TABLE OF CONTENTS

BASIC PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................................. UTl

Introduction to the basic concept ................................................................................................... UTI-1
The nature ofsound ......................................................................................................................... UT l -1
The acoustic spectrum ........... .......................................................................................................... UTI-2
TOE PROPAGATION OF SOUND ...................................................................................................... UT2
The ultrasonic beam .................................................................... ................................................... UT2- l
Side lobes ........................................................................................................................................ UT2-3
The ultrasonic pulse ........................................................................................................................ UT2-3
Resolution ........................................................................................................................................ UT2-5
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) .................................................................................................... UT2-5
Modes of propagation ...................................................................................................................... UT2-6
Boundary waves ........................................................................................... ................... ................ UT2- 7
Factors affecting the propagation of ultrasound .............................................................................. UT2-8
Acoustic impedance ........................................................................................................................ UT2-8
Couplant .......................................................................................................................................... UTI-9
Attenuation ...................................................................................................................................... UT2-9
The decibel (dB) ............................................................................................................................ UT2-IO
SOUND GENERATION ......................................................................................................................... UT3
The piezo electric effect .......................................................................................... ....................... UTJ-1
Reflection, refraction and Snell 's law ............................................................................................. UT3-2
Mode conversion ............................................................................................................................ UT3-3
Diffraction ...................................................................................................................................... UT3-3
Critical angles ................................................................................................................................. UT3-4

EQUIPMENT .......................................................................................................................................... UT4

Probes .............................................................................................................................................. UT4- I
Probe frequency, bandwidth and damping ...................................................................................... UT4-4
Probe selection ................................................................................................................................ U'f4-5
The ultrasonic flaw detector (flow diagram of a typical A-scan flaw detector) ............................. UT4-6
Calibration blocks and their uses .................................................................................................... UT4-8
0 compression probe uses .............................................................................................................. UT4-8
Shear probe uses .............................................................................................................................. UT4-9
Block no.2, A4, V2, DrN54/122 or kidney block ........................................................................... UT4-9
Compression probe uses .................................................................................................................. UT4-9
Shear probe uses .............................................................................................................................. UT4-9
Institute of Welding (IOW)/A5 block ................................................................ ........................... UT4-10
Equipment checks ............. ............................................................................................................. UT4- l 0
0 PROBE SCANNING .......................................................................................................................... UTS
Calibration ....................................................................................................................................... UTS-1
To calibrate a 0 probe to a range ofO to 100 mm .......................................................................... UTS-1
Calibration exercises ....................................................................................................................... UTS-2
Accurate measurement ............................................................... ..................................................... UTS-2
Multiple back wall method .............................................................................................................. UTS-3
Defect detection ............................................................................................................................... UTS-3
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TABLE Of CONTENTS

Sensitivity ........................................................................................................................................ UT5-3

Graphs and DAC curves .................................................................................................................. UTS-4
Scanning patterns 0 probe .............................................................................................................. UT5-5
Sizing methods 0 probe ................................................................................................................. UT5-5
ANGLE PROBE SC ANNING ................................................................................................................. UT6
Calibration .......... ................................................................................................. ............................ UT6- I
Angle probes test sensitivity ........................................................................................................... UT6-2
Scanning patterns ............................................................................................................................ UT6-3
Skip factors ...................................................................................................................................... UT6-4
The ratio of the sides of the triangles in the three most common probe angles .............................. UT6-5
The irradiation fac tor. ...................................................................................................................... UT6-5
Plotting systems .................................................................................................. ............................. UT6-5
Sizing methods angle probes ........................................................................................................... UT6-6
TESTING TECHNIQUES ...................................................................................................................... UT7
A, B & C scanning .......................................................................................................................... UT7- l
Pulse echo systems .......................................................................................................................... UT7-2
Through transmission testing .......................................................................................................... UT7-2
The tandem technique ..................................................................................................................... UT7-3
Imn1ersion testing ............................................................................................................................UTI-3
ULTRASONIC THICKNESS SURVEYING ........................................................................................ UT8
Accept/reject criteria ............................................................................................... ....................... UT8-2
Reporting ........ ................................................................................................................................. UT8-2
ULTRASONIC WROUGHT PLATE TE STING ................................................................................. UT9
Technique ....................................................................................:...................................................UT9- l
Defects in plate material.................................................................................................................. UT9-2
ULTRASO NIC WELD TESTING ....................................................................................................... UTlO
Technique .....................................................................................................................................UTl0-1
Defect signal interpretation .................................................................................... .... ...................UT l 0-3
ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS ....................................................................................................... UT l l
General .................................................. ........................................................................................ UTll -1
Technique ...................................................................................................................................... UTl l- 1
Defects in forgings ........................................................................................................................ UTli-2
Accept and reject criteria .............................................................................................................. UT 11-4
Reporting .......................................................................................................................................UT 11-4
ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS ........................................................................................ UT12
General ...................................................................................... .................................................... UT1 2- 1
Technique ..................................................................................................................... ................. UT12-1
Defects in castings ......................................................................................................................... UT\2-2
Accept and reject criteria ............................................................................................................... UT12-5
Reporting .......................................................................................................................................UT1 2-5
BRITISH ST ANDARDS ........................................................................................................ APPENDIX A
British Standards relating to ultrasonic testing ............................................................................ APPA-1
FORMULAE USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING .......................................................... APPENDIX B
C Ruan< & T P O'i'itill
..... 6 01103105

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TABLE OF

CONTE~TS

TABLE OF ACOUSTICAL VELOCITIES ....................................................................... APPENDIX C

Table of acoustical velocities in different materials .................................................................... APPC-1

TABLE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES ........................................................................... APPENDIX D

Table of acoustic impedances for different materials .................................................................. APPD-1

ATTENUATION FACTOR ................................................................................................. APPENDIX E

Example method for determining the attenuation factor of a material ....................................... APPE- l

EXAMPLE CALC ULATIONS ............................................................................................ APPENDIX F

Example calculations used in ultrasonics .............................. ...................................................... APPF- 1

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UNIT UTl BASIC PRINCIPLES

Ruane & II
TPO'Nei/1

BASIC PRINCIPLES

:\OTI::S

10

INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPT

The most common technique used in ultrasonic testing is the pulse echo teclmique.
This makes use of the phenomenon that sound waves travel in stmight lines and are
reflected by an obstacle placed in their path.

20

30

The mechanism is just the same as audible sound waves bouncing off a brick wall and
an echo being received. The strength of the echo is controlled by the size of the wall.
Also, if the time lapse between sending and receiving the sound is measured, it is
possible to determine the distance to the wall.
Given the required instrumentation we can pass sound waves through solid materials
and receive echoes from the back wall of the material. If a defect is present in the
material then the sound energy would be reflected back from it and give an echo earlier
than that from the back wall because the sound has not travelled as far. The strength or
amplitude of this echo will be an indication of the size of the defect and the distance
travelled by the sound will tell us its depth.
This then is the basis of ultrasonic testing.

Note 1: Modern digitaljlaw40

detectors use more recent
display technologies such as
plasma or LCD screens.

The instrument that produces the sound energy is called the probe and the echoes are
shown on a cathode ray tube 1 (CRT) within a flaw detector.

CRT
<;::1 '

Probe

Al

50

V'v
.A.

Sound waves

'-:/v v 'il

60

70

'

,A ,

y'y

Note 2: 1he echo at A I is the

result ofsowul energy
reflecting back of! the front
surface of the specimen
together with the ringing of
the crystal and the initial
pulse all merged into one
signal envelope.
80

I'.: ..:: .:. ..Bl:.... :..:. ... .

0

\'
I

--

- .3 4

. ... . . .

5 6 7 8 9 10

Sound energy is transmitted from the probe into the test specimen at surface "A"
producing an echo at Al 2 Some of the sound is reflected by the defect at "B" and the
resulting echo appears at B I. The remainder of the sound continues through the
specimen to be reflected by the back wall "C", the echo from the back wall appearing
at Cl.
If the screen is calibrated from a test block of known thickness then the depth of the
defect from the specimen surface (A to B) can be read off the screen.

THE NATURE OF SOUND

Sound is caused by mechanical vibrations.
90

In order for sound to pass there must be a medium that will support mechanical
vibrations therefore SOUND CANNOT TRAVEL IN A VACUUM.
The particles (molecules) within the medium vibrate passing on energy from one to
another giving the effect of sound movement through the material.

100

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:\ OT[ S

The density and elasticity of

n medium are also the main
factors 1hn1 affect/he
10
velocity.

l!Tl BASIC PRI:'\iCIPLES

The ability to support sound depends on the elasticity and density of the medium.
Since these properties will vary, from one material to another, some materials will pass
sound more easily than others.
Sound follows a waveform:
Wavelength

+
20

f------li-----+-----+----+-----+-----+Time/djstancc

JO
One cvclc

40

50

VELOCITY

is the distance moved in unit rime

WAVELENGTH

is the distance between successive peaks of a wave

PERIOD

is the time taken for one complete cycle

FREQUENCY

is the number of cycles per second

l cycle per second

1 Hertz (Hz)

I Kilohertz (KHz)

1,000 Hz

I Megahertz (MHz)

= 1,000,000 Hz

Wavelength
Wavelength is a function of frequency and velocity.
60

Wavelength=

Velocity
Frequency

Therefore : v = f x A.

Note: Velocity is someJimes

denoted by rhe feller 'c .

70

or

f -

and

THE ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM

Manual contact testing range
Steels
Infrasonic

Note The maximum

frequency the human ear 80
ca11 detec/ reduces wilh age.
It is generally accepted that
most people will have heard
all the high frequency
sounds that they are liable
to encoumer by the time they
reach ten years ofage.

Sonic (audible)

Ultrasonic

JMHz

SMHz

90

16Hz

20KHz

500KHz

25MHz

+-Normal test range-.

100

~ Rune

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V:\IT lJT2 THE PROPAGATIO:\ OF

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SOL'~D

THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND

:\ OTES

to

THE ULTRASONIC BEAM

beam edge

dead z.one

~-+-----------+--------------------------------__.b~c~~e

20

(100% intensity)

crystal
near 7-<>ne

beam edge

far zone

(0% intensity)

30

The dead zone

40

Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse, the dead zone is the ringing time
of the crystal and is minimised by the damping medium behind the crystal. Flaws or
other reflectors, lying in the dead zone region of the beam will not be detected. The
dead zone can be seen at the start of the trace on a CRT displaying A-scan, but only
with single crystal probes.
The dead zone mcreases when the probe frequency decreases

The near or fresnel zone

so

In this region of the beam, the sound intensity is variable owing to wave interference,
therefore, reflectors or flaws lying in this zone may appear smaller or larger than their
actual size. The signal heights displayed on the CRT are unpredictable so it is
desirable to keep the near zone length to a minimum.
The near zone length can be calculated using the following formula:

60

D2
D2 x f
Near zone length (mm) = or --- - 4..-t

Where:

70

D = crystal diameter (mm)

A. = wavelength (mm)
f =probe frequency (Hz)
v =test material velocity (nunls)

It can be seen from the fommla that the near :rone can be decreased by decreasmg the
Ct)1stal dtameter or decreasmg the probe frequency

The far or fraunhoffer zone

80

Beyond the near zone the far zone exists. In the far zone the beam diverges resulting
in a decay in sound intensity as the distance from the crystal is increased, just as a
beam of light from a torch gets weaker the further it travels.
The amount of beam divergence depends upon the crystal size and the wavelength as
shown in the following formula:
. B KA.
_K_x_v
Sm = - o r
D
D X f

90

Kfactors:

Where:

Extreme (0% intensity) edge= 1.22

50% edge/6 dB = 0.56
10% edge/20 dB 1.08
100

B
K
/...

the half angle

a constant
wavelength (mm)

D
f
v

crystal diameter (mm)

probe frequency (Hz)
material velocity (mm/s)

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U~IT

Ruane & II
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UT2 THE PROPAGATIO:\ OF SOU~D

It may be seen from the above beam spread formula, that the beam divergence can be
decreased by increasing the crystal diameter or by increasing the probe frequency .
Unfortunately this will extend the length of the near zone. So in probe design there is a
compromise to obtain a minimal beam spread and a short near zone.

\OTES

10

beam extreme edge

20

0% intensity
10% intensity edge

(F~~~~~~~~~~~~~=======~50%

100% intensity
beam
centre edge
intensity

50% intensity edge

crystal

10% intensity edge

beam extreme edge 0% intensity

30

In the far zone of the ultrasonic beam there is no wave interference therefore the sound
intensity in this zone is predictable.

40

The sound intensity reduces from 100% in the centre to 0% at the edge of the beam ,
therefore when the centre of the beam hits a reflector/flaw the amplitude of the signal
on the CRT will be at its maximum.
The sound intensity will also decrease with a greater distance (in the range axis) to a
reflector or flaw.

50

In the far zone the amplitudes of reflected sound from large and small reflectors follow
different Jaws.
LARGE REFLECTORS {larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam ) follow the
INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the distance, i.e. if the
distance is doubled then the signal amplitude is halved (i.e .. . reduced by 6dB).

60

SMALL REFLECTORS (smaller than the width of the beam) follow the INVERSE
SQUARE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the square of the distance,
i.e. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from the second reflector is one
quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (12dB less).
Large refledors

Small reflectors

70

01

01

02
80

90

- ."

' AI
.....

-:- : lt'2

... -- ... ...

- -
....... . .Acl
- '- -. - .:

...
. ....
. . .
. -

.. .-

\00

A2 =

1ll
02

II) Ruanr

Al

10

'l!~

: A.:)

A2 =

ru'

I
I

.. - - - .- -..

.
0

10

x AI

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& T P O'Neill

Issue 6 Ol/03/0S

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UNIT t;T2 THE

Ruane & II
TP O'Neill

PROPAGATIO~

OF SOt;ND

SIDE LOBES

'Ol'f:S

10

20

Side lobes are secondary lobes to the primary ultrasonic beam or main lobe that are
formed at the face of a transducer and radiate away from the main lobe. They
represent areas of high and low acoustic intensities and may cause unwanted echoes to
be received by the probe, especially on rough surfaces, which may be mistaken for
flaws on the CRT.
For shear wave probes, the minimum refracted beam angle in steel is approximately
33 to 35, but at these relatively acute angles, side lobes may be formed which,
although usually negligible, may cause spurious indications on the CRT. For this
reason it is usually safer to set the minimum beam angle for shear wave probes in steel
at 40.
The narrower the main lobe, i.e. the smaller the half-angle of the beam, the weaker and
more numerous the side lobes.
primary beam
or main lobe

30

crystal
40

THE ULTRASONIC PULSE

50

In a modem ultrasonic pulse echo flaw detector the pulse of ultrasound is created by
charging a capacitor in the circuitry then suddenly releasing this charge of electrical
energy, about lKv to 2Kv, into the probe. This electrical energy is converted into a
mechanical vibration by the piezo electric crystal in the probe. The ultrasonic

vibrations are formed by the collapse of the crystal after the electrical energy has been
60

70

removed. The behaviour of the crystal, on collapse, can be likened to the behaviour of
a spring when it is stretched then released. The spring will return to its former shape
then shorten then stretch, etc., until it finally comes to rest in its original shape. This
cycle of expansion and contraction is what forms the ultrasonic pulse.

Maximum
expansion

80

Maximum
contraction
90

100

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UNIT l.JT2 THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Ruane & II
TPO'Nei/1

Pulse length
10

This length of pulse is unacceptable since in order to show separate, clear reflected
signals on the CRT then the pulses of sound must be short and sharp. To shorten the
pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be damped with a backing medium which absorbs the
sound energy (in much same way as a shock absorber fitted to a spring on a motor
vehicle dampens the vibration of the suspension). In this way the pulse length can be
reduced to between 3 and 5 cycles.

20

Damped pulse

Amplitude
30

40

The ideal pulse length would be approximately two cycles but such levels of damping
are difficult to achieve with conventional backing mediums and commercially
available crystals.
DAMPTNG, then controls PULSE LENGTIL(the nw1;1ber of cycles x wave1englh).

50

The other factor that controls pulse length is probe frequency. The higher the
frequency the shorter the wavelength, i.e. the length of each cycle in the pulse and
hence the shorter the pulse length (containing the same number of cycles).
PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION.

60

70

80

90

100

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UNIT UT2 THE

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PROP:\GATIO~

OF SOUND

'OTE S

RESOLUTION
10

Resolution is the ability to separate on the timebase two or more reflectors that are
close together in terms of beam path length.
Consider two reflectors within the beam with a beam path, length, difference of 3mm.
If the pulse length was greater than 3rrun then the signals from the two reflectors
would be contained within the same envelope, as in (a). If the pulse length was less
than 3rnm then, in practical terms, the signals would be separated, as in (b).

20

.. . :.. -

.. .
-

30

-'

':.

-.. -

-.

. .. .. 0 ) 2 3

7 8 9 10

- .. .

-.

'.

..

'

.
!.

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(a)

40

. .. . .

. .. . :..

.. .

'.

. .. . .

. . . . - . -

(b)

The above therefore demonstrates that the shorter the pulse length, the better the
resolution.

50
Note: P.R. F. is sometimes
calletltimebase frequency.

60

70

PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (P.R.F.)

The pulse repetition frequency (p.r.f.) or pulse repetition rate (p.r.r.) is the number of
pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given time (usually per second).
Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return before the next pulse leaves
otherwise they collide causing "ghost" or spurious echoes to appear on the CRT. The
time taken for the pulse to travel from the probe and return is known as the transit time.
The time between pulses leaving the probe is known as the clock interval. Therefore it
can be stated that the transit time must be shorter than the clock interval or ghosting
occurs. Practically speaking the clock i~terval should be around five times the transit
time.
TRANSITTIME( sec) = DISTANCE TRAYELLED(mm)
ll
VELOCITY (krnls)
CLOCK INTERVAL :
1
CLOCK INTERVAL (sec)
P.R.F. (MHz)

Minimum = TRANSIT TIME

Practical = 5 x TRANSIT TIME

80

90

100

Cl Ruon< & T P O'N<UI

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U~IT

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UT2 THE

PROPAGATIO~

OF SOUND

\ OTES

MODES OF PROPAGATION
10
Note: Compression \\'aves
are produced in steel if the
incident angle ofthe beam
in perspex is less than
approximately 2 7.4.

Compression or longitudinal waves

Probes that produce compression waves will nonnally have an incident and refracted
angle of, or close to, 0.
These waves travel through a medium
causing the particles of the material to
oscillate parallel to the direction of wave
propagation and consist of alternate
compression and dilation pressure waves.

20

0 0 0000 0 0

30

compression

Compressive velocity in steel

dilation (mrcfraction)

= 5960 ro/s

Compression waves can propagate

Chrough solids, liquids and gases since
rigid particle bonding (a condition that
only exists in solids) is not essential.

40
Direction of propagation

Shear or transverse waves

50

Particles vibrate at 90 to the direction of

propagation and have a whip lilce action

Note: Sheor waves 011/y are

produced in steel if the
incident angle ofilre beam

in perspex is between
approximately 28 and 56.

60

Shear velocity in steel

3240 m/s

Shear waves can only propagate in solids,

rigid particle bonding being a pre-requisite.

70
Direction of
propagation

80

c:x = Incident angle

90

100

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U:\IT UT2 THE PROPAGATIO:\ OF SOU~D

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BOUNDARY WAVES

:\OTF. S

These forms of propagation can only occur when a solid to gas interface is present. If
the objects were immersed, these modes would be fully attenuated.
10

Surface or rayleigh waves

Surface waves are formed when shear waves refract to 90. The whip-like particle
vibration of the shear wave is converted into an elliptical motion by the particles
changing direction at the interface with the surface.
20

These waves are not often used in industrial N.D.T. although they do have some
applications in the aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is elliptical a long
the surface of a material, penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. They will follow
the contour of a surface and they travel at approximately 90% the velocity of shear
waves.

30

40

Where sharp changes in contour occur, such as a corner edge, reflected energy will
return to the probe.

Plate or lamb waves

50

Plate waves are formed by the introduction of surface waves into thin plate material.
They are a combination of compression and surface or shear and surface waves
causing the plate material to flex by totally saturating the material.
There are two types of plate 'waves:

60

Symmetrical
plate waves

lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ lJ
~

Plate distortion

80

U U U U U U!). 'Q.
--.

)>Surface wave

-..,..,........,_....,..--....,,--,_--s:l'lr-"5'111.--~.--~>

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Asymmetrical
(flexural)
platewaves ~aaaaaaaa
90

Plate distortion

(Longitudinal wave)

- --- t ---- t - t --- -- t --- ~

70

)> Surface wave

Surface wave
(Shear wave)

< Surface wave

- t ---- --- t --- J,

-~

- --- --- --- -

100

Cl K uant & 'I f O'Ndll

I>Jutl> UZIUJ/U)

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UT2 Til F. PROPAGATION OF

SOU~D

'OTE S

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPAGATION OF ULTRASOUND

1

Anisotropic: The grains are

random in orientation and I 0
lzave different elastic
properties in different
directions.

The propagation of ultrasonic waves in a material is dependant on the density and

elastic properties of that material and the type of wave transmitted.
The practical considerations which will affect propagation will include:

20

30

the test material's grain size

attenuation (absorption and scatter effects)

acoustic impedance of the test material

characteristic impedance of inclusions

diffraction

lack ofhomogeneity

anisotropic 1 materials

ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
40
Note: Velocity is sometimes
denoted by tlze letter 'c
(constnlll velocity).

Acoustic impedance (Z) is the resistance of a material to the passage of ultrasound. It

is the product of the material density (p) and sound velocity (v).
i.e. Z = pv

50

It is the acoustic impedance difference between two different materials/mediums which

governs the intensity of ultrasound reflected from the interface between them.
Conversely, the amount of ultrasound passing from one material to another depends on
this difference between the two materials. This difference is expressed as the acoustic
impedance ratio.

60

Theoretically if an ultrasonic wave was passed through t\vo materials, with the same
acoustic impedance (1: 1 ratio), in intimate contact, then no reflection would occur, i.e.
100% transmission of sound would occur. In practice it is very difficult to achieve
intimate contact without a coupling medium (see next section). The couplant would
have a different acoustic impedance to the material and so would affect the amount of
sound reflected.
The amount of energy reflected at an interface can be calculated with the following
formu la:

70

Where Z l and Z2 are the

2

% Reflected energy

= ( Zl - Z2 )
Z l + Z2

x l 00

respective acoustic
impedances of the two
materials.

80

It can be seen from the formula that:

HIGH ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (e.g. 20: I) =MORE REFLECTED ENERGY

LOW ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (e.g. I: I)
90

=MORE TRANSMITTED ENERGY

It can also be seen from the formula that the same amount of energy is reflected,
regardless of which direction the sound is travelling across the interface.

100

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PROPAGATIO~

OF SOU!';D

:\OTf. S

COUPLANT
Note: The ideal acoustic 10
impedance ofcoup/am
should be in between the
acous1ic impedance of the
probe and the acoustic
impedance of 1he I I!SI
material. The ideal
1hickness of1he layer of
20
coup/am should be one
quar1er oflhe wavelenglh of
sou)ld through it.
Some recently developed
ultrasonic systems use no
coup/ant. these are known as
air coupled systems and theJJo
use very powerful
amplification and sensitive
received circuitry.

40

Because of the very high acoustic impedance ratio of air to a solid material almost
I 00% of the energy is reflected at an interface between them (the basis of flaw
detection). Therefore to enable the sound energy to transmit more readily into the test
specimen we have to exclude any air that may be present between the probe and test
surface. This is achieved by substituting the air with a material that has a closer
acoustic impedance ratio to the probe and test material. This is known as a couplant.
Common couplants are: water, oil, grease, polycell, swarfega and glycerine.
The selection of couplant is sometimes based on the post-test use of the material being
tested, e.g. water based couplants may cause rusting or corrosion but are easier to clean
off in preparation for painting or coating when compared to oil or grease, which may
actually protect the material from corrosion.
Viscosity of the couplant may also be a consideration, ideally rough surfaces require a
more viscous couplant to effectively fi ll the air gaps more uniformly. Whatever
couplant is used for calibration/setting the search sensitivity, this must be used
throughout the subsequent inspection.

ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss in intensity of the ultrasonic beam as it passes
through a material and is dependant upon the physical properties of the material.
The two main causes of attenuation are SCATIER and ABSORPTION

50

Scatter
This is the major cause of attenuation and is the redirection of the sound waves
reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-metallic inclusions, etc., and becomes
more apparent on the inspection when the size of grains become Ill Olh of the
wavelength of the search unit being employed.

60

Absorption
As the sound travels through a material a small amount of the energy is used up by the
interaction of the particles, as they vibrate, causing friction which is dissipated as heat.

70

As the frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases due to more
particle vibration (absorption) and increased sensitivity to small reflectors (scatter from
grain boundaries, porosity and inclusions) which is related to the wavelength of the
sound.
Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due to
their coarse grain structures, etc. The attenuation factor of a material can be measured
and is expressed in d.B/mm (sec the appendices for an example).

80

Natural attenuation also occurs due to the divergence of the beam in the far zone,
i.e. assuming compression probe use, the amplitude of the backwall echo will be
halved (-6d.B) every time the distance from the probe is doubled.

90

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\OTF.S

PROPAGATIO~

OF SOUND

clt!THE DECIBEL (DB)

The decibel is a logarithmic base unit used to compare sound intensities.

10

Because we do not know the actual energy being transmitted by a probe, we can only
compare sound intensities being received and express them as a ratio, e.g. twice as
much, ten times as much etc..
A change in sound intensity, expressed in dB, can be measured by comparing signal
heights on a calibrated CRT. The change in dB is given by the formula :

20

dB = 20 log 10

HI

Where H 1 and H2 are the respective signal heights.

H2

By transposing the formula it is possible to determine the ratio of the signal heights
when the dB difference is known.

30

The gain/attenuator controls on a conventional ultrasonic flaw detector are calibrated

in decibels, i.e. if we reduce the intensity of ultrasound by 6dB any signal on the CRT.
will drop to half its original height. If we reduce or increase the intensi ty by 20dB then
the signal will reduce to a tenth or increase by ten times its o riginal height respectively.
It is important to note that on certain flaw detectors, if reject or suppression is used to
remove small unwanted signals from the display, then the linearity of the amplifier,
and hence the other signals, will be adversely affected, i.e. a 6dB drop will not reduce
the signal by 50%.

40

Table of approximate dB drops:

50

60

dB

H2

Drop

Hl :H2 ratio

20

10%

90%

10:1

14

20%

80%

5: 1

12

25%

75%

4:1

10

33%

67%

3:1

50%

50%

2:1

80%

20%

5:4

70

80

90

100

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SOUND GENERATION

:\OTES

THE PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT

10

This is defined as the property of certain crystals to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy and vice versa. These crystals maybe naturally occurring,
artificially manufactured or grown in solution.

The selection of a material

suitable for producing
ultrasound and receiving
the resuliant pulse back is
based on lhree paramelers:
i. sensilivity
ii. resolution
iii. efficiency

20

. sound
... . ' )' .
I I I

I I

I I

I J

.. .... >..

waves
. ......

Electrical energy in ~

----------

----------

Electrical energy out

30

Piezo electric crystals

These crystals may be X-cut or Y-cut depending on which orientation they are sliced,
from the crystal material. The crystals used in ultrasonic testing are X-cut due to the
mode of vibration they produce (compressional). This means that the crystal is sliced
with its major plane (the crystal face) perpendicular to the X axis of the crystal
material.

40

Typical crystal
layout
50

Electrical connections

Original crystal
Gold or silver conductors (silvering)
reinforced with chrome for wear resistance

60

The frequency of the crystal is determined by its thickness and its acoustical velocity
and can be calculated with the formula:
70
Fundamental frequency is
also known as the
resonance frequency and is
the lowest frequency the
body/material/object will
resonate at.

Ff= 2t

Where Ff

v
T

Fundamental frequency

Crystal material velocity

Crystal thickness

From the formula it can be

seen that the thinner the
crystal, the higher the
frequency.

80

Piezo electric crystal materials

Natural

Artificially grown

90

Quartz Tourmaline

Lithium Sulphate (LiS04)

Manufactured ceramics
Barium Titanate (BaTi0 3)
Lead Zirconate (PbZr03)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
Lead Metaniobate (PbNb,O~)

100

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Properties of piezo electric materials

Crystal material

10

Advantages

Quartz

The limitations of modern

ceramic crystal materials are
that they have low
mechanical strength, i.e. they
are briule, and they have a
tendency to age. The
20
advantage however is that
th ey are excellent generators
of ultrasound.

Lithium sulphate

Barium Titanate

Lead Zirconate
Lead Zirconate Titanate

30

The Curie cemperalllrefor

Barlum Titanate is around
Jooc to 120C, although
the piezoelectric
40
properties ofBarium
Titanate will start to degrade
at temperatures of 70C and
above.
The primary reason standard
probes are not usually used
on materials above 50C is 50
because of the posslbility
of degradation of the crystal.
The secondary reason is due
to the probe shoe
char acteristics beginning co
change. altering ve/oci(y and
therefore the beam angle 60
on shear wave probes.
1

Specular: Mirror-like.

Stable
Good wear resistance
Best received and easily
damped
Best transmitter and good
piezo electric properties
May be preformed to focus
beam
piezo
Good
electric
properties
Good transmitter and all
round properties

Limitations
piezo
Poor
properties

electric

Soluble in water

Temperature critical

Poor silvering

The polarisation of ceramics

In their natural state the polycrystalline ceramic material's crystals are randomly
orientated and the piezo electric properties cancel each other out. To polarise these
ceramics they are heated up to their Curie temperature and subjected to an electrostatic
field. The crystals align themselves with the direction of the field, which is maintained
during cooling. This polarised ceramic material then behaves as a piezo electric
transducer until heated again to it's Curie temperature.

The most common crystal materials in use are Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconate
Titanate.

REFLECTION, REFRACTION & SNELL'S LAW

Reflection
Ultrasonic waves are reflected by objects or interfaces placed in their path. When
striking a specular' reflector the angle at which this reflection takes place is governed
by the law of reflection, which states:
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

70

Refraction
This describes what happens to an ultrasonic beam when it passes from one medium to
another where the two media have different acoustical velocities, e.g. from perspex to
steel. The beam changes direction or angle in the vertical plane.
Incident angle
(a)

80

Reflected angle

Incident angle

(r)

(a)

90

I Reflected sound I

Refracted sound

Refracted angle
(~)

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SOU~D

GENERATIOi'i

Snell's law

'iOTES

The relationship between the incident angle and refracted angles is governed by Snell's
law that states:

S11ells Low is token from

thl! laws of optics/light. A

change of velocity from
one medium to another is
required to allow
refraction to occur.

t:T3

10

Sina VI
--=SinP
V2

Where: a

VI
V2

Note: If V remains constant

as V2 increases, the larger
the resultallf refracted
20
a11gle will be.

incident angle
refracted angle
velocity in medium I
velocity in medium 2

MODE CONVERSION
A change in wave-fom1 from one to another, together with the accompanying change
in velocity, due to reflection or refraction at an interface. An example of mode
conversion that we make use of is when the compression wave, generated by the
crystal in a shear wave probe's perspex shoe, crosses an interface between the shoe and
a steel test piece and converts to a shear wave.

30

40

Another example of mode change that we do not want to occur, e.g. shear waves
changing to compression waves. This occurs fairly regularly when carrying out a
critical root scan on a single v fully penetrated weld with a shear wave probe, i.e. some
of the ultrasound entering the root bead can be reflected vertically up to the weld cap
and if a critical angle is exceeded, the wave mode will change from shear to
compression. Accordingly on its return path to the probe, the received spurious signal
displayed on the time base will represent an indication that appears to plot on full skip
just outside the weld side wall on the opposite side from the scanning surface.

50

The operator however will not be able to confirm this from the opposite side of the
weld on half skip which, if it had been an actual flaw, he would have expected to do
so. As this type of mode change/spurious indication gives a fairly characteristic signal
display, an experienced operator would be expected to interpret this effect fairly easily.
It is also possible though that mode conversions and/or spurious indications can be
misinterpreted as flaws. particularly if not investigated carefully.

60

DIFFRACTION
This occurs when sound waves pass the tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound
scatters off the tip causing waves in different directions that reinforce or cancel out the
original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out
from the tips, giving the impression of sound bending around the edges of the defect.

70

:>:-<l/ ~

.... ..~

80

Sound waves

=====: :"C

Diffracted energy
)

>

/l~

90

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GENERATIO~

:'\OTES

CRITICAL ANGLES
10

These are the incident angles in the first medium at which the refracted angles in the
second medium change over from one wave-form to the next. The ftrst critical angle is
where the refracted compressional wave is just about to disappear leaving only shear
waves in the second medium. The second critical angle is where the refracted shear
wave has changed to a surface wave.
The critical angles can be calculated using Snell's law.

20

oo

1)

1st critical angle

0

(2)

vi
v2

30

vl
v2

130

vl
v2

(c)

13 o(s)
2nd critical angle
40

4)

(5)

vl
v2

(6)

all

130
(s)

su

50

130

60

70

80

90

Critical angles perspex to steel

In diagram (I) a compression wave (c) is incident on the boundary between perspex
and steel at an angle of 0. At the interface some energy reflects (r) and some is
transmitted across (c) continuing through at 0. In (2) as we increase the angle (o:) of
the incident wave (c), in the perspex (i.e. less than first incident critical angle), the
wave in the steel (c) refracts (p 0 ), due to the difference in the velocities of perspex
(v i ) and steel (v2). However as well as the refracted compression wave there will also
be a weak shear wave mode (s)- see sketch (2). In (3) if we increase the incident angle
(ex) until the refracted wave (c) reaches 90 (P 0 (c)), then the incident angle (o:) has
reached what we term the first critical angle. Following behind the refracted
compression wave is a shear wave (s) and in (4) as we increase the incident angle (o:)
still further, the compression wave internally reflects (r) leaving only shear waves (s)
in the steel. At (5) if the incident angle (o:) is further increased then the shear wave
refracts until it reaches 90 (p 0 (s)). This is what we tem1 the second critical angle.
At this point the shear wave bounding along the interface has changed into a surface
wave (su). Therefore we can see that (i) compression and shear waves exist in the
second medium when the incident angle is between 0 and the first critical angle. (ii)
Only shear waves exist when the incident angle is between the ftrst and second critical
angles and (iii) surface waves exist only at the second critical angle. Beyond the
second critical incident angle, as in diagram (6), all conventional modes of propagation
are reflected internally.

100

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'\ OTE S

LT3 SOUND

GE~ERATION

Calculation of the critical angles for a perspex to steel interface.

p=

ex = incident angle
10

refracted angle

vl = compressional velocity in perspex = 2740 m/s

v2 = velocity in steel,

compressional= 5960 rn/s

shear= 3240 rn/s

1st critical angle:

20

.
S rna
= - vl x
v2c

sm f3

Sin a

2740 rn/s

5960 m/s

Sin 90

Sin a = 0.459731543 x 1
30

2nd critical angle:

Sina

40

vi
x Sin f3
v2s

2740 rnls
x Sin 90
3240 rnls

Sin a

Sina = 0.845679012 x I

a = 57.7
50

At the first critical angle compression and shear waves co-exist, so the lowest angle for
shear waves only in practical use, is just beyond the first critical angle, at an incident
angle of 29, which gives a refracted shear angle of 35.

. f3 =v2s
- x
Sm
vi

srna

Sin

f3

3240 rnls
2740 rnls

x Sin 29

60

Sin f3

70

= 1.182481752

x 0.4848096

At the second critical angle surface waves exist so the highest incident angle we use for
shear waves is 56 that gives an 80 shear wave.
So the range of shear wave probe angles in steel (for practical purposes) are 35 to 80,
produced from incident angles of 29 to 56 in perspex.

80

90

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EQUIP:\IE~T

EQUIPMENT

:\OTES

10

20

May also be referred to as

twin crystal probe.
30

PROBES
The angle of a probe used in ultrasonic testing is measured from a line drawn
perpendicular to the test surface. This line is known as the normal. A oo probe then is
one which transmits sound at 90 to the test surface. Also known as a normal probe,
this probe usually transmits compressional or longitudinal waves. A 60 angle probe
would transmit sound at 60 to the normal, i.e. 30 from the surface. The most
conunon angle probes transmit shear waves (although angled compression probes do
exist for special applications) and the manufacturers quote the angle of the probe for
use on mild steel.

0 combined double* probe

Electrical connections

Casing
40

Cork separator

50

Dead zone: Ringing time 60

of crystal.

Perspex
Double probes have two crystals, one transmits and the other receives ultrasound . The
cork separator in between the shoes prevents "cross-talk" or "chatter" between the
crystals. Using oil as a couplant may eventually break down the acoustic barrier and
produce spurious standing echoes on the display. Having separate crystals eliminates
the dead zone 1 on the display, enabling the detection of near-surface defects. These
probes are therefore useful for testing thin sections, e.g. thickness gauging and
examining for near surface flaws. The crystals may be focused to give a focal point at
the ideal beam path range to be examined.

Single crystal angle probe

70

Casing

80

90

tOO

Single crystal probes have one crystal that transmits and receives ultrasound. The flaw
detector controls the process by transmitting a pulse of energy then switching the
circuit to receive, listening for any returning sound, in between pulses. The circuitry
can be switched quicker than the crystal can be damped. So the receiver picks up the
last few vibrations of the crystal, as it switches in, and displays them on the screen as
the dead zone. This eliminates the possibility of detecting near-surface defects.

C Ruanc & TP O'Ntill

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10

EQUIPI\IE~T

Angle probes have a perspex shoe, on Which the crystal sits, that can be machined to
any angle. The angle of the wedge determines the angle that the ultrasound strikes the
interface (incident angle). This in tum, according to Snell's law, controls the angle that
the sound will propagate through the test material (refracted angle). Damping material
on the back of the crystal (also known as a backing slug) controls the length of the
ultrasonic pulses by absorbing the sound energy, producing short sharp pulses. The
length of the pulse is the main factor in determining the resolution of the equipment.
The most common dan1pinglbacldng medium is Tungsten Araldite.
SHORT PULSE LENGTH/WIDTH/DURATION MEANS GOOD RESOLUTION.

20

Soft nosed probe

30

40

so

This has a soft diaphragm mounted on the front of the crystal, clamped in place by a
threaded ring, the space in between the diaphragm and the crystal being filled with
couplant to expel any air. The soft diaphragm follows the contour of the surface under
test, making this probe ideal for rough or uneven surfaces, e.g. castings or rough
machined components.

Water gap or gap scanning probe

60

Electrical
connection

70

80

Test material

Sound path

90

This consists of a water jacket with a nozzle at the end and a probe inside. Water is fed
into the jacket and flows out through the nozzle, forming a column of water, to the test
surface, through which the sound can travel. Because of the flexibility of the coupling
medium, (water) the probe can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. These probes
are usually used in automated ultrasonic scanning systems and can be set up, using a
guide wheel to follow the contour of a component. They can also be used in arrays to
scan a wider area.

100

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Wheel type probe

1\0TF:S

10

joint
Soft tyre, solid
or water filled

20

Crystal (within axle)

'II

40

Test surface

Sound path

30

In this probe the crystal is within the axle of the wheel and the sound travels through
the soft tyre into the test material. The spring loaded joint allows the probe to follow
the contour of the surface so it can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. It is used in
a similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that
it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, mainly used in aerospace
industries.

Delay line probe

50

60

70

80

90

The delay line probe is very similar in construction to the soft nosed probe. The
difference is that it has a long perspex shoe clamped in instead of a diaphragm. The
length of the shoe extends the time taken for the echo from the front surface, of the
material under test, to return to the crystal. This places the front surface echo (FSE)
further along the timebase, i.e. beyond the dead zone. This enables near surface
defects to be located or thin plate to be tested using a single crystal probe. These
probes are usually high frequency probes (which means they have a small dead zone),
but high frequency = long near zone, therefore, to use them for near surface flaw
detection/sizing, the long shoe is used to contain the near zone in the probe not in the
test material.

100

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'iOTES

Magnetostrictive transducers
10

20

Frequency I00 KHz

30

Used for detecting defective bar stock, the transducer coil has a magnetic field that is
switching at ultrasonic frequency. This field causes the bar stock to vibrate at an
ultrasonic frequency and the vibrations travel along the length of the bar. When the
vibrations reach the other end of the bar, they reflect back and are then picked up by
the transducer (in receive mode) and register on the detector. The equipment is
calibrated off a defect free piece of bar stock to register a specific value on the detector
and defective bar stock is recognised by a change in this value.

40

50

PROBE FREQUENCY, BANDWIDTH & DAMPING

An ultrasonic probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not just at the stated
frequency, this is known as the bandwidth. For example a 5MHz probe may produce a
frequency range of 4 to 6MHz. The bandwidth is also an indication of the damping
factor.

The frequency stated on the

probe is known as the
central operating frequency.

. .

60

Thzs ts the frequency of the

highest output ofsound from
the probe.

Broad Band Probes

Narrow Band Probes

They are highly damped

Have a short pulse length

They have low damping

A longer pulse length
(typically 3 or 4 cycles)

(typically I to 2 cycles)
A short ringing time (dead zone)

70

Better resolving power

Poor penetration

A long ringing time (dead zone)

Poor resolution
Good penetration

80

90

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In".: 6 02/0)/0!i

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T P O'Neill
'IOTES

PROBE SELECTION
10

The selection of probes for ultrasonic inspection is influenced by various aspects of the
test and the particular material under test. These may include; the type and size of
defect being sought, the type of material under test and the distance the sound has to
travel through the material. Probe angle is another consideration when searching for
defects at different orientations throughout the material.
Below is a table of properties of probes using the two criteria that we can select,
i.e. frequency and diameter.

20

Effect of frequency

30

40

Low Frequency

High Frequency

Long wavelength

Short wavelength

More beam spread

Shorter near zone
Better penetration
Less attenuation
Longer dead zone
Less sensitivity

Less beam spread

Longer near zone
Less penetration
More attenuation
Shorter dead zone
Higher sensitivity

Effects of Diameter
50

60

70

80

90

Large Diameter

Small Diameter

Less beam spread

Longer near zone

More beam spread

Shorter near zone

Better penetration
Less attenuation (due to beam spread)
Difficult coupling on curved surfaces
More coverage on flat surfaces

Less penetration
More attenuation
Easier coupling on curved surfaces
Less coverage on flat surfaces

Another consideration is whether to use a single crystal or a combined double crystal

probe. The advantages of a single crystal probe are; better penetration, for the same
size probe as a double, because the effective transmitter crystal diameter is larger, no
focal point, i.e. it works effectively over a longer range and cost (cheaper). The main
advantage of a double crystal probe, is that there is no dead zone on the screen, this
means better near surface resolution can be achieved.
It can be seen from the tables that higher frequency probes have a higher sensitivity.

In this context, sensitivity refers to the ability to detect small defects. The higher the
probe frequency the smaller the wavelength and the smaller the size of reflector the
probe can detect. It is generally accepted that the smallest reflector a probe can
detect is half the probe's wavelength. So a probe with a long wavelength (low
frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or grain boundaries
and so the sound will penetrate further through the material because it is not reflected
at these small interfaces.

100

() Ruan< & T P O'N<III

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THE ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR (FLOW DIAGRAM OF A

TYPICAL A SCAN FLAW DETECTOR
10

20

30

40

The Pulse Generator, also known as the clock or timer this circuit controls the
synchronisation of the flaw detector. It sends an electrical signal to the timebase
generator and to the pulse transmitter simultaneously. These electrical signal
frequencies are known as PRF/PRR (Pulse Repetition Frequency/Pulse Repetition
Rate). It is usually controlled automatically by the range (coarse) control setting, this
in tum ultimately controls the maximum depth of inspection and the ultimate scanning
speed.

50

The Timebase generator or sweep generator, upon receiving the electrical signal
from the pulse generator this circuit controls the voltage or charge on the X-plates
causing the electron beam in the cathode ray tube to sweep across the screen i.n a linear
motion.
60

The pulse transmitter or pulser circuit, the electrical signal from the pulse generator
triggers this circuit to send a burst of electrical energy, about l to 2Kv, to activate the
probe.
The probe or search unit, converts the electrical energy, sent by the pulse transmitter,
into pulses of ultrasound by means of a piezo electric crystal (Tx). The returning
ultrasound from the test material is converted back into electrical energy by the probe
(Rx) and sent to the amplifier.

70

The receiver amplifier circuit accepts and amplifies the incoming electrical pulses.
The amplification required is about I 0,000 to 100,000 times and the output must be
linear with the input. The amplifier must also be capable of accepting a range of
different frequency signals to accommodate the range of probe frequencies used.
80

Broad band amplifiers accept a very wide array of frequencies producing an accurate
representation of signal shape. This enhances defect interpretation (type) but the signal
to noise ratio will be poor, so defect detection may be adversely affected, i.e. a
reduction in sensitivity, because of high noise (or grass) levels.
Narrow band amplifiers, on the other hand, suppress the parts of the signal that are
outside the frequency band that it operates at (the pass frequency). This creates a
cleaner signal (although not a true representation of the input signal), which means that
the gain (amplification) can be increased which in tum enhances defect detectability
(sensitivity). The disadvantage of this is that the altered shape of the signal means that
defect interpretation is more difficult.

90

The Attenuator or gain control reduces the amplification from the amplifier by
controlling the voltage or charge on the Y -plates in the C.R.T., which will control

100

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signal heights, bringing them down to a readable level. The controls works on a
logarithmic base and it does not affect the linearity of the amplifier.

'\ OTES

10

20

30

40

Suppression or reject reduces the grass or noise level on the display by effectively
raising the time base, but in doing this it destroys amplifier linearity. Usually
reserved for taking thickness measurements. Some modem digital flaw detectors have
a "linear reject" function which does not destroy amplifier linearity and shows the
amount of reject in use as a percentage of display height, e.g. 50% reject indicates that
all signals below 50% screen height have been removed but the remaining signals are
still the same height as before.
The Cathode Ray Tube (C.R.T.) consists of a vacuum tube with a positively charged
phosphorescent coating on the inside of the front surface, a cathode ray gun at the
opposite end, a focusing coil and X-plates and Y-plates to control the direction of the
electron beam. The gun produces a shower of negatively charged electrons that are
attracted to the positively charged coating on the front of the tube. As the electrons
travel toward the front (meeting no resistance because of t11e vacuum), t11ey pass
through the focusing coil which focuses the shower into a sing le stream (or beam).
They ilien pass between the X and Y plates and are attracted toward any of these plates
that have a positive charge or voltage applied. This bends the beam toward the
respective plate so deflecting the position that it hits the front su rface of the tube, i.e.
the screen. When the electrons finally reach the front surface they react with the
phosphorescent coating causing it to glow (green in most analogue sets), producing a
dot on the screen.
This dot is changed into signals purely by the deflection of the beam by the X and Y
plates.

50

Phosphorescent
coating

Cathode

60

Electrons

70

80

90

100

0 Ruant & T P O'Ntill

._.... 6

0Vf1.1/fl~

UT4-7

UNIT UT4 EQUIPMENT

Ruane & II
TPO'Nel/1

CALIBRATION BLOCKS AND THEIR USES

Tolerances: Wherever practical the limits on dimensions should be 0.1 mm.
Materials: Steel blocks are made from low or medium carbon ferritic steel (killed),
10

normalised to produce a fine grained homogenous structure throughout.

The international institute of welding (1. I.W.) block

The current British Standard
{or this ultrasonic calibration
block is BS EN 12223 which
refers to it as Calibration
20
Block No. /.

Also referred to as Block No.1, A2, Vl, DIN54/120 or dutch block.

JOOmm

The only difference between

BS EN 12223 calibration
block no. / and BS 2704 A2
block is the diameter of the
side drilled hole- this has
now increased to 3 mm @
30

1.5mm
dia ~

3Smm

lSmm

IS.mm
200mm

40

0 COMPRESSION PROBE USES

50

60

70

80

Calibration
0 probe calibration can be set using back wall echoes (BWE) off the various
thicknesses available, i.e. 5, 10, 25, 100 and 200mm. It can also be checked (rough)
on the 23mm thick perspex insert which gives a reading of 50mm when calibrated on
steel (the ratio of sound velocity in steel to the velocity in perspex is 5960rnls to
2740rnls = 50:23). A mjn.imum of two echoes are required for calibration with oo
probes. The 91 mm step in the block serves to calibrate the screen for use with shear
wave probes by using a compression probe. [fa 0 probe is placed over the 91 mm and
the echoes placed at 5 and 10 on the graticule then the screen is calibrated for a range
of 0 to 182mm compressional. Thjs is equivalent to 0 to 1OOmm shear, the ratio of the
velocities of compression to shear waves is 1.82:1 (5960m/s:3240rnls).

Dead zone measurement (single crystal probe)

Place the probe over the 5mm section. If the signal is visible outside the dead zone
then the dead zone is less than 5mm. If the signal is not visible then place the probe on
the lOmm section. If the signal is now visible then the dead zone is greater than 5mrn
but less than 1Omm. If the signal is still not visible then go on to the 15mm deep hole.
This procedure can be carried out with an uncalibrated screen. An alternative method
would be to calibrate the screen and read the length of the dead zone off the flaw
detector graticule.

Resolution
90

The resolution of a 0 probe can be checked by using the tlu-ee different thickness
sections around the slot below the centre of the lOOmm radius. Place the probe above
the slot and with a calibrated screen note the separation between the 85, 91 and lOOmm
signals.

Probe output
100

Place the 0 probe on the perspex insert and note the number of BWEs. A good probe
should give tlu-ee BWEs.

0 Ruane & T P O'Neill

,..u. 6

01/0J/0$

1JT4-R

lJ:"iiT UT 4 EQUIP:\IE;\;T

Ruane & II
TP O'Neill

SHEAR PROBE USES

\OTES

Index or sound exit point

10

20

Place the probe on the top of the block over the centre of the 1OOmm radius, with the
beam travelling toward the radius. Maximise the signal by moving the probe back and
forth, stopping at the point where the signal is highest. Mark the position of the small
slot, in the block, onto the probe, this represents the point where the centre of the
sound beam is leaving the probe. The engraved lines either side of the small slot (and
the ones on the probe) can be used to measure the movement of the index point as the
probe shoe wears down.

Shear probe calibration

This can be carried out using the IOOrnm radius, repeat signals being secured by the
small slot used for indexing.
30

Shear probe angle check

Maximise the reflected signal from the SOmm diameter (side) of the perspex insert and
note the position of the probe index, in relation to the engraved graduations on the
block, to read off the approximate angle. A more accurate check can be made using
the reflection from the l.Smm diameter hole in the same way.

40

Shear probe output

Maximise the signal from the I OOmm radius and adjust to full screen height, using the
gain, and note the dB figure indicated on the controls. This figure can be used to
compare different probes or to check the probe in use, daily, for deterioration.
50
The current British Standard
{or this calibration block is
BS EN 17963.

60

BLOCK No.2,

A4, V2, DIN54/122 OR KIDNEY BLOCK

25mm
radius

50mm
1.5 or 5mm
dia. hole

radius

1 2~

70

mm or 20 mm

COMPRESSION PROBE USES

80

Calibration
This block can be obtained in various thicknesses, although the current standards in use
for ultrasonic calibration blocks may only mention 12.5, 20 or 25 mm. The repeat
signals secured from this through thickness can be used to calibrate the 0 probe.

90

SHEAR PROBE USES

Probe calibration
With the probe aiming towards the 25mm radius, signals occur at; 25mm, IOOmm,
175mm, 250rnm, 325mm, 400mm, etc.
100

With the probe facing the other way, toward the 50mm radius, the signals occur at;
50mm, 125mm, 200mm, 275mm, 350mrn, 425mm, etc.

C Ruant & T P O'Neill

luur 6 Ol/03/0S

UT4-9

UNIT UT4 EQUIP:\IENT

Ruane & II
TPO'Nel/1

To calibrate; the radius which gives the easiest signals, within the range selected, to
align on the graticule should be selected.

:\OTES

Index or sound exit point

10

Using the 25mm or the 50mm radius, maximise the reflected signal and mark the
position of the central graduation (the centre of the radiuses) onto the probe. (It is
recommended however that block no.l is more accurate for this check).

Probe angle check

20

Maximise the echo from the drilled hole and check the angle from the position of the
index point.

Dead ZOI!e measurements,

resolurion and shear probe
angle checks ca11 only be
approximared on rhe A21A4
blocks. Specific blocks
such as rheA 5. A6 and A 7
shoulrl be used for more
accurate reproducible
30
results as quored in
associared standards,
i.e. BS EN 12668: Parr 3.

INSTITUTE OF WELDING (

I.O.W.) /AS BLOCK

This block
contains four
transverse holes
of 1.5mm dia.
0
drilled al depths
of 13, 19, 25 and ~1-----------------------------------------------_j
43 mm from the
SIDE VIEW
tqp, each.one
drilled 22mm
deep

40

305mm

50

PLAN VIEW

This block can be used as a calibration block with a compression probe, however, its
main use is as a reference block with either compression or shear wave probes. Its two
most common uses are for plotting thebeam profile and for setting test sensitivity,
using the various individual side drilled holes as reference reflectors.

60

The five side drilled holes on one side of the block that are drilled close together may
be useful to check the resolution capabilities of angle probes.

EQUIPMENT CHECKS

70

Periodically ultrasonic flaw detection equipment must be checked to ensure

performance characteristics have not deteriorated.
Some of the checks include:
80

90

The current British

100
Standard for equipme/11
checks is BS EN I 2668:
Pan 3.

Timebase linearity

Amplifier linearity

Timebase range calibration

Signal to noise ratio

Angle probe index point

Probe angle check

Beam profile determination

Resolution check

This is not a comprehensive list, the recommended checks to be carried out can usually
be found in the relevant current standards 1

I!)

Ruont & T P O'Ntlll

l ..ut ~ Ul/UJ/ US

UT4-10

Ul\'IT LT4 EQUI Pi\IEJ\'T

Ruane & II
TPO'Ne/11

Timebase linearity

\OTF. S

10

! The tolerance f or timebase

linearity in BS EN 12268 is
:1: 2% of/he whole timebase.

20

The tolerance for

amplifier linearity in
BS EN 12668 is quoted for3o
each step ofthe check. it
averages approximately
5%.

Carried out over the ranges to be used, this is performed by placing a compression
probe on a calibration block to obtain multiple echoes. Calibrate the screen by placing
the first and last echoes, within the required range, in their correct respective positions
on the timebase and check that the intermediate echoes are in their correct respective
positions. The tolerance2 on linearity can be found in the current standard 1

Amplifier linearity
Position a probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a l .S or Srnm
diameter transverse drilled hole. Using the gain adjust this signal to 80% of full screen
height. Increase the gain by 2dB and the signal should rise to I 00% full screen height.
Now reduce the gain by 8dB and the signal should fall to 40% screen height.
Reducing the gain a further 12db should see the signal fall to 10% screen height and a
further 6 dB should take the signal down to S% screen height. The tolerance 3 on signal
heights can be found in the current standard 1

Timebase range calibration

Check the ability of the equipment to be calibrated to the ranges required.

Signal to noise ratio

40

Place the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a transverse
drilled bole. Using the gain adjust the signal to 20% of full screen height and note the
gain setting (dB). Increase the gain until the grass (noise) level reaches 20% screen
height at the same timebase position and note the new gain setting (dB). The
difference in the two dB gain settings is the signal to noise ratio and can be used to
compare different equipment or to monitor the equipment in use.

50

Angle probe index point

This check is covered in the calibration block section of the notes.

Probe angle check

60

Also covered in the calibration block section, the more accurate check being when
plotting the beam profile using the AS block (see next paragraph).

Beam spread
Example: 20 dB drop beam spread (vertical)
70

80

Although the beam spread can be calculated, it is usually plotted out practically using
the AS block and a range of different depths of reference holes. Before plotting the
beam profile the probe index point should be checked. The probe is placed above one
of the holes, then by moving the probe back and forth, the signal from the hole is
maximised and the gain adjusted to give a signal at 100% full screen height. The
position of the index point is then marked onto the block. The probe is then moved
forward until the signal falls to 10% screen height and again the position of the index
point is marked onto the block. The hole is now in the I 0% (-20dB) int.ensity trailing
edge of the beam and the distance between the two marks on the block represents the
distance from the centre to the 20dB trailing edge of the beam at the depth of the hole.
The procedure is then repeated in the opposite direction (backwards) to fmd the
leading edge of the beam.

90

100

0 Ru nt & T P O'Nt UI
lnur It DUH1111."

UT4-J 1

UNIT UT4 EQUIPi\IENT

Ruane & II
T P O'Neill
I

This is repeated on several (a minimum of three) different depths of hole to find the
profile of the beam. The marks on the block can be transferred to a graph to give a
pictorial representation of the beam and/or transferred to a plotting system for use in

\OTES

plotting and sizing defects.

10
surface distmce (nun)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10

80

J20dB beam plot

-e2o
..
-s 30

20

g.

""4()
50

60

main beam

30

Resolution
40

This check can be found in the calibration block section of the notes.

50

60

70

80

90

100

C> Ruano & T P O"Ntlll

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UT4-12

UNIT UTS 0 PROBE SCANNING

Ruane & II
T P O'Neill

0 PROBE SCANNING

:\ OTES

10

CALIBRATION
The initial pulse or main bang is a test signal that the flaw detector creates and has no
significance for calibration. It usually lies just off to the left of a calibrated screen.

C. R. T. - Cathode Ray Tube

.. - . .

Initial

20

-- __,-- - -:

pulse.........._

..

:.

: '

- - :
30

40

50

Dead zone - although

with twin crystal probes no
visible indication exists on
60
the CRT, the term dead zone
correctly means an area
where indications cannot be
located and is still present
near surface due tO the
angle of the crystals ustUI to
focus tire beam at the
optimum usage range.
70

. :.

~
I

..
.

-. - ~

'

.:

'

' - :.

Visible area
ofC.R.T.

. .. : .. . :

- . :

- - : .. .

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

When an ultrasonic probe is placed on to a piece of steel, some of the ultrasound in the
probe reflects off the interface between the probe shoe and the steel and some is
transmitted through into the steel. When the transmitted energy strikes the back
surface of the steel it virtually all reflects off the steel to air interface and returns to the
steel to perspex interface. Here some energy transmits into the probe and creates the
frrst signal (1) and the rest reflects back inside the steel and the process repeats itself,
creating the repeat signals, (2 etc.) until the energy decays away. The spacing between
the echoes represents the thickness ofthe steel, so if we place the probe on a A2 block,
on the 25mm thickness, then the echoes are ~5mm apart. Note. If we are using a single
crystal probe then the initial energy that reflected back into the probe will create a
signal at the start of the screen (F) which will be very close to the initial pulse and
there will also be a dead zone visible on the CRT. If we are using a double crystal
probe (separate transmit and receive crystals) then there will be no signal from the
front surface and no dead zone* visible.

Crystal

p.
~

Probe shoe

80
There are two methods of
achieving calibration:
a)

multi-backwall echo;

b)

delay technique.

90

..

'.

--

Test
Material

0 I

-- -

._

2:

:
._

-:]

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TO CALIBRATE A 0 PROBE TO A RANGE OF:

0 TO 100 MM1

Apply couplant to the A2 block and place the probe on the 25mm thjckness to obtain
multiple echoes. We require a range of lOOmm on the screen so four echoes would fit
in to this range, so we adjust the coarse range control to give us about four echoes on
the screen. We then adjust the delay control to position the first backwall echo a
quarter of the way along the screen and the fine range control to position the fourth
echo at the end of the screen. This procedure is repeated until all four echoes take up
their respective positions (see sketch). The same basic procedure applies to different
ranges using different thicknesses. By dividing the range by the thickness we can
obtain the number of echoes required and by evenly spacing the echoes on the screen
the desired range is achieved.

100

Q Ru.a ne & T P O'Neill

but 6 Ol/OJ/0!

UTS-1

UNIT UTS 0 PROBE SCANNING

Ruane & II
TPO'Nei/1
:\OT[S

25
--

10

.'

. .. .. .... . . .

:. : ~o:-:.: :.
-' ..'

-'

_,

..' -

. 75
' t ' 'l' -H 0

20

'

'~ !

'

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

to

~ IOOmm

range

CALIBRATION EXERCISES
Using the VI block:
30

40

Calibrate the timebase for:

100 nun range using the 25 mm thickness

200 rnm range using the 25 rnrn thickness
400 mm range using the 25 mm thickness
100 rnrn range using the 100 rnm thickness
200 nun range using the 100 rnm thickness
400 mm range using the 100 mm thickness
20 rnm range using the I 0 mm thickness
I 0 nun range using the 5 mm thickness
l 0 mm range using the 10 nun thickness
1000 mm range using the 200 mm thickness

Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:
Method:

Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Delay technique
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Multiple BWE
Delay technique
Multiple BWE

50

ACCURATE MEASUREMENT
For accurate beam path measurement, such as thickness surveying using a flaw
60

70

80

detector, the achievable accuracy is determined by the range selection. For example if
the range is set to 100 nun full screen, then each large graticule division is 10 mm and
each small division is 2 mm. This means that the most accurate that you could read the
screen, by judging the halfway distance between the divisions, would be I mm.
However, the manufacturers of analogue flaw detectors using a C.R.T., can only
guarantee the horizontal (time base) linearity of the display to be within 2% of the
whole time base. This means that an echo could be one small division (or 2 mm on the
I 00 rnm range scale) out of position, so the guaranteed accuracy would nomully have
a tolerance of 2% of the range (the same size as one small division).
Timebase range

Large division

Small division

Read accuracy

500 mrn
200 rnm

50mm

10mm

20rnm

4mm

5 mrn
2rnm

100mm

IOmm

2mm

1 mm

50mm

Smm

lmm

O.Smm

20nun

2mm

0.4 rnm

0.2mm

10mm

1 mm

0.2mm

0.1 rnm

90

100

C> Ruane & T P O'Neill

l"ue G 02103/0S

UTS-2

U~IT

Ruane & II
T P O'Neill

UTS 0 PROBE

SCA:\'~Il\'G

:\ OTE S

MULTIPLE BACK WALL METHOD

Another method of reading accurate thickness measurements is to use the multiple
bachvall method. This involves calibrating the screen to a larger range then reading
the nth repeat signal from the thickness and dividing the reading by n, where n is the
clearest signal that you can read the furthest along the screen.

10

IOOmm range
20
.

... .......
. . . . .. - .. .
~

. .............. .... ...- .- -. - .. ... .. .- ..

.
'

'

'

'1i::.:-: -:: .

30
0

In this example the 6'h signal can be quite

easily read off the screen at a beam path of
45mm.
The thickness can be calculated by:

I 2 3 4t5 6 7 8 9 10

45
6

7.5 mm

6th signal

Different materials
40

When testing materials other than steel, the velocity of the sound wave may be
different. If this is the case, then the difference in velocity between the material under
test and the calibration block must be taken into consideration and used to compensate
for the difference in readings obtained. Alternatively, a calibration block made of the
same material as the test material must be obtained. The following formula can be
used to compensate when the CRT is calibrated using a steel calibration block:

50

. kness
Actua I Thtc

Material Velocity
Timbase Reading
= ______
.;;_x______

--=..

Calibration Block Velocity

If the sound velocity in a material is not known but the actual thickness can be

physically measured, then the velocity can be calculated by transposing the above
60

formula thus:
Velocity =

Actual Thickness x Calibration Block Velocity

Timebase Reading

DEFECT DETECTION
70

80
1

Section UT4 - Eqr~ipment

When using a 0 probe to search for defects we must consider the following. Which
range should be used, for accuracy and through thickness coverage?. Probe selection,
taking into account material attenuation and defect size. What level of test sensitivity
to use to ensure that defects which are considered harmful to the product (not
necessarily all flaws are considered harmful), are located and to assure that
reproducible test results can be obtained, by different operators, using different
manufacturers equipment. Probe and range selection have been covered in previous
sections1 of these notes, setting sensitivity is as follows .

SENSITIVITY
90

100

There are various methods of setting the test sensitivity these include:

Back wall echo level method (0 probes only)

Grass level

Using a reference reflector

Using a graph or curve plotted from reference reflectors

0 Ruane & T P O'NelU

Issue 6 OZ/OJIU5

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UNIT UTS 0 PROBE

Ruane& II
TPO'Nel/1

SCA~NING

Back wall echo (b.w.e.)

10

The backwall echo method involves coupling the probe to the test material and
increasing the gain until the back wall echo is at the pre-determined level. The level
can be varied in several ways, e.g. if the second back wall echo (bwe) is set to full
screen height (fsh) this would be more sensitive than setting the first bwe to fsh.
Another way is to set the bwe to a lower level (less sensitive) or to set it to a
percentage of fsh and add a pre-determined number of dBs to the gain (increase
sensitivity). The bwe method can obviously only be used with 0 probes since
reflections off the back surface, when using angle probes, do not return to the probe.

20

Grass

30

The grass or grain interference method involves coupling the probe to the test surface
and increasing the gain until the reflections from the grain structure of the material
reach a pre-determined level. This is often quoted as 2 mm - 3 mm in height at the
maximum test depth but ideally should be referenced as a percentage of full screen
height as not all flaw detectors use the same dimension screen The sensitivity can be
adjusted by increasing or decreasing the level or by adding or subtracting dBs to or
from the gain.

Reference reflectors
40

so

60

70

A common method of setting sensitivity is to set a maximised signal from a reference

reflector, at target depth, to a predetermined level, for example full screen height. The
reference reflector could take the form of a known reflector, e.g. A transverse side
drilled hole, a flat bottom hole, a slot or a vee notch, or it could be a real, or simulated,
defect of known size and type.

GRAPHS AND D.A.C.

CURVES

Another common method of setting sensitivity involves plotting a graph or curve on

paper or on the flaw detector screen using transverse or flat bottom holes. One of these
is known as the distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve. This is a curve plotted on
the screen using transverse or flat bottom holes, of the same size but at different
depths, in a block of the same or structurally similar material as the material under
examination. The screen is calibrated to the required range and the probe is placed
over the hole that gives the best signal response. The response is maximised and set to
a pre-determined level using the gain. The peak of the signal is then marked onto the
screen (usually on a transparent inlay) and the probe is then moved along to a deeper
hole. The signal from the deeper hole is then maximised and with the gain setting
unaltered the peak of the signal is marked onto the screen and the probe is then moved
to the next hole down. The procedure is repeated until the end of the range is reached.
The marks on the screen are then joined up with a line drawn through and this forms
the DAC curve.
A B C D E

.,. r r ~ r _. r _

80

90
0

100

The range, gain setting and probe identification should all be recorded (on the screen
usually) along with the curve. The curve shape is a probe characteristic, the gain
setting is dependant on the flaw detector, i.e. if the flaw detector is changed for another
orie the gain setting will be different and if the probe is changed for another one,
another curve should be plotted.

:> Ruane & T P O"Ntlll

Issue 6 01103/0S

UTS-4

UNIT UT5 0 PROBE SCANNING

Ruane & II
T P O'Neill

Distance gain sizing or DGS, although a sizing technique, is sometimes used as a

sensitivity level, e.g. Looking for defects up to a certain size as acceptable and above
that size as rejectable. An example method to set the sensitivity would be: The bwe
from the reference (DGS) block is set to a pre-determined level and the gain setting
noted. The maximised signal from a reference reflector (usually a flat bottom hole) at
target depth (test material thickness) is set to the same pre-determined level and the
difference between the new gain setting and the previous one is noted. The bwe from
the test material is set to the pre-determined level and the difference noted in the first
two gain settings is added to the present gain and this then is the scanning sensitivity.

:"\OTES

10

20

SCANNING PATTERNS 0 PROBE

30

40

When scanning for defects the scanning pattern to be used is sometimes dependant on
the size of defect sought. The two main factors to consider are the pitch (distance
benveen scans) or overlap (the amount, if any, t11at the each scan overlays the next) and
the pattern or direction of scanning. If the pitch is less than the size of the probe then
the scans will overlap. If the pitch is greater than the size of the probe then there will
be a gap between the scans. Whether there is a gap between the scans or not may
depend on the size of defect sought and the size of the test piece. For example on a
large test piece looking for defects over IOOmm the pitch may be 75mm between
scans, regardless of the probe size, because scanning every 75mrn will locate defects
over I OOmm in size. The pattern may require scanning in one direction or in two
directions at 90 to each other.

50

Pitch
60

SIZING METHODS 0 PROBE

There are four main sizing techniques used with oo probes:
70

6dB drop

Equalisation
Maximum amplitude
DGS

6dB drop technique

80

Used to size large defects, i.e. defects that are bigger than the beam spread, such as
laminations, this is where the probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until the
signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB). The position of the centre of the probe is
then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam
is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated along the edge of the reflector the
reflector's size and shape will be marked out onto the material's surface.

90

A - .... _. _

.'
. . - . _.. . :- .
. .. . . .
'

'

'

'.

8 .

:.

100

1.

SO% drop ;

:.:

: : ~we

:: .. ::I: : I

: J

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0 Ruone & T P O"NeiU

I .sue 6 02/03/0S

UTS-5

UNIT UT6 ANGLE PROBE SCANNING

Ruane & II
T P O'Neill

ANGLEPROBESCANNING
The initial pulse and the dead zone, mentioned in the previous, section also occur with
angle probes and should be regarded in the same way.
10

CALIBRATION
20

With angle probes, the reflector must be perpendicular to the beam and there must be
some method of capturing repeat signals. Both the VI (A2) and the V2 (A4) blocks
fulfil this criteria.

30

The VI block has a I OOmrn radius to reflect the sound and a slot cut at the centre to
capture repeat signals. Signals occur every I OOmm therefore can be used to calibrate
the screen, e.g. to calibrate the screen for a 0 to 200mm range we would place the fust
echo on 5 on the graticule and the second on I 0. To calibrate for a 0 to 1OOmm range
we would place the first echo on 0 and the second on 10 (which gives a 100 to 200mm
range), then delay the fust echo across the screen to 10.

CRT

40

- -

slot

- - ~

~~

">

- -

IVl block I
0

50

... ~

'

-:

._ '

:. -. . ~

. :. .

.. .

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 to 200mrn

range

60

70

The V2 block has a 25mrn radius and a 50mm radius both irradiating from the same
centre. This has the effect of bouncing the sound from one radius to the other, via the
centre, creating repeat echoes. After the first echo, which occurs at a distance
representative of the radius that the probe is facing, the echoes occur every 75mm (the
sum total of the two radii) this feature can be used to calibrate the screen. The
direction that the probe faces varies with the range required because it is easier to align
more of the echoes on the graticule, when facing a particular radius, for a particular
range, than on the other radius, e.g. for a 0 to 1OOmm range, the probe would face the
25mrn radius where the 25mrn signal and the lOO.rmn signal can be easily aligned. For
a 0 to 200mm. range the probe would face the 50mm radius where the 50mrn and
200mm signals can be easily aligned (the 125m.m signal falling somewhere in
between).

80

. , -.
r

.. . ..

-. - .

. ..

.. . . .. .
... - ..... .. .. .

. ..

'

...
'

,.

'

'

'

'

90

L..-.:..-J....i.-_,;_---..:_

_;_,_JII

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 to I OOrnm range

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ANGLE PROBES TEST SENSITIVITY

The following methods can be used for setting test sensitivity.
10

Grass level

Reference refle.ctors

DAC curves

Grass
20

30

The grass or grain interference method involves coupling the probe to the test surface
and increasing the gain until the reflections from the grain structure of the material
reach a pre-determined level, this is often quoted as 2 - 3 mm in height at the
maximum test depth but ideally should be referenced to as a percentage of full screen
height as not all flaw detectors use the same dimension screen. The sensitivity can be
adjusted by increasing or decreasing the level or by adding or subtracting dBs to or
from the gain.

Reference reflectors

40

A common method of setting sensitivity is to set a maximised signal from a reference

reflector, at target depth, to a predetermined level, for example full screen height. The
reference reflector could take the form of a known reflector, e.g. A transverse side
drilled hole, a flat bottom hole (drilled at the appropriate angle for the probe), a slot or
a vee notch, or it could be a real, or simulated, defect of known size and type.

Graphs and D.A.C. Curves

50

Another common method of setting sensitivity involves plotting a graph or curve on

paper or on the flaw detector screen using transverse holes. One of these is known as
the distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve. This is a curve plotted on the screen
using transverse holes, of the same size but at different depths, in a block of the same
or structurally similar material as the material under examination. The screen is

calibrated to the required range and the probe is placed over the hole that gives the best
60

signal response. The response is maximised and set to a pre-determined level using the
gain. The peak of the signal is then marked onto the screen (usually on a transparent
inlay) and the probe is then moved along to a deeper hole. The signal from the deeper
hole is then maximised and with the gain setting unaltered the peak of the signal is
marked onto the screen and the probe is then moved to the next hole down. The
procedure is repeated until the end of the range is reached. The marks on the screen
are then joined up with a line drawn through and this forms the DAC curve.

70
A B

C D E

,. r . , r . r - r.

0
80

90

The range, gain setting and probe identification should all be recorded (on the screen
usually) along with the curve. The curve shape is a probe characteristic, the gain
setting is dependant on the flaw detector, i.e. if the flaw detector is changed for another
one the gain setting will be different and if the probe is changed for another one,
another curve should be plotted.

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:'IOTES

10

Sensitivity methods involving flat bottom holes are rarely used witll angle probes
(particularly in the UK) due to the fact that the holes have to be drilled to an angle to
suit the probe in use, i.e. the flat reflector at the bottom of the hole has to be
perpendicular to the beam. This is difficult to achieve because probe angles can vary
by one or two degrees. It also means that you would need a separate block for each
probe in use.

SCANNING PATTERNS
20

For angle probes the scanning patterns describe the way the probe is manipulated as
well as the way it is moved. The most common patterns, referred to in some standards
and application procedures are:

Orbital scan
30

Where the probe is manipulated through an arc movement whilst maintaining the beam
focused on a fixed reflector. Used often to identify porosity, where the signal can be
maintained on an orbital scan.

Swivel scan
40

This is where tile probe is rotated on tile spot, effectively scanning tile beam around it.
Used to identify multi-faceted, planar or multiple defects and to ensure complete
coverage when performing a limited transverse scan on a weld where the weld
reinforcement is still present.

Lateral scan
50

The probe is moved sideways along a fixed line. Used in the critical root scan of a
single vee weld or for sizing the lengtil of a defect longitudinally.

Depth scan
60

This is where the probe is moved back and forth in the direction of the beam. As in
locating the position of a defect when plotting or when maximising tl1e signal off a
transverse hole to set sensitivity.
Other "scans" referred to such as "root scan", "transverse scan" etc. are scans for a
particular type of defect or in a particular area (root scan, in the root area, transverse
scan, for transverse defects).

70

80

ILat.erall
90

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SKIP FACTORS

\OTES

10

20

In angle probe scanning plotting systems are used for projecting defect depths and
positions in relation to the probe index by applying the beam path, read from the
screen, and the stand off or surface distance from a reference datum on the test surface.
The system works on a series of right angled triangles, so the depths and positions can
also be calculated, with trigonometry, using the probe angle and the beam path reading
on the CRT timebase.

p = probe angle
d
sd
bp

= depth
= skip or surface distance
= beam path

Sin ~

Cos~

Tan~

30

OR!2(Sd)
hyp(bp)
adj(d)
hyp(bp)
OJ;2J2(Sd)
adj(d)

sd
40

To calculate the expected beam path to a reflector, when the depth and the probe angle
are known, we transpose the Cosine formula.
bp

= -dCos j3

50

To calculate the depth of a reflector, when the beam path and probe angle are kno~
we transpose the Cosine formula again.
d = bp x Cos j3
60

To calculate the surface distance, when the beam path and probe angle are known, we
transpose the Sine formula.
sd = bp x Sin j3

70

Finally if we wish to calculate the beam angle when the depth and surface distance to a
reflector are known we use the Tangent formula.
sd
Tan j3 = d

80

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UT6

r\~GLE

PROBE

SCAl\~1:\G

THE RATIO OF THE SIDES OF THE TRIANGLES IN THE THREE

\OTFS

MOST COMMON PROBE ANGLES

10

20

1.73
2.75
30

THE IRRADIATION FACTOR

40

When testing tubular materials around the circumference with angle probes, it is
possible that due to the curvature, wall thickness and probe angle, that the beam will
not strike the inside surface of the material. We can calculate the minimum probe
angle that will strike the inside surface (at a tangent). This is known as the irradiation
factor.
By trigonometry:
Sin

opposite = IR
hypotenuse
OR

50

p
IR
OR
60

probe angle
inside radius
outside radius

Since tubular materials are usually

measured by diameter, we can convert
the equation to:
Sin P

lD

OD

70

PLOTTING SYSTEMS

Allernative names for

plolling systems include:
i.

ultrasonic calculators
ii. slide rules
80
iii. plouing cards
They are predominately
used in weld testing.

Rather than calculate the position of a reflector in relation to the probe index, using
trigonometry, we can draw the probe angle onto a card, or transparent ftlm, and by
overlaying onto a cross-sectional diagram of the test piece, we can plot the reflector's
position. The following illustrations show two examples of plotting systems, one for
use on a flat surface and one for a curved surface.

90

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10

20

30

Curved surface plotting system

60 ~~~~~~">(-----'
II

40

50

SIZING METHODS ANGLE PROBES

There are tluee main sizing techniques used with angle probes:

60

6dB drop

20dB drop

Maximum amplitude

6dB Drop technique

70

Used to size defect dimensions which are larger than the beam, such as the length of a
lack of sidewall fusion in a weld. The probe is moved off the end of the defect until
the signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB). The position of the centre of the probe
is then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the
beam is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated at the other end of the defect
then the distance between the marks represents its length.

20dB Drop technique

80

90

This technique is used for defects that are less than the width of the beam, such as the
cross-sectional size of a lack of sidewall fusion in a weld. It requires the use of a 20dB
beam profile, plotted out for the probe in use, drawn onto a plotting system. The signal
from the defect is first maximised and the position of the defect plotted down the main
beam on the plotter as in fig.l. The probe is then moved forwards, off the defect, until
the signal drops to 10% of its original height. As the probe has moved forward the
defect is now in the trailing edge of the beam, so we now plot the signal down the
trailing edge on the plotter, see fig.2. This should give a point plotted just above the
previous plot and this represents the top edge of the defect. If we now move the probe
backwards, past the maxim, to a position where the signal is again I 0% of the maxim,
then plot the signal down the leading edge of the beam, as in fig.3, this should give us
the bottom edge of the defect and thus the overall size.

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10

20

30

40

Maximum amplitude (max. amp) technique

This is used to size areas of small defects, such as inclusions or porosity, or to size
multi-faceted defects, such as cracks. The technique involves moving the probe off the
defect area until the signals disappear, then slowly bringing the probe back, watching
the whole signal group, to the first position where one of the signals maximises. The
defect is then plotted using the main beam on the plotting system. If this is carried out
in both directions then the cross-sectional extremities of the defect are plotted out. The
technique is repeated moving the probe laterally to size the length of the defect by
marking the position of the centre of the probe. This technique will pick out the last
individual inclusion of a group or the last facet of a crack giving the overall size of the
defect or area. [t can also be used to plot the shape of a defect and for condition
monitoring where critical sizing is required by plotting each individual signal in the
group as it maximises.

50

60

70

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TESTING TECHNIQUES

:\OTF.S

10

A, B & C

SCANNING SYSTEMS

A-scan

20

This is one of the most common systems in use for manual ultrasonic inspection. It
displays the reflected energy as signals on a CRT. The horizontal axis on the CRT
represents elapsed time or distance and the vertical axis represents signal amplitude or
sound energy returning to the probe. This system can provide an indication on the size
of a defect from signal amplitude, the defect location, from the position of the signal
on the timebase, and the signal shape and behaviour, on movement of the probe, can
indicate defect type. The disadvantages of this system are that the signals require
interpretation, which means that more skill is required for operation. The advantages
of this system are its portability and less time involved in setting up.

30

Amplitude
40

\.
0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

----------~

Time/distance

50

B-scan system
The B-scan system provides us with a cross-sectional view of the material under test
by scanning the probe across the surface (sometimes at high speed). The image is

retained using digital recording, giving a permanent record of the ultrasonic data. The
60
1

In the case of a defect itt

steel plate, the defect forms
an air interface so the
through thickness of the
defect is not shown on the
display.

amplitude of the received signal is represented by the brightness of the image and the
synchronisation of the movement of the probe and the display can give a true
representation of the size 1 of the defect.

Material top surface~

1---------~

70
_.__....._.~...

,;...:..--'--+-- defect

1
. 0111!

bottom,surface~-t------------i

80

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

C-scan system

90

This system gives us a plan view of the scanned area, showing defects as contrasting
areas, on a printout or plotting system that is synchronised with the probe's movement
as it traverses over the material. The big advantage of the system is an instant
permanent record. The disadvantages are there is no indication of defect depth or
orientation and setting up the system can be time consuming.

100

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TECH~IQUES

'iOTf.S

10

20
Printour

30

PULSE ECHO SYSTEMS

40

A system that sends out pulses of ultrasonic energy then listens out for the returning
echoes is a pulse echo system. The probes used can be in the single or double crystal
format. The single crystal probe transmits pulses of energy, typically at a rate of
anything between 150 to I OOOHz, in between pulses the circuitry switches to receive
mode to listen for any returning echoes. The double crystal probe has separate
transmit and receive crystals, the transmitter still sends out pulses, (at the same rates as
above) but rests in between, whilst the receiver is in "listening" mode permanently.
See the "Introduction to the basic concept" section of the notes for further information
and the "Propagation of sound" section for details on pulse repetition frequencies .

50

The advantages of the pulse echo system are that defect positions can be located with
accuracy and access to only one side of the test material is necessary.
The disadvantage is that the sound has to travel through the material twice (there and
back) so there is more attenuation.

60

A gate is a marker on the 70

CRT showing the area of

interest and the required

signal amplitude or level to
trigger the alamr.
The parameters required to
set up a gate are:

i.

start position.

ii.

End position or gate

length.

80

iii. L evel.

90

THROUGH TRANSMISSION TESTING

Mainly used in automated systems, in this technique there are two probes, one either
side of the test material, one transmitting pulses of energy the other receiving the
energy. The received energy signal is set to a pre-determined level on the CRT and the
presence of a defect is indicated by a reduction in amplitude or loss of this signal. In
automated systems the signal may be set to reach or exceed a negative gate 1 on the
CRT. This means that a portion of the screen in the area of the signal will have an
alarm sound if the signal does not reach the pre-set amplitude. This may be coupled to
an automatic marking system, such as a paint sprayer, that marks the material when the
signal falls short. The marked areas then being inspected later manually in more detail.
The advantages of this technique are based on the fact that the sound only has to travel
one way through the material, i.e. Materials with higher attenuative properties can be
tested, thicker materials can be tested and higher frequency probes can be used.
The disadvantages are; there is no indication of defect depth, there must be access to
both sides of the material to place the probes, the probes must be correctly aligned and
a change in coupling conditions (causing a loss of signal amplitude) could be mistaken
for a defect.

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'\OTES

10

Transmit
probe

Defect

Test material

.L

. ..
. ..
Gate-

minimum .

~i~n~J I~vc!)

- --

20

Receive
probe

1.

-.J

Signal level on
defect free area

. .

..

..

. .

..

Signal level is
reduced as
defect starts to
enter beam

1S II 10

30

THE TANDEM TECHNIQUE

40

50

This employs two probes, one transmitting sound and one receiving, this time both the
probes are on the same surface of the test material. The probes are set at a fixed
distance from each other so that the pulses from the transmitter, if reflected from a
defect, will be directed to the receiver probe and thus create a signal on the CRT. The
distance between the probes is dependant on the probe angle, the material thickness
and the depth of expected defects. The teclmique is used when looking for defects at a
pre-determined depth such as in the root of a double sided weld.
The advantage of this technique is, that vertical defects, which would normal1y be
extremely difficult to locate ultrasonically by 0 or angle probes, would be easily
found.
The disadvantage is, that only defects at the pre-determined depth would be located.

60
. (weld prep)

Defect
70

80

90
Surface waves are
extremely limited in
immersion systems (tanks)
since it is a boundary wave
and requires a solid to gas
interface to propagate
without massive auenuation.
100

IMMERSION TESTING
Tltis is an automatic ultrasonic inspection technique that is carried out in laboratories
or specialised factory inspection areas. The system uses a compression probe mounted
in a manipulator that is carried on a bridge over a tank of water in which the test
material sits. To prevent the formation of air bubbles on the test piece surface, the
water is heated to ambient temperature to deaerate it. The manipulator allows the
probe to be tilted at any angle. By varying the angle beyond the critical angles, various
shear wave refracted* angles can be produced in the test material as required. The
bridge allows the probe to be moved over the test material. The test material is
sometimes placed on a rotating table in the tank and is rotated as it is scanned. Probe
frequencies up to 25MHz are not uncommon in immersion testing.

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:\OTES

30

1
In practice, the 'mle of 40
thumb' is that the water gap
should be at least a ~ of
the material thickness
(assuming Fe!AI + ~" (6 mm)

Calibration is done with the same set-up which is to be used for testing, i.e. same probe
and water path. The water path between the probe and the test material front surface is
then delayed off the screen so that the zero end of the screen represents the front
surface of the test material. The velocity of ultrasound in steel is four times the
velocity in water. So when testing steel the water gap should be greater than one
quarter the thickness of the steel'. Otherwise, the repeat signals from the front surface
will start to occur before the bwe and a front surface echo will occur within the test
area on the screen, thus masking any defects within the test piece at this depth.
Front surface echo
K
. 'bwe

Initial pulse

Wate~ag.

50

~lay

.
--

:-- --

.. t . t

t -..

'

'

Second from surface echo (within the test area)

'

...

. \.. ; bwe
. :- -' ..
. :

.. ' .
. . . t .

;-

S~Qn~ ft9 surface e ho

: J,!' : '

:-

--

..

'

..

- .

'

-~- -

'

'
:-

. -

\
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Correct set up

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Incorrect set up

60

70

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t:T8 ULTR:\SO:\IC

TIIICh:~ESS SUR\ ' EYI~G

ULTRASONIC THICKNESS SURVEYING

10

Thickness surveys usually take the form of multiple measurements at pre-determined

positions on a component, e.g. a boiler waiJ or a ship's hull, using a dedicated thickness
meter (D-meter or T-gauge), or an A-scan flaw detector and a 0 probe. The probe
selection is dependant on the material thickness and attenuation properties.

Using a thickness meter

20

30

40

Dedicated thickness meters are either pre-calibrated at the factory, for a particular
material, with a supplied probe unit, or may use a calibration block and a calibration
routine is carried out prior to use. A typical calibration routine on a. digital thickness
meter would be: Switch the unit on, clean the probe shoe and press the "zero" function
button to zero the probe. Select "calibrate" and place the probe on a thin section of the
calibration block, press "zero" again and enter the actual thickness into the unit. Then
place the probe on a thick section of the calibration block, press "vel" and enter the
actual thickness. The meter will then automatically calibrate and is ready for use on
the same material as the calibration block. The meter may have other features such as
digital storage for the readings, adjustments for accuracy of the readings or minimum
thickness recording.
Defects within the material can give rise to incorrect thickness readings when using a
D-meter that has no A-scan display. When using a D-meter, which reads the beam
path between the first and second or the second and third repeat signals, corroded back
wall may cause loss of readings due to the attenuation of the sound. If the test material
velocity is not the same as the velocity of the calibration block, or the material the
D-meter is set up for at the factory, then false readings will occur.

Using a flaw detector

50

60

The A-scan flaw detector can be used to obtain thickness readings to a good degree of
accuracy by calibrating to a small range or using the multiple backwall method as
explained in the "0 probe scanning" section of the notes. The advantage of a flaw
detector over a thickness meter is that a representation of the signal shape can be seen
on the display which indicates whether the reading is off a back wall or off a defect
within the material.
When using a flaw detector, if the surface is coated or painted then the reading should
be taken between the repeat signals and not from 0 to the first signal. When using a
thickness meter any coatings or paint on the test surface does not affect the readingbecause it automatically reads the repeat distance.

70

D istance between repeats

80

If using the flank of the signal then signal amplitudes must be at similar heights when
checking the position on the timebase, both when calibrating the CRT and when taking
readings.
90

_f

High signal

Lower signal

tt

100

Difference m s ignal position (and hence reading)

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The timebase on an A-scan flaw detector must be linear to attain accurate readings, a
check for this is explained in the equipment section (UT4) of the notes.

:\OT[S

10

20

30

ACCEPT/REJECT CRITERIA
When thickness surveying, you may be asked to evaluate the measurements taken,
insh::au uf, u1 as well as, recording them. This may be by using the accept/reject
criteria from a national standard or a written procedure for the job in hand.
Acceptance tolerances may be given in the form of maximum and minimum
thicknesses or given as a percentage tolerance of a nominal thickness, e .g. Minimum
13.5mm, maximum l6.5mm or l5mm l.Smrn orl5mm 10%. The first two
examples are quite easy to follow but the percentage tolerances are not always simple
figures like 10%.
To calculate the value of the tolerance from the stated percentage and hence the
maximum and minimum thicknesses we use the formula:
Tolerance

So;

x n

100

Maximum thickness

Where t is the plate thickness and n is the percentage.

t +

4{)

Minimum thickness

t -

x n
100

t x n

100

50

REPORTING

60

When reporting the results of a thickness survey, the readings may be electronically
stored, in memory on some thickness meters or digital flaw detectors, or written down.
In each case the location of the reading must be stored along with the thickness for use
as a reference in further checks or for mapping out the test surface. The electronically
stored readings may be downloaded into a database application or directly into a
graphics program that will give a visual representation of the test area.

70

80

90

100

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TESTI~G

ULTRASONIC WROUGHT PLATE MATERIAL

:\ OTES

10

TECHNIQUE
When searching for defects in wrought plate you should have, as a minimum, the
following information, which is usually written on a teclmique or instruction sheet (see
the appendices for an example).

20

30

The test component identification and area to test.

Actions to be taken when defects are found.
The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria).
Equipment required.
What method and level of test sensitivity to use.
The method of scanning.

The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
originator's name and signature and an authorising signature.

Test area
40

The test may involve testing the whole, of a component, or just parts, this must be
specified.

Actions to be taken
50

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the component, or material, may be accepted,
rejected or graded according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then
the defect information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e.
Defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums. etc.

Purpose of the test

60

This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report, which defects render the component rejectable, or which
defects to assess for grading of the materiaL

Equipment
70

The type of flaw detector, type, size and frequency of probes, type of couplant and
calibration blocks to use, should be stated.

Sensitivity
Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. 2nd
B.W.E. F.S.H..
80

Scanning method
The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or
technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national
standard. An example written step by step could be:
90

100

1.

Prepare the material surface by removing any loose scale, rust, dirt or other debris
and visually inspect for surface defects or damage.

2.

Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a

block, for a range of 0 to 50 mm.

3.

Set the sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section above) and apply couplant to
the test area.

oo probe and the A2 calibration

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UT9 ULTRASO:\IIC \\'ROUGHT PLATE TESTING

4.

Scan the designated test area with a probe overlap, between scans, of at least 20%
of the probe's diameter at a maximum probe movement rate of 150mm/sec.

5.

When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test" section are found,
record the relevant defect data as in the "Actions to be taken" section.

6.

Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, i.e. where there is no B.W.E. present,
should be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are
smaller than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and positioned using the
maximum amplitude technique. Where there are found to be a number of small
defects together they should be grouped and sized as an area, using the maximum
amplitude technique on the defects that are at the edge of the area.

7.

Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the component identification. Test
area, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing with the defect details as
recorded in section 5 above. Sign and date the report and state your relevant
qualifications.

10

20

30

Post test procedures

This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and
covering the surface with protective coatings according to client's requirements.
40

50

DEFECTS IN PLATE MATERIAL

The interpretation of defects in plate material involves knowledge or experience of the
expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations it is a
case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then
choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely.
Here are a few of the more common defects found in plate:

Laminations

60

A lamination is a defect that is larger than the ultrasonic beam and lies paralleL to the
plate surface, normally midway through the plate depth. It is formed from the rolling
out of secondary pipe in cast ingots. The air and the slag, that was originally on the
ingot surface, are trapped within the defect forming an acoustic barrier (interface).
This means that sound is totally reflected off the defect, so there is no B.W.E .. So the
defect echoes all behave in a similar fashion, e.g. a change in coupling conditions
causes the whole group of repeat echoes to fluctuate.

70

80

Lamination

Inclusions
90

100

Inclusions, in plate material, are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic
material in the cast ingot. These lumps are crushed, flattened and broken up during the
rolling process and end up as smaller flatter shapes. Small inclusions are easily
differentiated from laminations because B.W.E. signals are still present on the screen
among the defect signals and they may be found at any depth. Two most common
types of inclusions are linear and scattered inclusions. They can be differentiated by
the signal pattern on the screen.

tt> Ruan< & T P O'Neill

Issue. 6 01/0J/05

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T P O'Neill

l"T9 lJLTR\SO:'+JIC WROUGHT PLATE TESTL\G

Linear inclusions

:\OTE S

10

This defect is formed from a single inclusion or a closely grouped cluster of inclusions
in the cast ingot. This results in the rolled out defects ending up at similar depths
within the plate. The signal pattern consists of a set of defect repeat signals and a set of
back wall echoes. The centre of the ultrasonic beam has the most intense energy and
as the probe is moved across the material surface the beam centre is sometimes on the
back wall (as it passes between the small defects) and sometimes on the individual
defects. This has the effect of high B.W.E.'s and small defect signals or high defect
signals and small B.W.E.'s alternating as the probe is moved.

20

inear inclusions
30

-- -- ~

40

50

1 2 3 4

6 7 8 9 10

Scattered inclusions
These are formed from various sized inclusions throughout the cast ingot and when
rolled out the shapes, s izes, orientations and depths of the defects in the plate vary.
The varying orientation and shape has the effect of scattering the sound beam, as it
passes through the plate, and if the sound reaches the back wall and reflects back, then
it scatters again on the return journey. This causes significant attenuation in the
amplitude ofthe B.W.E., compared to a defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals
from the defects also vary because of the differences in sizes and orientations. The
signals we see then on the screen are, a low B. W.E. and a cluster of signals, of various
amplitudes and depth, from the defects. The cluster of signals from the defects has a
constantly changing pattern when you move the probe across the surface.

60

70

80

Stringers
These are formed from non-metallic inclusions in the cast ingot. The inclusions are
rolled out into long thin string-like shapes (as the name implies). The signal response
from a stringer is very much like a linear inclusion signal, when scanning across the
rolling direction of the plate. In the rolling direction, the B.W.E. is still present, but the
signal can be maintained along the defect's length.

90

100

0 Ruanr & T P O'Ndll

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:\ OTES

10

20

30

A Rolling lap
40

50

This defect occurs in the rolling process, when too great a reduction in section is
attempted, in one rolling pass. The material folds over onto itself and is flattened into
the surface by the rolls. This leaves a visible seam on one side of the plate. The signal
response, from the opposite side of the plate, is the same as with a lamination on one
edge of the defect (probe position A). At the other edge, (B) the signal from the defect
drops very low, or disappears, before the B.W.E. appears, i.e. before the probe reaches
the edge of the defect. This is because the defect surface slopes down toward the
bottom surface of the plate, this causes the sound to deflect away from the probe. As
the probe is moved off the edge of the defect (position C), the B.W.E. comes up. The
sloped end of the defect therefore has to be sized by performing a 6 dB drop on the
B.W.E. (If the sloped area has a degree of irregularity, then the maximum amplitude
technique would be an alternative).

60

70

I 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

80

Accept and reject criteria

90

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, or the material
may be accepted, rejected or graded according to the defects found. The accept/reject
criteria tell us what size and type of defects to report, which defects render the
component rejectable, or which defects to assess for grading of the material. The
criteria can be found in a procedure, a written instruction sheet or in a national
standard.

100

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'\OTES

Reporting
10

A report should give details of the component identification, test area, surface
condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and
details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to
datums, etc.. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a requirement to
state your relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if grading material, instead of a
drawing you may be asked to give a written statement of conformity to the relevant
grade, or acceptance level, of the national standard employed.

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

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UTIO

VLTRASO~IC

\\'ELD TESTING

ULTRASONIC WELD TESTING

10

TECHNIQUE
When searching for defects in welds you should have, as a minimum, the following
information, which is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the
appendices for an example).

20

The test component identification and area to test.

Actions to be taken when defects are found .

The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria).

Equipment required.

What method and level of test sensitivity to use (preparations).

The method of scanning.

30

The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
originator's name and signature and an authorising signature.
40

Test area
The test may involve examining the whole, of a component, or just the weld and heat
affected zone, this must be specified.

so

Actions to be taken
When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the weld, may be accepted or rejected based on
the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect information that needs
reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. Defect type, size, lateral and
longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

60

Purpose of the test

70

This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report, or which defects render the weld, or parent metal, rejectable.
Note: Defects in the parent metal, adjacent to the weld, could limit the weld scans with
the angle probes.

Equipment
The type of flaw detector, types, sizes, angles and frequencies of probes, type of
couplant and calibration or reference blocks to be used, should be stated.

so

Sensitivity
Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. using an
80% F.S.H. DAC curve, plotted from 3 mm diameter side drilled holes, add 14 dB to
the gain. This information may be contained in a section on preparation for the test,
along with things like; lighting conditions, surface cleanliness etc.

90

Scanning method
The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or
technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national
standard.

100

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An example written step by step instruction, for a single vee butt weld, could be:

:\OTES

l.

Visually inspect the parent metal and weld surfaces, reporting the surface

condition and the presence of any weld cap defects.

10

2.

Scan the parent metal with a 0 probe, check and report the thickness and any
defects. Where the cap is dressed flat scan the weld metal with the 0 probe for
defects and record on a rough report.

3. Draw up full size working diagrams and cursors (plotting systems), noting surface
distances and beam paths for each angle probe on half skip and full skip positions.
20

4.

Mark the centreline of the weld and the surface distance for each probe onto the
scanning surface.

5.

Using a guide strip behind the probe, perform a critical root scan by scanning
laterally on a fiXed line parallel with the weld axis, with the probe index point at
the half skip surface distance, with each probe (access permitting). Make a note,
on a rough diagram, of any suspected defective areas of the root, as they are
located with each probe. Assess each suspect area individually to ascertain
whether the area is a defect, whether the defect is in the root, if so, what type of
defect and its size and position. Record the defects on the rough report.

6.

Scan the weld body on full skip, with each angle probe in turn (access permitting),
by moving the probe back and forth between the half and full skip surface
distances, whilst gradually traversing the length of the weld. Assess each signal
that falls within the half skip to full skip beam path range as it is located. Record
the defects on the rough report.

7.

Scan the weld body on half skip, with each angle probe in tum (access permitting),
by moving the probe back and forth between the half skip surface distance and the
weld cap, or past the weld centre line if the cap has been removed, whilst
gradually traversing the length of the weld. Assess each signal that falls within the
zero to half skip beam path range (except the dead zone), as it is located. Record
the defects on the rough report.

8.

Scan the weld for transverse defects by scanning down the axis of the weld, where
the cap is removed, using sufficient scans and different angle probes to ensure full
coverage of the weld body, on half and full skip where necessary. Assess and
record the defects on the rough report.

9.

Transfer the noted defects from the rough report to a pro-forma report sheet and
make a note of signal amplitudes in comparison to the DAC curve at the test
sensitivity level.

30

40

50

60

70

80

All noted indications should be assessed, using the plotting system and changing
probes as necessary, as to whether they are in fact defects, not spurious indications. If
they are defects then the type, size and position in relation to the datum and the centre
line of the weld should be assessed. (The sizing of defects to be carried out as in the
"0 scanning" or "angle probe scanning" section of these notes, as appropriate, or as in
a relevant national standard)
The finished report should be signed and dated by a level two operator.

90

100

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'OTI' S

ULTRASO~IC

\\'F.LD TESTIJ\'G

DEFECT SIGNAL INTERPRETATION

Once it bas been established that a signal is an indication of a defect, then the next
10

stage is to try to establish what type of defect it is. This is done by interpretation of the
signal shape, size and response to movement of the probe, the position of the defect in
the weld and knowledge of the types of defects expected.

Signal shape and size

20

30

High amplitude sharp signals are indicative of specular (mirror-like) reflectors, such as
large flat defects, that are perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam. When using angle
probes, in weld testing, a high amplitude sharp signal that drops in amplitude
significantly, as the probe is swivelled slightly (so that the beam is not perpendicular to
the defect), would indicate a lack of fusion. If the defect plots at a position where the
bevel on the parent metal was, prior to welding, then this may indicate a lack of side
wall fusion. If the signal plotted in the bottom comer of the root face then it may
indicate a lack of root fusion. If it plotted in the bottom corner of the root face on both
sides of the weld then it may be incomplete penetration of the root run. This illustrates
that defect interpretation is not only dependant on signal characteristics, but also on its
plotted position.

Specular reflection
40

Perpendicular
to the beam
50

60

70

Low amplitude signals are indicative of poor, or highly attenuative reflectors, or

defects or reflectors that are not perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam. Examples of
poor reflectors are interfaces where the ratio of the acoustic impedances of the
interface materials is low such as cladding materials, applied to improve surface
qualities of some components (load bearing or anti-corrosion materials). Highly
attenuative reflectors are ones with rough surfaces, such as cracks, or small multiple
defects, such as porosity or inclusions, which scatter the sound in different directions
(away from the probe). Specular reflectors that are not perpendicular to the beam
(even by only a few degrees) redirect the sound away from the probe so less, or none
of it, returns.

't.~

Scattering effect

0~~<:;)

o~o

80

Crack

90

100

Porosity/slag inclusions

Multiple signals are often obtained from multi-faceted or multiple defects such as
cracks, porosity or slag inclusions. Cracks usually give a higher signal response than
porosity or slag (size for size, at the same sensitivity and beam path). The signals from
a crack, or porosity, will rise and fall as the probe is swivelled. The signal pattern from
a crack will decrease in amplitude, if the probe is orbited around it, whereas the signal
pattern from porosity, or a slag inclusion, can be maintained when the probe is orbited,
because the porosity or slag inclusion is volumetric (see "angle probe scanning"
section of the notes for details on swivel and orbital scans).

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Signal responses from weld defects

As previously mentioned the position where the signal plots plays a significant role in
determining defect type and here are a few examples:
10

Root defects
Lack of penetration
High amplitude comer signals both sides of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude
on rotational scan. Plotting al plate thickness depth, the width of the root gap apart,
with no cross-over.

20

Incomplete root
penetration

- . . .. 0

30

J 4 S 6 7 I

0 I l

0 1 2 J 4 S 6 7 I 9 10

9 10

tbp

-- --

bp

Lack of root fusion

40

High amplitude signal plotting on the defect side of the weld, rapidly decreasing in
amplitude on the swivel scan and plotting at plate bottom beam path. (There may also
be a signal from the root bead as well, particularly if using a steep angle probe, e.g. 45
- see sketch).

Lack of root
fusion

50

bead

: . si~ ~
0

-: ... ..

'

:.

....... ... .. ...... . . . .

1,; . . . '

2 J 4 S 6 1 I

9 10

'

2 J 4 5

6 7 I

9 10

t
Pre-detennined beam

60

:. ~~a~ si~l: .:

Pre-detennined beam

path to plate bottom

path to plate bouom

From the opposite side a signal from the root bead should be observed which could
vary in signal amplitude on probe movement. The beam path plotting slightly longer
than the pre-determined BP from plate bottom.
70

The tip of the LORF is unlikely to be monitored at all from this side because of its
vertical orientation.
Root crack

80

Subject to orientation and crack irregularity, it would be normal to expect a high

amplitude, multi-faceted reflector probably from both sides of the weld.
If the vertical height of the crack was substantial, a characteristic running signal on the
time base would be noted on a depth scan with the angle probe. The response would
rise and fall on the swivel and lateral probe movements due to crack irregularity.

90

Toe crack plotting at the toe of the weld root and centre line cracking plotting at the
root centre.

Root crack

.. ' '
' . . - .-

.. - .. - .~

100
0

I l

3 4 S 6 1 I

tbp

9 10

(toe)

- ,.~ :.- ..~-~.

0

'

' '
I l

. ..
0

- - .
0

..
) 4 l 6 1 S 9 10

bp

C> Run & T P O'NdU

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Root undercut
Dependent on how severe the undercut is will determine the type of amplitude
received, e.g. it could be a relatively low amplitude response or on the other hand, it
can give high amplitude responses. However, associated with the undercut echo will
be a signal from the root bead as well (see sketch). If the undercut is on one side of the
weld only as shown in the sketch, when the root area is being examined from the
opposite side it is likely that a normal root bead response will be observed only.

"OTF.S

10

20

... ~ :. '. :. ~ .- ~ ' . . :. ~ :. ~ ~- :. ~

I

'

tbp

: .

, . '.

..

:b<iad~ : . ~

J
'
:

'

'
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 I 2 3 4 S 6 1 l 9 W

. . ...' .. ..

. . .
.. - .- ...
'- - .. ..... ' . ' '
' . . .
.

:. ~ :. ~ :.

;dd''*

30

,
.

tbp

Excess root penetration (over penetration)

Root bead type signals, both sides of the weld, plotting beyond expected beam path
length to the bead and crossing over. Steeper angled probes (e.g. 38 or 45), access
permitting, giving best results. NB. If weld cap is flush a 0 probe would give best
results.

40

.--.

, ..

.- .--. ........
.

. .... .- ... "- .......

50
0 l

2 3 4

7 l

p 10

t
Pre-determined beam

1 2 1

6 1

9 10

t
Pre-detennined beam

path to plale bottom

pal11 to plate bottom

Root concavity
Low amplitude signals, both sides of the weld, plotting short of plate thickness, no
cross-over. If only slight concavity it is likely that it will not be observed
ultrasonically.

60

70
.~

.. .- - .- - '. . ..
'

~-

'

'

.. . ... .-' .: ..- ..:. ..-

- c
'
:
0

c . ,. c

I 2 3 4 S 6 7 I

9 10

' , . .- .- .
, . .. .. - ..
. . ..' .
......
. . . '~- ....
.- .'- .- - ..- .- ... .

. . . .

2 )

'

4 $ 6 7 I

'
9 10

80

Defects in the weld region (sidewall/body)

Lack of sidewall fusion
High amplitude signal from "a" on full skip and "c" on half skip (access permitting),
plotting on the bevel (as shown). Low amplitude signals or no response (dependant
on slag entrapment) from "b" and "d" (lower amplitude signals from "a" and "c" when
the probe angle is such that the beam is not perpendicular to the defect).

90

100

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The signal will normally be clean with a high amplitude response (as previously
described) and on swivel and orbital scanning the echo will fall quickly.

i\OTES

1o

When sizing the defect's length using a lateral scan, the amplitude response should
remain constant.

Lack of sidewall fusion

b
20

30

Lack of inter-run fusion (between weld runs) would give similar signal responses to
the above, but plotting anywhere in the body of the weld, the angle probe with a beam
perpendicular to the major plane of the defect giving the best response.
Slag inclusion

40

50

Detectable from all accessible positions and directions, due to volumetric nature.
Signal contains numerous half-cycles and has a rounded peak. Signal appears to roll
on movement of probe (the front edge of the signal appears to fall as the back edge
rises and vice versa). Should be able to be detected, within reason, with any angle
probe.

..
~

..
0 I

..

..

..

.' II~ : .

..

. '

..

2 3 4

Slag inclusion

..

..

..

..

l
6 7 8 9 10

60

Cluster porosity or multiple small inclusions

70

Detectable from all accessible positions and directions, due to volumetric nature. Very
low amplitude response due to signal attenuation giving multiple signals with a wide
time base. Signal can be maintained on an orbital scan.

--

"

...

80

..
-

'.

'

t.

- -

'

I,

'

...

Porosity

!.

...

....

'

_. ....

.: t

\.

'

!.

...

'

0 I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 tO

Cracks
90

100

Cracks can appear at the toes, in the heat affected zone or in the centre of a weld as
well as in the root area. The signal response from a crack in these locations is much
the same as in the root. (See previous explanation root crack). The orientation of the
crack has an effect on the amplitude and width of the signal. If the major plane of the
crack is perpendicular to the beam then a high amplitude, narrow, group of signals is
seen. If the major plane is at an oblique angle to the beam then a lower amplitude,
broad based, group of signals is seen (very similar in shape to the signal from cluster

II) Ruane

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Issue 6 02103105

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Ruane & II
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lJTIO

l'LTR:\SO~IC

\\'ELD TESTil\G

porosity). The signals will rise and fall on a swivel scan and the signals will diminish
on an orbital scan.

'OT[S

10

Sizing
The sizing methods are explained in the "0 probe scanning" and "angle probe
scanning" sections of the notes.
There are various sizing methods available and normally it is left up to the ultrasonic
technician as to which one he/she prefers, however, certain projects/contracts may refer
to detailed ultrasonic procedures which dictate the sizing method to be applied.

20

In general, whether applying maximum amplitude, 6 dB drop or 20 dB drop sizing

techniques, providing they are all used correctly, they will all give similar results.

Accept and reject criteria

30

40

50

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, or the weld
may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The accept/reject criteria
tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the weld
rejectable. The criteria can be found in a procedure, a written instruction sheet or in a
national standard.

Reporting
A report should give details of the component identification, test area, surface
condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and
details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to
datums, etc. making a note of signal amplitudes in comparison to the DAC curve at the
test sensitivity level. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a
requirement to state your current relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if accepting or
rejecting the weld, instead of a drawing you may be asked to give a written statement
of conformity to the relevant acceptance level, of the procedure used or national
standard employed.

60

70

80

90

100

~ Root &

TP O'Ndll

Issue 6 OVOJ/05

UTI0-7

Ul\IT l'Tll ULTRASONIC TESTil\G OF FORGINGS

Ruane& II

T P O'Neill

ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS

'i OTES

GENERAL

10

20

The ultrasonic testing of forgings of simple geometry, such as bar and biiJet, there are
few limitations. When testing general forgings, such as crankshafts, etc., then the most
limiting factor is the shape. On complex shapes, the surface curvatures may not allow
good contact or coupling, the angles of the surfaces may prevent back wall echoes with
0 probes and some forgings, simple or complex, may be anisotropic in grain structure
(different grain sizes in different directions).

TECHNIQUE
30

40

When searching for defects in forgings you should have, as a minimum, the following
information, which is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the
appendices for an example).

The test component identification and area to test.

Actions to be taken when defects are found.

The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria).

Equipment required.

What method and level of test sensitivity to use.

The method of scanning.

so

The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
originator's name and signature and an authorising signature.

60

The test may involve testing the whole, of a component, or just parts, this must be
specified.

Test area

Actions to be taken
70

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the component, or material, may be accepted or
rejected according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect
information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. defect type,
size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

Purpose of the test

80

This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report or which defects render the component rejectable.

Equipment
90

This section should give information on; the type of flaw detector, type, size and
frequency of probes, type of couplant, calibration blocks and reference blocks to use.

Sensitivity

100

Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. Set the
bwe from the DGS block to 80% fsh and note the gain setting. Still on the DGS block,
maximise the signal from the flat bottom bole at target depth (test material thickness)
and set that to 80% fsh and note the difference in dBs between the new gain setting and

~ Ruane &

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~

TESTI~G

OF FORGI:\GS

the previous one. Set the bwe from the test material to 80% fsh and add the difference
noted in the first two gain settings to the present gain and scan at this level.

o r s

10

Scanning method
The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or
technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national
standard. An example written step by step could be:
l.

Prepare the material surface by removing any loose scale, rust, dirt or other debris
and visually inspect for surface defects or damage.

2.

Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a 0 probe and the A2 calibration
block, for a range of 0 to 200 mm.

3.

Set the sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section above) and apply couplant to
the test area.

4.

Scan the designated test area, with a probe overlap between scans of at least 20%
of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of 150mm/sec.

5.

When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test" section are found,
record the relevant defect data as in the "Actions to be taken" section.

6.

Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, i.e. where there is no bwe present, should
be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. De fects that are smaller
than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and positioned us ing the DGS diagram
for the probe in use. With a calibrated screen, maximise the signal from the defect
and set the amplitude to 20% fsh and record the gain setting. Move the probe to
an area of the material, where the back wall is the same distance as the previously
recorded defect, there are no defects and the surface condition and curvatures are
the same as the located defect area. Set the bwe to 20% fsh and note the
difference between the previous and the new gain settings. Using the DGS
diagram look on the infinity line, at the bwe distance, for the dB figure and add
this figure to the previously noted dB difference. Read the total dB figure (the two
just added), at the reflector beam path (depth), off the graph, to give the equivalent
size of the reflector.

20

30

40

50

60

70

7. Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the component identification, test
area, equipment used, sensitivity method and settings and a drawing with the
defect details as recorded in section 5 above. Sign and date the report and state
your relevant qualifications.

Post test procedures

This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and
covering the surface with protective coatings according to client's requirements.

D EFECTS IN FORGINGS
80

90

100

The interpretation of defects in forgings involves knowledge or experience of the

expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations it is a
case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then
choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely.
Here are a few of the types of defects found in forgings:

Inclusions
lnclusions, in forgings, are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic material
in the original cast ingot and when forged out the shapes, sizes, orientations and depths
of the defe.cts vary. The varying orientation and shape have the effect of scattering the
sound beam, as it passes through. When using a 0 probe on parallel sided forgings, if
the sound reaches the back wall and reflects back, then it scatters again on the return
journey. This causes a significant drop in the amplitude of the bwe, compared to a
defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals from the defects also vary because of

C> Rune & T P O'N<ill

wut 6 02/03/05

UTll-2

UNIT lJT11 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS

Ruane & II
TP O'Neill

the differences in sizes and orientations. The signals we see then on the screen are, a
low, or no bwe and a cluster of signals, of various amplitudes and depth, from the
defects. The cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly changing pattern when
you move the probe across the surface.
10

20

30

Banding
When alloys are added to the molten material in a cast ingot, some of them may not
mix thoroughly and get left as segregated material in the centre of the ingot after
solidification. These segregations get elongated and reduced in section in the rolling
and forging processes, this is known as banding. If the acoustic impedances of the
alloys and the base metal were different enough ultrasonic reflections may occur. In
steel casting they generally have an acoustic impedance that is similar to the steel, so
they are not usually found ultrasonically unless the sensitivity of the equipment is high.

40

50

A forging lap
This defect occurs in the forging process by the material folding over onto itself and it
is flattened, but not fused onto the surface. This usually leaves a visible seam on the
surface of the forging. Using a oo probe, scanning from the opposite side of the forging
shows a signal appearing just before the bwe. On the defect side of the forging this
defect is very easily missed because it is very near the surface and if using a single
crystal probe the signals will be in the dead zone. (However, evidence of this problem
would be a total loss of back wall echo, providing the surface area of the lap is larger
than the beam).

60

70

A - defect at bottom

.. ..

dead Z( ft~'.

..

; _ _ ~df~~ _- . b~C<' .

. . - ... . . .. . .
. . .
.._

f ~ -- ~

80

0 I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

B
B - defect near surface

dead v. ne '
(&lost de ect'sign~l) ~

90

\'

. .
..

-.

..

.. .

' bwe '

~

.
..

- -

!" -

&.

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

100

Ruane & T P O'Neill

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l'~IT

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TP O'Nei/1

t:TJ J lfLTR:\SO~IC

TESTI~G

OF

FORGI~GS

If a double crystal 0 probe is used, in "B" the defect signal will be near zero on the
CRT. In both cases, if the defect is larger than the beam then the bwe will not be
present.

:\OTF.S

10

Slugs
These are pieces of foreign material that have been pressed into the surface and give
signal responses much the same as a lap.

Bursts
20

30

Internal or surface ruptures of the material, caused by processing at too low a

temperature or excessive working during forging. The signal response from this defect
varies according to the shape, size and orientation of the defect. The normal rules of
ultrasonic testing apply to the signals received, i.e. Perpendicular orientation and large
defect area give a good signal, oblique orientation and/or small defect area gives poor
signals and larger defect area than the beam causes a loss of bwe, etc.. Deciding
whether the defect is a burst or not requires careful plotting of the responses received
to determine the shape and position.

ACCEPT AND REJECT CRITERIA

40

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, or the material
or component may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The
accept/reject criteria tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects
render the component rejectable. The criteria can be found in a procedure, a written
instruction sheet or in a national standard.

50

REPORTING

60

A report should give details of the component identification, test area, surface
condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and
details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to
datums, etc.. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a requirement to
state your relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if accepting or rejecting the
component or material, instead of a drawing you may be asked to give a written
statement of conformity to the relevant acceptance level, or reasons for rejection, to the
standard employed.

70

80

90

100

0 RuAne & T P O'Ndll

lssu 6 Ol/03/0S

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U~IT

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TPO'Nel/1

UTI2 ULTRASONIC TESTI~G OF CASTINGS

ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS

\ OTES

GENERAL

10

The ultrasonic testing of cast products is limited, to some degree, by the scattering
effects of the coarse grain structure and the rough surfaces produced on most casting
processes. This scattering effect can be overcome by using lower frequency probes,
but this results in a reduced sensitivity.
20

TECHNIQUE
When searching for defects in castings you should have, as a minimum, the following
information, which is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the
appendices for an example).
30

40

The test component identification and area to test.

Actions to be taken when defects are found .

The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria).

Equipment required.

What method and level of test sensitivity to use.

The method of scanning.

The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant safety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
originator's name and signature and an authorising signature.

so

Test area
The test may involve testing the whole of a casting, or just sections of it, this should be
specified.

60

Actions to be taken
When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the casting may be accepted or rejected
according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect
information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. defect type,
size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

70

Purpose of the test

This section tells us the accept/reject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report or which defects render the casting rejectable.

80

Equipment
This section should give information on; the type of flaw detector, type, size and
frequency of probes, type of couplant, calibration blocks and reference blocks to use.

Sensitivity

90

Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. For the
0 probe; set the response from the 3 mm flat bottom hole reference reflector to 40%
fsh and scan at this level. For the angle probes; increase the gain until 2 mm to 3 mm
of grass is obtained at the full skip beam path.
100

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TPO'Nei/1
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L1TI2

lJLTI{:\SO~IC

TESTii'iG OF CASTii'iGS

Scanning method
10

The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or
teclmique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national
standard. An example written step by step could be:
1.

Prepare the material surface by removing any loose sand, rust, dirt or other debris
and visually inspect for surface defects or damage.

2.

Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a 0 probe and the A2 calibration
block, for a range ofO to 200 mrn.

3.

Set the sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section above) and apply couplant to
the test area.

4.

Scan the designated test area, with a probe overlap between scans of at least 20%
of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of I 50mm/sec.

5.

When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test" section are found,
record the relevant defect data as in the "Actions to be taken" section.

6.

Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, i.e. where there is no bwe present, should
be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are smaller
than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and positioned using the 20 dB drop
method. Multiple or multi-faceted defects should be sized using the maximum
amplitude technique.

7.

Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the casting's identification, test area,
equipment used, sensitivity method and settings and a drawing with the defect
details as recorded in section 5 above. Sign and date the report and state your
relevant qualifications.

20

30

40

50

Post test procedures

This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and
covering the surface with protective coatings according to client's requirements.
60

70

DEFECTS IN CASTINGS
The interpretation of defects in castings involves knowledge or experience of the
expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. ln some situations it is a
case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then
choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely.
Here are a few of the types of defects found in castings:

Inclusions

80

90

Inclusions are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic material in the casting,
of various shapes, sizes, orientations and depths. 1n large groups of small inclusions,
the variation, in orientation and shape, has the effect of scattering the sound beam, as it
passes through. When using a ooprobe on parallel sided castings, if the sound reaches
the back wall and reflects back, then it scatters again on the return journey. This
causes a significant drop in the amplitude of the bwe, compared to a defect free area.
The amplitudes of the signals from the defects also vary because of the differences in
sizes and orientations. The signals we see from multiple inclusions are, a cluster of
signals, of various amplitudes and depth, from the defects and a low bwe, or no bwe.
The cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly changing pattern when you
move the probe across the surface. Larger inclusions will give stronger signals
dependant on the shape, size and orientation.

100

oD Ruane & T P O"Ndll

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UNIT UTI2 ULTRASONIC TESTil\G OF CASTINGS

Ruane & II
TPO'Neill
:\OTI:S

Significant loss 1----,

in amplitude
ofbwe
- . -

Consta~tly c.hangmg
def~t s1gnal pattern

on movement of probe_. _ c

\0

..

_. .-. c _. _ : _. .
'

'

20

30

Segregation

40

When alloys are added to the molten material in a cast ingot, some of them may not
mix thoroughly and get left as segregated material in the centre of the ingot after
solidification. If the acoustic impedances of the alloys and the base metal were
different enough ultrasonic reflections may occur. In steel casting they generally have
an acoustic impedance that is similar to the steel, so they are not usually found
ultrasonically unless the sensitivity of the equipment is high.

A flake

50

This defect occurs in the casting process by the material splashing up the sides of the
mould, this defect is on but not fused to the surface. This usually leaves a visible
"flake" of material on the surface of the casting. Using a 0 probe, scanning from the
opposite side of the casting shows a signal appearing just before the bwe. On the
defect side of the casting this defect is very easily missed because it is very near the
surface and if using a single crystal probe the signals will be in the dead zone.
A

60

A - defect at bottom

.... .. . .. . . ..
defect bwe

dead z<pe;

. . ..
-

..

..
..

..

'

. -. - .-

'

.. r

'

-'

~- .

'\: .

70
0

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B - defect near surface

'

dead zc

ne~

'

. : -. - : . bWe - :

(&lost deject signori) : - - ' - - ~ .-

80

'
. . -. -' ...
'
. .......
.
.
'
'
. ~ . . - -- ..
I

'

'

.-
..... .
0

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

90

If a double crystal 0 probe is used, in "B" the defect signal will be near zero on the
CRT. In both cases, if the defect is larger than the beam then the bwe will not be
present.
100

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t:LTRASO~JC

TESTI:\G OF C:\STJ~GS

Scabs
10

These are pieces of foreign material, from the inside of the mould that have stuck to
the surface of the casting and give signal responses sirrtilar to a flake if smooth or may
just scatter the beam if rough ..

Cold shuts

20

A Jack of fusion resulting from splashing (a flake), surging, interrupted pouring or the
meeting of two streams of molten metal coming from different directions. This defect
gives a good signal response ultrasonically when favourably orientated to the beam.

Pipe or Shrinkage cavities

30

Internal or surface voids in the material, caused by shrinkage during solidification or

insufficient filling of the mould. The signal response from this defect varies according
to the shape, size and orientation of the defect. The normal rules of ultrasonic testing
apply to the signals received, i.e. Perpendicular orientation and large defect area give a
good signal, oblique orientation and/or small defect area gives poor signals and larger
defect area than the beam causes a loss ofbwe, etc..

Hot tears
40

Surface or near surface cracks in the material due to different cooling rates at changes
in section in a casting. Ultrasonic testing gives low amplitude multiple signals from
multiple cracks or may give a high amplitude "ragged" signal from a large crack with
the orientation of its major plane favourable to the beam.

50

. . ..,' -. .- .....

'-

... -

-: .: -: -: - -~ .: -~ -: - ~
\: -~ - -- - t: - . - ' -

60

I 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 9 10

Porosity
70

This volumetric defect gives a multiple low amplitude signal from all directions, access
permitting.

Blowholes
80

These are small holes in the surface of a casting caused by the gas evolving from
decomposing grease, moisture, etc. This defect is not readily found ultrasonically
because it can be confused with rough surface signals normally obtained on some
castings.

Air locks
90

Air trapped in the mould during pouring can be located ultrasonically and gives signal
responses dependant on its shape, size and orientation.

100

(!) Ruano &. T P O'Neill

Issue 6 011t1JIOS

UT12-4

UNIT UTI2

Ruane & II
T P O'Neill
:\OTF.S

l!LTRASO~JC

TESTING OF CASTINGS

ACCEPT AND REJECT CRITERIA

10

20

30

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported or the casting
may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The accept/reject criteria
tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the component
rejectable. The criteria can be found in a procedure, a written instruction sheet or in a
national standard.

REPORTING
A report should give details of the casting identification, test area, surface condition,
equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and details such
as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to datums, etc.. The
report should be signed and dated and there may be a requirement to state your
relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if accepting or rejecting the casting, instead of a
drawing you may be asked to give a written statement of conformity to the relevant
acceptance level, or reasons for rejection, to the standard employed.

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

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:\PPEJ\DIX A BRITISH

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TPO'Nei/1

STA~DARDS

'oTrs

BRITISH STANDARDS RELATING TO ULTRASONIC TESTING

10

BS EN 1714: 1998
Ultrasonic examination of welded joints (superseding BS 3923 : Part 1)
BS EN 1712 : 1997
Ultrasonic examination of welded joints - Acceptance levels

20

BS EN 1713 : 1998
Ultrasonic examination of welded joints - Characterisation of indications in welds
BSEN 583
Ultrasonic testing

30

Part 1 : 1999:
General principles
Part 2 : 2001:
Sensitivity and range setting

40

Part 3 : 1997:
Transmission technique
Part 4 : 2002:
Ultrasonic examination for imperfections perpendicular to the surface
50

Part 5 : 2001:
Characterisation of sizing of imperfections
Part 6:
Time of flight diffraction technique as a method for detecting and sizing of imperfections
60

BS EN 10160: 1999
Ultrasonic testing of steel flat products of thicknesses
(superseding BS 5996)

70

of~

6 mm (reflection method)

BS EN 10079: 1993
Defmition of steel products
BS EN 10228: Part 3: 1998
Ultrasonic testing of ferritic and martensitic steel forgings (superseding BS 41 24)

go

BS EN 10228: Part 4 : 1999

Ultrasonic testing of Austenitic stainless steel forgings (superseding BS 4124)
BS EN 12668: 2000
Verification of UT equipment : Part 3 : combined equipment (superseding BS 4331 :
Part 1)

90

BS EN 12223 : 2000
Non-destructive-testing - Ultrasonic examination - Specification for calibration block
no. 1 (superseding BS 2704)
BS EN 27963: 1992
Calibration block no. 2 for ultrasonic examination of welds (superseding BS 2704)

100

0 Ru1nt & T P O'NtUJ

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APPE~DIX

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TPO'Nel/1
'0 1 E S

A RIUTISII STA:\DARDS

BS EN 1330: Part 1: 1998

List of general terms
10

BS EN 1330: Part 2: 1998

Terms common to NDT methods
BS EN 1330 : Part 4 : 2000
Non-destructive-testing terminology: Part 4 : Ultrasonic testing (superseding BS 3683)

20

BS 3923: Part 2 : 1972 (obsolete)

Automatic ultrasonic examination of welds
BS EN 12680-1 : 2003
Founding ultrasonic examination

30

Part l :
Steel castings for general purposes
BS EN 4570 : 1985
Fusion welding of steel castings

40

BS 6208: 1990 (obsolete)

U ltrasonic testing of ferritic steel castings including quality levels.
BS 3923 :Part 1 : 1986 (obsolete)
Ultrasonic examination of welds

50

BS 5996: 1993 (obsolete)

Acceptance levels for internal imperfections in steel plate, strip and wide flats, based
on ultrasonic testing.
BS 4124: 1991 (obsolete)

Ultrasonic detection of imperfections in steel forgings.

60

BS 4331 : 1978 (obsolete)

Assessing the performance characteristics of ultrasonic flaw detection equipment.
Part 1:
Overall performance: on-site methods.

70

BS 2704 : 1978 (obsolete)

Calibration blocks for use in ultrasonic flaw detection.
BS 3683: Part 4: 1985 (obsolete)
Terms used in non-destructive testing : Part 4 : Ultrasonic flaw detection.

so

DD 174 (obsolete)
Calibration of time of flight diffraction

90

100

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:\PPE:\DIX B

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TPO'Nei/1
:\ OT[ S

FOI~:\IlJ L\E

FORMULAE USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING

10

Wavelength

A =

Where:

v
f

Sound wavelength (mm)

Material sound velocity (mm/s)
Sound frequency (Hz)

N
D
A.
f
v

Near zone (rnrn)

Crystal djameter (mm)
Sound wavelength (mm)
Sound frequency (Hz)
Material velocity (mm/s)

A.

20

D2
4A

D f
4v

Near zone

Halfbeam angle

Kv
Sin A = .KA. or
Df
D

or

30

40

D
v
f

A
K
50

Snell's law

Sin a
Sinp

Vl
=V2

60

VI
V2 =

Decibel
70

= 20 log 10 -HI

dB

H2

Crystal thickness t =
80

90

Material velocity

v
-

2f

T
= - X CV
TB

dB
HI
2

=
=

Half beam angle (degrees)

Crystal diameter (mm)
Material velocity (mm/s)
Sound frequency (Hz)
Sound wavelength (mm)
Constant:
1.22 for 0% edge
1.08 for 10% edge
0.56 for 50% edge of the beam

Incident (wedge) angle (0 )

Refracted (probe) angle (0 )
Velocity in medium 1 (m/s)
Velocity in medium 2 (m/s)

Decibel
151 signal height (100%)
2"d signal height(% of HI)

Crystal thickness (mm)

Sound velocity in crystal
material (mm/s)
Fundamental frequency that the
crystal vibrates at (Hz)

= Unknown velocity (m/s)

Material actual thickness (mm)
Time base reading (mm)
Calibration block velocity (m/s)

T
TB

cv
100

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APPEJ\DIX C TABLE OF ACOUSTICAL \'ELOCITIES

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:\OTES

T ABLE OF ACOUSTICAL VELOCITIES IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS

lO

Material
Aluminium
Brass
Cast iron
Copper

20

Gold
Iron
Lead
Oil
Perspex

30

40

Mild steel
Stainless steel
Water
Tungsten
Zinc
Zirconium

50

Compressional or
longitudinal wave velocity
(m/s)

Shear or transverse
wave velocity
(m/s)

6,400
4,372
3,500

3, 130
2, 100
2,200
2,325

4,769
3,240
5,957
2,400
1,440
2,740
5,960
5,740
1,480
5,174
4,170
4,650

1,200
3,224
790

1,320
3,240
3,130

2,880
2,480
2,300

The velocity in a medium depends upon the medium's density and elasticity.

60

70

80

90

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1:\JPF.D:\~CES

D TABLE OF :\COl'STIC

TABLE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS

10

Medium

30

40

50

60

70

80

Shear
velocity (m/s)

Density
(g/cm2)

Acoustic
impedance

330
6,400

Aluminium

3,130

2.7

17.2

Barium titanate

5,260

5.7

30

Beryllium

1,289
4,370

888
2,100

1.8
8.45

23.2

Brass
Cast iron

3,500

2,200

7.2

37
25

Copper

4,760

2,330

8.93

42.5

Glass {plate)

5,770

2.5

14.5

Air
20

Compre
ssion
velocity
(m/s)

Gold

3,240

1,200

19.3

Iron

5,960

3,220

7.85

63
46.8

Lead

2,160

700

11.4

24.6

Lithium sulphate

5,450

2.1

11.2

Magnesium

5,790

3,100

1.74

10.1

Mercury

1,450

13.55

19.6

Molybdenum

6,250

3,350

10.2

63.7

Nickel

5,480

2,990

8.85

48.5

Oil

1,440

0 .9

1.3

Perspex

2,740

1,320

1.2

3.2

Platinum

3,960

1,670

21.4

85

Quartz

5,730

2.65

15.2

Steel

5,960

3,240

7.8

46.5

Stainless steel

5,740

3,130

7.8

44.8

Silver

3,700

1,700

10.5

36.9

Tin

3,380

1,610

7.3

24.7

Titanium

5,990

3,120

4.5

27

Tungsten

5,170

2,880

19.3

100

Tungsten araldite

2,060

10.5

21.65

Tungsten carbide

6,650

3,980

10

66.5

Uranium

3,370

2,020

18.7

63

Water

1,480

1.48

Zinc

4,170

2,480

7. 1

29.6

90

100

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..\PPEi\DIX E

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ATTE~L.-\ TIOi\

FACTOR

'OTES

EXAMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE ATTENUATION

10

FACTOR OF A MATERIAL

0 probe method

20

30

Using a calibrated timebase, place the probe on the material to be measurt:d. Select
two back waU echoes at a distance ratio of 2:1 , the ftrst one being at least three near
zone distances from zero. Measure the difference in amplitude, in dB's, of the two
signals and record their range difference. The back wall echo decreases in amplitude
by 6 dB for every doubling of the range. The attenuation factor can be determined by
subtracting 6 dB from the amplitude difference (in dB) and dividing this by twice the
range difference (return journey of the sound).
This method becomes less accurate as the number of multiple echoes used increases,
due to the fact that about I dB of sound re-enters the probe, on each bounce of the
sound, at the probe to material interface.

Correction for attenuation and transfer loss

I

BS EN 583-2 : 2001

40

When reference or calibration blocks are used, there may be attenuation differences
between the block and test object (in surface condition or material). Methods for
determining these attenuation differences are given in the current standards.

50

60

70

80

90

100

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APPENDIX F EX:\1\IPLE CALCt:L\TIONS

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T P O'Neill
'IOTf.S

EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS USED IN ULTRASONICS

10

Wavelength (A.)
To calculate the wavelength of a 5.0 MHz, 0 probe when used on steel.
Frequency (f) = 5.0 MHz
Velocity of compression waves in steel (v) = 5,960 m/s

20

}. =

5,960 m/s

5 MHz
30

5,960,000 nun/s
5,000,000 Hz

A. = 1.19 mm

Near zone (N)

40

To calculate the near zone of a 20 mm diameter, 5.0 MHZ, 0 probe used on

aluminium.
Frequency (f) = 5.0 MHz
Velocity of compression waves in aluminium (v) = 6,400 m/s
Crystal diameter (D) = 20 mm
D2

50

N =

N =

-4A.

02

or -

20 mrn 2
4

f
v

X-

5MHz
6400 mls

60

70

400mm

5,000,000 Hz
X

6,400,000 mm/s

= 78.125 mm

Half beam angle (A)

To calculate the half beam spread from a 10 mm diameter, 5.0 MHz , 0 probe used on
steel.
80

Frequency (f) = 5.0 MHz

Velocity of compression waves in steel (v) = 5,960 m/s
Crystal diameter (D) = 10 rnm
Constant (K) = 1.22 (assume extreme edge of beam K-factor unless otherwise
stated)

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Sin.!_ B =
2

IU
K
or
D
D

Sin.!_ B
2

1.22
-10

Sin.!_ B
2

1.22
-10

X-

10

20

5,960 m/s
5MHz

5,960,000 mmls
5,000,000 Hz

Sin.!_ B = 0.145424

30

1
Angle- B
2

= 822'

Snell's law
40

To calculate the incident (wedge) angle, in perspex, required to produce a 60 refracted

(probe) angle in steel (a 0 = incident angle).
Refracted angle {/J) = 60
Velocity of compression waves in perspex = 2,740 m/s

50

Velocity of shear waves in steel = 3,240 m/s

Sin a
Sin fJ

v1

Vl
V2

- - = - transposesto ma=-x

60

sm fJ

2 740
Sin a=
m/s x Sin 60
3,240 m/s
Sin a =

70

V2

2 740
x 0.866025403

3,240

Sin a= 0.732379508
Angle a = 47 05'

Transit time
80

To calculate the time taken for a longitudinal wave to travel through a piece of steel
20 mm thick and return to the probe.
Distance travelled (D) = 40 nun (2 x thickness)
Velocity of longitudinal waves in steel (v) = 5,960 m/s

90

. . (
)
T rans1t tune 1-l sec

Transit time =

100

D (mm)
= -.;..._--'v (km/s)

40 nun
5.96 km/s

Transit time= 6.7f1SCC

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Clock interval
10

To calculate the time between pulses of energy when the pulse repetition frequency
(prt) is set at 4 KHz (4000 Hz).
Clock interval (~sec) =

20

prf(MRz)

Clock interval = -- - 0.004 MHz

Clock interval = 250 psec

30

Maximum testable thickness

To calculate the maximum thickness of steel we can test with a set prf, we calculate the
clock interval, then calculate distance travelled by the sound in that time and divide by
two (for return journey). Using the above example prf, the maximum thickness would
be:

Velocity of compression waves in steel = 5,960 m/s

Time (clock interval) = 250 ~sec
.
h' kn (
) _
T_im_e.....:(.:..~s_e.....:c):._x_V_e_lo_c_ity~(kml_~s)
M ax1mum t 1c ess nun =

50

th' len
250 X 5.96
.
Max unum 1c ess = - -- 2
Maximum thickness= 745 mm

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