
software, and enhancements allowing
operations in adverse weather.

AUSTRALIA COULD REPLACE JET FIGHTERS WITH UNMANNED COMBAT

Australian Chief of the Defence Force Mark Binskin
said that combat drones
could take the place of
someJoint Strike Fighters
(JSFs).
A defense white paper
states that Australia will

38 G P S W O R L D

buy 72 Joint Strike Fighters

to replace current fighter
planes "Classic" Hornets,
six of which are now flying bombing raids over
Iraq and Syria. But it leaves
open the possibility of not
buying a final squadron of

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

APRIL 2016

roughly 25 JSFs to make up

the 100-strong air combat
fleet Australia needs.
Instead, the white paper
states that to replace the
newer, current squadron of
Super Hornet aircraft from
about 2030, alternatives

will be "considered."
Binskin said the department was keeping an
open mind given the rapid
improvements in armed
drones or unmanned
combat aerial vehicles, also
known as UCAVs.

MOBILEUPDATE

Location Tech Prominent at MWC

BY Kevin Dennehy

G P S WO R L D CO N T R I B U T I N G E D I TO R

ocation technologies are playing a prominent role in

the development of Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled
products and services, particularly for connected
vehicles, as revealed at Mobile World Congress, held
Feb. 28-March 2 in Barcelona, Spain.
One location company, Glympse, partnered with two major
companies, Google and Samsung, for their location sharing
products. With Google, Glympse is part of the companys
Project Tango, which provides a mobile device with 3-D
motion tracking and depth sensing.
Samsung launched its Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge phones to
a packed auditorium of guests and press members. While
the phone has an improved camera and battery life, the S7
and S7 Edge also have Glympses location-sharing capability
for both an installed Car Mode and an app called My Place.
The Google Tango [product] allows a mobile device to know
where it is, and our location-aware product allows people to
see where their friends are. Its been a great partnership, said
Bryan Trussell, Glympse founder and CEO.
Indoor location and mobile advertising. The number of mobile
advertising and indoor positioning companies at MWC
seems to be increasing each year. Most companies involved
say the market, which has such players as Google, Intel and
ST Telecom involved, is finally arriving.
Polestars Jean Chenebault, COO, said the company has its
Bluetooth beacons in hospitals, airports and shopping centers.
We are at Schiphol Airport, Yale Hospital and many others.
We have 600 beacons installed at the Mobile World Congress,
he said. The market for indoor location has really grown.
At MWC, indoor positioning vendor Indoor Atlas signed a
deal with Yahoo! Japan, which is the leading Internet portal in
the country with 63 billion page views a month. The company,
founded in 2012 with seven employees, uses geomagnetic
positions based on the magnetic sensor in a smartphone.
The companys biggest customer, Baidu, is using the magnetic
positioning in its maps product, said Indoor Atlas CEO Janne
Haverinen.
Another company says its system is complimentary to
GPS to deliver latitude, longitude and floor-level altitude
in areas the satellite-based system doesnt work, or works
poorly. We determine positioning, again, where GPS doesnt
work well, said Christian Gates, NextNav vice president,
strategy and development. A bonus point for NextNav is
that it doesnt burn up wireless spectrum, which is expensive,
Continued on page 40

Kevin Dennehy in VR goggles at the Samsung press conference.

FUN WITH VIRTUAL REALITY

Virtual reality (VR) was huge at both CES and MWC.

Wearing VR goggles during the Samsung presentation,
and seeing Mark Zuckerberg walk up to announce
Facebook's partnership with the Korean giant, was surreal.

M

>>

APRIL 2016

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G P S W O R L D 39

MOBILEUPDATE
>> Continued from page 39
unlike cellular positioning,
said Tom Wrappe, NextNav
vice president, ecosystem
development.
Industry veteran Wrappe
was with SnapTrack and
went to Qualcomm when
that company purchased
the assisted-GPS company
that helped spur location in
cell phones. Gary Parsons,
former XM Satellite Radio
CEO, heads the companys
board of directors.
Trusted Location. The acquisition of TeleCommunications Systems by Comtech
Telecommunications for an
estimated $431 million was
completed during MWC.
The company will not see

personnel reductions, and

its operations in Annapolis,
Maryland, will continue,
said Jay Whitehurst, Comtech president of commercial software group.
The company had several
location services at MWC,
including its Trusted Location
application that provides
such organizations as online
gaming companies and
financial entities a system to
identify and prevent fraud
using location algorithms.
T h e c o m p a ny, w h i c h
launched its VirtuMedix
product at the 2015 MWC,
said it has signed up several
doctors for the patient
monitoring system.
European fleets. After
a slow initial period, the

Qualcomm's Jeff Dumrauf describes the Snapdragon 820.

European market for fleet

tracking products has seen
phenomenal growth, said
Edward Kulperger, Geotab
vice president, Europe. We
have nearly 500,000 units
worldwide, and sell our
products through an authorized reseller network, he
said. Geotab, which has a

ENC 2016

EUROPEAN NAVIGATION CONFERENCE 2016

30 MAY 02 JUNE 2016 HELSINKI, FINLAND
Innovations in positioning, navigation and timing
technologies and applications at land, sea and air
Technical co-sponsorship from IEEE Aerospace and
Electronics Systems Society
Industry exhibition co-located with the conference
Innovative Technical Program and
Call for Sponsors and Exhibitors
Please visit www.enc2016.eu
Early-registration closes
on 15th of April, 2016

40 G P S W O R L D

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APRIL 2016

European partnership with

Telefonica, offers MyGeotab
software for in-vehicle driver
coaching, engine diagnostics, real-time GPS vehicle
tracing and other functions
for the continents trucking
companies.
Another company, Aeris,
is pursuing most IoT markets

MOBILEUPDATE
in Europe: fleet, payment,
healthcare and network security, to name a few.
Success in Europe. Waze is
seeing big growth in central
Europe, particularly in Italy
and France, said Carlos
Gomez of Waze. We are
improving the product to
tailor it to European driving
in city centers, he said.
Part of Google, Waze
doesnt sell any data it
collects f rom users of
the crowd-sourced map
product. We dont sell it
and are concerned with
companies who sell data to
third parties, Gomez said.
Security issues. As companies roll out products,
and differentiation is important, security and data

privacy will become a top

priority. Even consumers
with little interest or understanding of technology
will see news stories about
hacked devices and companies, and as a result will
look to be reassured about
how secure their personal
data is, but also how far
that data will be legally
shared with other companies, Tamietti said. Recent [Accenture] research
found that for nearly half
of respondents, security
concerns and privacy risks
rank among the top three
barriers to buying an IoT
device or service.
For more news from the Mobile
World Congress, see page 32.

Nokia modeled automated vehicles at MWC.

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June 6-9, 2016

Tutorials: June 6
Show Dates: June 7-8
Dayton Convention Center,
Dayton, Ohio

Military Navigation Technology:

The Foundation for Military Ops

Sponsored by:
The Military Division of
The Institute of Navigation

www.ion.org/jnc

Classified Session will be held June 9

at the Air Force Institute of Technology
APRIL 2016

WWW.GPSWORLD.COM

G P S W O R L D 41

INNOVATION

WITH RICHARD B. LANGLEY

FLYING SAFE

GNSS Robustness for Unmanned Aircraft Systems

By Joshua Stubbs and Dennis M. Akos

s the number of unmanned aircraft systems

(UAS; also called unmanned aerial vehicles
and drones) in use is increasing across many
sectors, there is an interest in understanding
the robustness of the GNSS engine used on UAS. With UAS
being integrated into the National Airspace System (NAS),
questions arise about what kind of navigation system should
be used on UAS, and to what degree it should be standardized.
Conventional aircraft typically use a certified GNSS receiver
for navigational purposes, and as UAS will share the sky with
conventional aircraft in the future, it is not unreasonable that
UAS will use similar receivers.
The first part of this article provides background on the
status of GNSS standards for UAS. In the second part, we
discuss why radio-frequency interference (RFI) can be
expected on some UAS, together with what issues the RFI
could cause for the GNSS engine. A simple experiment to
determine the presence of RFI in the GPS L1 band due to
proximity of a GPS antenna to electronics is presented in this
section as well. The third part of the article discusses real-time
kinematic (RTK) positioning for UAS purposes. In terms of
accuracy, RTK positioning often provides the best results. The
robustness of RTK measurements is questionable, though,
because the technique relies on carrier-phase measurements.
We present a case study, which shows some of the issues of
using RTK positioning for UAS, in this part of the article, too.

GNSS STANDARDS FOR UAS

GNSS, and especially GPS, have been used in aviation for quite
some time. The GPS receivers used for aviation have to guarantee a certain level of performance to be used, and are certified by the manufacturer to deliver said performance.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is working
on integrating UAS into the NAS. The development of UAS
has been quick and has led to a lack of standardization for
UAS, something that does exist for traditional manned
aircraft. This has led to operators in most cases having
to file for exemptions from the existing rules in order to
use UAS. It is the ambition of the FAA to transition from
issuing exemptions to issuing certifications of UAS once an
agreement on regulations has been reached. There are still
a number of challenges associated with a full integration of

42 G P S W O R L D

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APRIL 2016

UAS into the NAS, including regulatory, procedural and

technical challenges.
The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) was the
first operational space-based augmentation system, intended
to increase the robustness and reliability of GPS for aviation
purposes. The WAAS Minimum Operational Performance
Standards (MOPS) document (see Further Reading) specifies
what kind of performance GPS plus WAAS provides to
aviation users.
The MOPS requirements have been carefully examined
and extended. The maximum in-band interference levels for
aviation have been theoretically analyzed. As long as signal
and interference levels are within the specified ranges, the
required performance should be expected.
These levels, combined with the WAAS MOPS, provide
the aviation community with the standardization required
for manned aircraft operations where lives can be at stake if
something were to go wrong with a navigation system. A Volpe
National Transportation Systems Center report (see Further
Reading) recommends the use of certified GPS receivers for
applications where GPS is a critical system. This is not yet a
requirement for UAS, and the question remains unanswered
as to whether this will be a requirement for UAS in the future.
Traditional aviation uses required navigation performance
(RNP), a performance-based navigation approach, to assess
what type of navigation systems can be used for different
phases of flight. For example, while an aircraft is en route,
an RNP of 2 nautical miles is required, meaning the actual
position of the aircraft cannot deviate more than 2 nautical
miles from a reported position. It should be noted that RNP
takes the entire system into consideration, from the spacesegment to the receiver to the capabilities of the aircraft.
GNSS receivers used on manned aircraft have to be certified
to deliver the RNP for each phase of flight for which they are
used. Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM)
is used to ensure that faulty measurements do not affect the
position and navigation solution. Due to the nature of RAIM,
more satellites are required than the traditional minimum
of four. If GNSS supplements other systems on board the
aircraft, RAIM may be used to only monitor the quality of
the system, and it will report when performance is below the
required minimum. This form of RAIM requires a minimum
of five satellites. However, if the aircraft depends on GNSS for
navigation, RAIM must be able to determine if a particular

INNOVATION
INSIGHTS RICHARD B. LANGLEY
BY

FIGURE 1 Setup to test for GPS RFI.

FIGURE 2 Inside the UAS (including the GPS antenna).

satellite is providing incorrect or subpar data. This requires

one additional satellite, bringing the minimum number of
satellites that have to be in view of the receivers antenna
up to six (two more than non-RAIM GNSS operation).
However, using RAIM requires additional
computational power, which one might not be able to
provide on board a UAS due to size, weight and power
limitations. It has been suggested that a GNSS system
coupled with an inertial navigation system (INS)
could be used for UAS navigation. A micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) INS would be very small,
would not require a lot of power, and could improve the
performance of a UAS navigation system. A GNSS plus
MEMS INS approach may well be able to provide the
robustness needed for UAS. However, the analysis of such
a system is outside the scope of this article.
Some basic considerations should be taken into
account for a UAS GNSS positioning system. Integrity
should be prioritized over accuracy if the system is used
for navigational purposes. Low-altitude operations could
bring on problems of sky blockage. The proposed solution
to this is to use a receiver capable of using multiple
constellations to ensure that as many satellites as possible
are in view.

RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE

Radio frequency interference, or RFI, is the interference caused by electromagnetic waves interacting with
a system they were not intended to interact with. A fa-

WHATS THE WEAKEST THING ABOUT GNSS? Literally, its the signals. The
strength of GNSS signals is notoriously low as anyone who has tried to operate
a consumer-level device inside a steel and concrete building can readily attest.
Unlike mobile phone signals, GNSS signals are too weak to survive the attenuation of walls, floors, and ceilings and so typically cannot provide a dependable
signal indoors for most receivers. Even outdoors, the signals can be significantly
attenuated by dense wet foliage and completely blocked by buildings and other
objects. The GPS C/A-code signal generated by the transmitter in a satellite is
approximately 27 watts. If such a transmitter were operated on Earth it would
provide a decent signal even inside a nearby building. First responders, for example, can communicate with each other using portable transceivers with even
lower-powered transmitters. However, GPS satellites are about 20,000 kilometers away at their closest and the signals they transmit spread out as they travel
to the Earth and even with the directivity of the satellite transmitting antenna,
by the time the signals reach the surface of the Earth, their power density is only
on the order of 10-13 watts per square meter. And thats outdoors. This signal is
so weak that it is buried in the receivers background noise, which is similar to
what you hear when you tune an AM radio between stations. So how can GPS
possibly work with such a weak signal? The received signal is actually spread
out over several megahertz of radio-frequency spectrum by the pseudorandom
noise ranging code. It is this known noise-like code that allows receivers to determine the biased-ranges to satellites and from those ranges determine their
positions. Knowing the code, the receiver de-spreads the weak received signal,
concentrating it and lifting it above an acceptably low background noise.
All is fine and well as long as the received signal density doesnt drop much
below the 10-13 watts per square meter level but also the background noise level
mustnt rise much above the acceptable level for which the receiver is designed.
Both of these criteria are reflected in the carrier-to-noise-density ratio, or C/N0,
of the signal. Why might the noise level change? The noise comes from the receiver itself as well as from naturally produced electromagnetic radiation from
the sky, the ground, and objects in the receiving antennas vicinity. The sky noise
includes so-called cosmic noise from the sun, Milky Way galaxy, other discrete
cosmic objects and radiation left over from the Big Bang as well as radiation
from our atmosphere. For the most part, the noise from these sources is small
but occasionally the sun can have a radio outburst that can significantly increase
the noise level at GNSS frequencies and actually overpower the GNSS signals as
happened with GPS in December 2006.
But the noise level can also be impacted by human-made electrical devices
in the vicinity of a GNSS receivers antenna. This radio-frequency interference,
or RFI, can come from devices such as radio transmitters, microwave ovens,
motors, relays, ignition systems, switching power supplies and light dimmers.
So, when siting the antenna of a GNSS receiver or designing a GNSS-based navigation system, electromagnetic compatibility is an important concern. This is
particularly true for airborne platforms. In this months column we take a look at
how RFI can impact GNSS equipment on unmanned aircraft systems and how
robustly can the equipment navigate those systems.

APRIL 2016

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G P S W O R L D 43

Antenna inside airframe, battery on

Antenna inside airframe, battery off

Antenna outside airframe, battery off

Antenna inside airframe, battery on

12

Antenna outside airframe, battery off

40

10
8
6
4

38
36
34
32

2
0

Antenna inside airframe, battery off

42

C/N0 (dB-Hz)

Number of satellites tracked

14

30

10

15

20

25
30
35
Time (seconds)

40

45

50

55

FIGURE 3 Satellites tracked by the evaluation-kit receiver.

miliar case of RFI can be experienced when a cellular phone is

placed in close proximity to an AM radio. A distinctive sound
can sometimes be heard, which is the sound of RFI interacting
with the radio.
Many forms of RFI exist. The interference can be in-band,
that is, originating on frequencies transmitted within the
band occupied by a desired signal, or out-of-band where the
center-frequency of the interfering signal lies outside the band
used by the desired signal but it can have a nonlinear impact
on the components in the front end of the GNSS receiver. In
some cases. the bandwidth of the interference is very small
(narrowband), and in some cases the bandwidth is quite large
(broadband). Depending on the type of interference, the
affected systems will react differently.
RFI can, for obvious reasons, be expected from intentional
radiators, such as equipment broadcasting signals near the
GNSS signal frequencies, or other equipment that emits
harmonics that lie close to the GNSS frequencies. These sources
are documented, and the effects of them can be mitigated
through proper planning and analysis.
However, electrical equipment can produce RFI that is not
intended to be emitted a so-called unintentional radiator.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Part 15
regulations define an unintentional radiator as a device that intentionally generates radio frequency energy for use within the
device, or that sends radio frequency signals by conduction to
associated equipment via connecting wiring, but which is not
intended to emit RF energy by radiation or induction. Such
devices are allowed to emit signal levels up to 300 or 500 microvolts per meter (depending on the class of the device) in the
GNSS bands, as measured three meters away from the device.
Although most GNSS frequencies are protected, the risk for
intentional or unintentional RFI exists. Some elements of the
GPS system have been designed to mitigate interference effects,
and GPS remains a relatively robust system. However, there are
still sources that could interfere with the GPS signals, such as
out-of-band transmissions, harmonics of airborne or groundbased transmitter equipment, radar transmitters or even local
oscillators in nearby equipment.
In 1996, under a presidential decision directive, a

44 G P S W O R L D

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28

10

15

20

25
30
Time (seconds)

35

40

45

50

55

FIGURE 4 C/N 0 values for different antenna and power configurations.

commission to investigate a broad range of infrastructure

vulnerabilities, including vulnerabilities to GPS, was set
up. The commission found that GPS is in fact vulnerable to
unintentional disruptions, from both human-made and
naturally occurring sources. The commission recommended
using certified GPS receivers for critical applications. The
commission further recommended monitoring, reporting and
locating unintentional RFI sources.
One of the potential issues with RFI in a GNSS engine is that
it can cause false local correlation peaks, which could cause the
code-tracking loop and the carrier-tracking loop to diverge
from the main correlation peak.
RFI in the UAS GNSS Engine. On smaller UAS, space restrictions
could lead to electronic components being placed in close
proximity to each other. As stated earlier, some of these
components could be producing RFI in the GNSS bands. If the
RFI is strong enough to significantly raise the noise floor, the
GPS signals could effectively be drowned out by noise. UAS
that rely primarily on GNSS for navigation will risk losing
navigational capabilities during such occurrences.
With no external interference present, the noise floor
should be at the receivers thermal noise floor. The presence of
interference could be indicated by the raising of the noise floor
above the level of the thermal noise.
FIGURE 1 shows a simple setup for testing the hypothesis that
electronics found on a common UAS could produce harmful
RFI in the GPS engine. Some of the onboard equipment was a
flight-controller, a 915-MHz communication link and a 2.4GHz communication link.
A GPS antenna was placed outside and inside the UAS at
common antenna locations. The antenna was connected to a
high-performance GPS single-frequency-receiver evaluation
kit and a spectrum analyzer. To enhance the effects and signals,
a 40-dB inline amplifier was connected before the signal was
split.
Three tests were carried out in this case study:
In a reference test, the antenna was placed on the outside
of the airframe and the UAS was not powered on.
With the UAS power remaining off, the antenna was

still valid. FIGURE 6 shows the same setup

for the spectrum analyzer but with all the
UAS equipment on with the same caveat
about the absolute values.
By comparing Figures 5 and 6,
it is clear that the noise floor rises
significantly when the UAS and its
equipment is switched on. The GPS
bump that was visible in the center of
Figure 5 is no longer visible when the
UAS is switched on in Figure 6.

placed inside the airframe to see

how much the signal was attenuated
(see FIGURE 2).
With the antenna still inside the
airframe, the UAS was powered on
and all systems on the UAS were
running.
The results from the receiver can be
seen in FIGURES 3 and 4. Figure 3 shows that
the number of satellites being tracked
by the GPS receiver did not change
between tests. However, Figure 4 shows
C/N0 for each test, and a clear difference
can be seen (up to 10-dB difference
from the case where the antenna was in
the same location but with the UAS on
and off). While this difference did not
affect the receivers ability to provide a
position solution, the accuracy was likely
degraded due to the RFI. In a real-world
scenario, this could lead to the user not
noticing the presence of RFI, since the
receiver is still able to output a position.
TABLE 1 shows some metrics calculated
from the GPS receiver data. The table
clearly shows a drop in C/N0 values
when the UAS is powered on.
The results from the spectrum
analyzer further show the effects of
turning the UAS and its equipment on.
FIGURE 5 shows the frequency spectrum
using an average of 50 sweeps centered
at 1575.42 MHz (GPS L1) with a
bandwidth of 30 MHz for the case when
the antenna was inside the airframe
and the UAS was switched off. Due to
improper initial calibration, the absolute
values of the measurements are incorrect,
and should be increased by 9 dBm.
However, the relative measurements are

RTK POSITIONING
RTK positioning is a high-accuracy
GNSS positioning method that
involves a base station and one or more
rovers. The receivers operate in two
distinct modes, fix or float. When a
receiver is in float mode, the number
of integer wavelengths in the carrierphase measurements has not been
resolved yet. In fixed mode, these have
been resolved. This is also known as
ambiguity resolution. The accuracy
is greatly improved if ambiguities are
resolved to their correct integer values.
During dynamic cases (and even
sometimes during static cases), the
receiver may change between the two
modes repeatedly.
RTK for UAS. RTK positioning can be
very useful for UAS, as it can provide
a better accuracy in a lot of cases
compared to traditional positioning. It
can be used for navigational purposes,
or for positioning of scientific payloads
carried on board a UAS.
RTK use on UAS is currently limited,
in part due to the number of challenges
associated with it. These include the size

Test

Maximum C/N0
(dB-Hz)

Minimum C/N0
(dB-Hz)

Mean C/N0
(dB-Hz)

Median C/N0
(dB-Hz)

Antenna outside airframe

(power off)

47

27

41.3

41.6

Antenna inside airframe

(power off)

47

27

39.1

39.1

Antenna inside airframe

(all systems on)

41

15

31.1

30.8

TABLE 1 Calculated values.

APRIL 2016

and weight issue for smaller UAS. Space

is limited on board smaller UAS, and the
available payload is also limited. RTK
systems require more equipment than
a regular GNSS system and therefore
require more space and weight.
There is also the issue of cost for
smaller UAS. To get quick, highprecision RTK positioning, a dualfrequency receiver is desirable, but such
a system is often expensive and could
deny a wide sector of the market access
to such receivers. Researchers have
performed some experiments with an
L1-only RTK receiver and show that it
could be possible to use such a system
for UAS.
The experiments to be discussed in
this article assume that the receivers
being tested are candidates for possible
UAS use. The high-performance GPS
single-frequency-receiver evaluation
kit used in the RFI tests is considered
the prime candidate, as it is a common
receiver found on UAS and is relatively
cheap and lightweight.
As shown in the previous RFI section,
it is possible for RFI to be present and for
it to lower the C/N0 without affecting the
number of satellites tracked. This could
lead to the user being initially unaware
of the RFI, and could potentially be a
problem for RTK positioning as carrierphase measurements are more easily
disrupted.
Dynamic RTK Experiment. We performed
an experiment to evaluate the
performance of RTK in a real-world
scenario that could be comparable to
the use of RTK on a UAS. A comparison
between RTK positioning and standard
pseudorange-based positioning,
essentially the GPS Standard Positioning
Service (SPS), was also carried out for
one of the receivers. RFI effects were not
measured during the experiment.
Almost all post-processing (and
some data capturing) was done using
RTKLIB, a free and open source GNSS
software suite. RTKLIB is modular and

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G P S W O R L D 45

FIGURE 5 RF spectrum when the antenna is inside the airframe, UAS

switched off. See text concerning y-axis scale.

FIGURE 6 RF spectrum when the antenna is inside the airframe, UAS

switched on (all systems running). See text concerning y-axis scale.

can be used at any stage in GNSS applications. The software is

available at rtklib.com.
Three receivers were compared: the previously discussed
high-performance GPS single-frequency-receiver evaluation
kit; a low-cost, high-performance GPS receiver with RTK functionality; and a professional-grade multi-GNSS multi-frequency
RTK survey receiver. As the low-cost receiver is marketed for
UAS use, it was of interest to see how the receiver compared to
the others in a dynamic case. The evaluation-kit receiver was of
interest due to similar receivers often being used on UAS today.
The professional-grade receiver was of interest since it is a highend receiver capable of receiving multiple constellations and
frequencies. The experiment was performed to simulate some
of the conditions that might be experienced on UAS. The most
approximate test vehicle that was available at the time was a car.
The receivers were set up to capture GPS signals only.
The low-cost and evaluation-kit receivers are only capable
of receiving the L1 signal, and were set up accordingly.
The professional-grade receiver was set up to capture the
L1, L2 and L5 signals. A truth reference for the test vehicle
was needed for comparison, and for this we used a multifrequency receiver with an inertial measurement unit
(IMU). The benefit of the IMU is that it contains gyros and
accelerometers that can capture very precise movements at
times when GNSS signals might not be available (during
periods of sky blockage for example). However, due to the
gyros drifting, the IMU needs to be updated with GNSS data
every few minutes to give an accurate solution. The receiver
was configured to capture GPS L1+L2+L5, GLONASS L1+L2
and WAAS. The GNSS data was then post-processed in
precise point positioning (PPP) mode with data from several
nearby stations. The GNSS PPP data was then smoothed and
combined with the IMU data to form a GNSS PPP plus IMU
solution. It was assumed that the GNSS receiver and IMU
gave a correct solution at all times. A diagram of the setup
can be seen in FIGURE 7.
The car with the equipment was driven around the town

and campus at the University of Colorado in Boulder. The path

included a parking lot (a wide open area), parts of a highway
(an open area), major roads (open area with parts covered by
trees), residential areas (with many trees covering the sky) and
a parking garage (with complete sky blockage). The parking
garage was entered towards the end of the experiment.
The receiver data was post-processed using an RTKLIB
setup to process the data as if it was received in real time. A
multi-frequency multi-GNSS receiver was set up with a roofmounted antenna at the University of Colorado to collect data
for the duration of the experiment, and this data was later used
as base-station data for the RTK calculations.
The low-cost receiver had a hard time regaining a position
solution, while the evaluation-kit receiver did slightly better.
The professional-grade receiver only lost a clear position for
about 10 seconds. This behavior agrees with expectations:
the low-cost receiver is new and is being updated regularly
with new software, and the evaluation-kit receiver is known
for being able to perform well under poor conditions. The
professional-grade receiver has the support of additional GPS
signals, which could explain why it was the first to regain a good
position solution.
TABLE 2 shows some of the values calculated from the
experiment, which further confirms that the evaluationkit receiver is able to calculate a position more often than
the professional-grade receiver, but a more inaccurate
position. In the table, availability is defined as how many
data points the receiver was able to capture, divided by
how many would have been captured if the receiver could
capture data at all times. RTK solution is how often the
captured data was sufficient to calculate an RTK solution.
Fix solution is defined as how often the ambiguities could
be resolved out of the available RTK data points, and float
solution is how often the ambiguities could not be resolved
out the available RTK data points. The comparison of
the results using SPS versus the RTK technique for the
evaluation-kit receiver is interesting. Using RTK increases

46 G P S W O R L D

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APRIL 2016

Antenna

Low-cost
receiver
RTK

Evaluationkit receiver
RTK

Evaluationkit receiver
SPS

Professionalgrade
receiver RTK

2D RMS (meters)

9.14

2.98

3.25

0.72

3D RMS (meters)

23.78

5.99

6.96

1.43

Availability
(percent)

83

97

97

94

Metric

To other experiment

20-dB amplifier /
signal splitter

Signal splitter

Antenna powered by
reference-system receiver

Low-cost
receiver

RTK solution
(fix or float;
percent)

17

100

N/A

98

Fix solution
(percent)

12

13

N/A

61

Float solution
(percent)

88

87

N/A

39

Power
inverter

Car battery

Logging on laptop
Referencesystem
receiver

Evaluation-kit
receiver
Logging on laptop

Professionalgrade receiver

IMU

SD-card logging

Internal logging

TABLE 2 Tabulated results from the dynamic RTK experiment (N/A = not
applicable).

FIGURE 7 Diagram of the setup of dynamic RTK experiment.

the accuracy only slightly, but not as much as anticipated

before the test was performed.

UAS navigation, as additional equipment and setup will be

required.
However, when using a receiver with more frequencies, such
as the professional-grade receiver, we saw a great increase in
accuracy. This receiver was quite large and heavy, and is most
likely outside the budget considerations for many smaller UAS
setups. It is also likely that using a dual-frequency receiver that
is similar to the evaluation-kit receiver in size and weight could
improve accuracy, and this should be tested in the future.
Further investigations should be performed to determine if
the RTK technique could be used successfully for UAS navigation. A natural next step would be to place an RTK setup on an
actual UAS and to test how RFI affects the RTK measurements.

CONCLUSIONS
GNSS is viable for UAS navigation, but it remains to be seen
how policymakers will decide to regulate its use for this application. Many existing and emerging technologies could prove
useful in increasing not only the reliability, but also the accuracy, of the GNSS engine on board a UAS.
Although UAS share many similarities with traditional
manned aircraft, by their nature they are unmanned and would
not pose the same immediate risk for significant loss of life if
an accident were to occur. This, coupled with the fact that UAS
can vary greatly in size and operational requirements, leaves the
possibility open to using different certification requirements of
GNSS navigation for different UAS.
RFI. The RFI experiment showed a considerable impact on
C/N0 from the evaluation-kit receiver. While the number of
satellites tracked remained constant between tests, it is possible
that during slightly different operating conditions (different
UAS and/or receivers, other onboard equipment and so on),
the impact could have been more severe.
RTK for UAS. RTK systems are complex, but they have
some clear advantages to traditional pseudorange-based
standalone GNSS, with regard to accuracy. From the results
of using the evaluation-kit receiver during the dynamic
RTK experiment, it seems as though it would be only
advantageous if RTK could be used on a UAS. The only
visible difference between the SPS and RTK operation in the
experiment was a slight increase in accuracy. The availability
of the measurements (that is, how much data was available)
was the same for when the receiver used SPS versus RTK.
However, the slight increase in accuracy might not be
sufficient to compel operators to use the RTK technique for

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This article is based on the paper GNSS/GPS Robustness
for UAS presented at The Institute of Navigation 2016 International Technical Meeting. The research was carried out in
cooperation with the Research and Engineering Center for Unmanned Vehicles in the Department of Aerospace Engineering
Sciences at the University of Colorado, Boulder.
JOSHUA STUBBS has an M.Sc. in space engineering, with a focus on
aerospace, from Lule University of Technology in Sweden. In 2015, he did
his master's thesis work at the University of Colorado, Boulder, where he
focused on GNSS applications for UAS.
DENNIS M. AKOS completed his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering at
Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, within the Avionics Engineering Center. He is
a faculty member with the Aerospace Engineering Sciences Department at
the University of Colorado and maintains visiting appointments at Stanford
University and Lule University of Technology.
MORE ONLINE

Further Reading

For references related to this article, go to gpsworld.com and click on "More" in

the navigation bar, then on "Innovation."

APRIL 2016

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G P S W O R L D 47

REGISTER
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INTEGER AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION IN MULTI-EPOCH GPS/INS

novel integer ambiguity resolution

approach over a
time window of GPS/IMU
data enhances the reliability
of obtaining high-accuracy
position estimation, using
carrier phase measurements,
even in challenging environments. The method focuses
on reducing computational
cost. The achievable savings
should be on the order of
104, while 600 has been demonstrated. The theoretical
approach shows that the cost
function can be decomposed
into one part that determines

the shape and vicinity of the

trajectory, but is insensitive
to the carrier phase integers
and a position shift vector,
and a second part that is sensitive to the carrier phase
integer and can be solved to
determine the required position shift so that the location
of the trajectory is accurately
known.
By Yiming Chen, Sheng
Zhao, and Jay A. Farrell,
University of California,
Riverside.
Presented at IEEE
Transactions on Control
Systems Technology 2015.

illustration of the contemplative real-time

(CRT) window measurement timeline. The window contains a prior for
the initial state, K GPS measurements, and many IMU measurements
between each pair of GPS measurements. IMU measurement times are
indicated as dots on the timeline. All of these items yield constraints on
the estimated trajectory X during the CRT window.

UAV MULTIPLE LASER-INERTIAL NAV

INDOOR FLIGHT DEMONSTRATION RESULTS OF AN

AUTONOMOUS MULTI-COPTER USING MULTIPLE LASER
INERTIAL NAVIGATION, by Adam Schultz, Russell Gilabert,
and Maarten Uijt de Haag, Ohio University.

his paper discusses aspects of autonomy on a smallsize multi-copter UAS for challenging environments,
addresses in detail the modified proposed navigation
algorithm, its integration with the flight controller for
autonomous flight and the actual implementation on the

multi-copter platform. The paper includes flight test results

of a multi-copter UAS operating in an outdoor/indoor
environment and shows some navigation and mapping
performance results.
Presented at ION-ITM 2016.

ADVERTISER INDEX: COMPANIES FEATURED IN THIS ISSUE

ADVERTISER

AUVSI
CAST NAVIGATION
CHC NAVIGATION
COMNAV TECHNOLOGY
GEO BUSINESS CONFERENCE
EUROPEAN NAVIGATION CONFERENCE
INSTITUTE OF NAVIGATION (ION)
KCS BV
KVH INDUSTRIES

PAGE(S)

36
5
39
21
48
40
29, 41
INSIDE BACK COVER
7

ADVERTISER

MUNDOGEO
NOVATEL
RACELOGIC
ROHDE & SCHWARZ
SBG SYSTEMS
SEPTENTRIO
SUZHOU FOIF CO
SWIFT NAVIGATION
TALLYSMAN

APRIL 2016

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BACK COVER
17
INSIDE FRONT COVER
15
13
37
9, 35
23
G P S W O R L D 49

SEEN HEARD
DRONES AND CHERRY BLOSSOMS DONT MIX
Spring in Washington, D.C., means cherry trees blooming
around the Tidal Basin. The Federal Aviation Administration has
issued a video reminding visitors that theyre welcome to shoot
photos and videos, but must leave their drones at home. UAVs
are prohibited in and around the national capital region. The
airspace around Washington, D.C. is more restricted than in any
other part of the country.

THUNDERSTORM
OR TORNADO?
UAV imagery helped
categorize a South
Carolina storm as a
weak tornado instead
of a thunderstorm.
The National Weather
Services Eastern Region UAS team was set up in
2015 to study the use of unmanned aircraft for
post-storm damage assessments. In December,
the team joined SkyView Aerial Solutions to
provide aerial footage of the short-lived tornado.

GEOCACHING BUNNY
A traditional Easter egg hunt in
Merriam, Kansas, went high-tech
this year, with children using GPS
devices to track down caches of
eggs. About 90 children searched for eggs filled with candy
or toys using pre-programmed GPS devices.

BRITAINS MOUNTAIN GROWS

A national survey has remeasured
Ben Nevis, Britains tallest mountain,
putting its official height at 1,345
meters 1 meter taller than before.
The actual difference from the last
official measurement in 1949 is much
less, but enough for the height to be
rounded up rather than down. The
change comes from the precision that
can be achieved with GPS compared
to the previous survey in the 1940s.

NO JOY FOR ANTARCTICA

Sygic, a GPS app that stores
maps on your smartphone
for offline use, has added 88
new maps to its portfolio.
It now covers practically
every inch of the globe,
except for Antarctica and
other uninhabited areas.
Slovakia-based Sygic said it offers complete
downloadable maps that take less storage
for example, a California map with complete
street coverage, turn-by-turn navigation data,
points of interest, landmarks and 3D terrain is
only 330 megabytes. But dont plan a road trip
to Antarctica.

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APRIL 2016

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