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~I
1. ~Repo~"No~.~~~2,~Go.e~.nmen~'
Ac~:essl~on
No~~3 IIIU~II~II~I~IUIIIIIIII~
FHWA-FLP-94-006
J.
~B97-19~401
SEPTEMBER 1994
15.
Repor, Clote
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No :TRA!Si
15.
13.
14,
I
U.S. Department of Transportation
,I Federal Highway Administration
I
Federal Lands Hi ghway Program
i Washington, DC 20590
11.
HFL-23
Suppleme~lory Notes
I This study was part of the Coordinated Federal Lands Highway Technology
: Implementation Program (CTIP).
1"'"
This report was developed to assist the engineer and manager in planning and
util izing geotechnical engineering information, in the decisionmaldng process for
selecting an appropriate type of retaining wall. It serves as a technical
reference, summarizing the fundamentals of design for retaining walls used by low
volume road agencies. The design guide presents a compendium of standard design,
including sample calculations, standards and specifications.
17.
Key Words
18.
Geocomposite; Geosynthetic;
Reinforced earthi Gabionsi
Cantileveri Anchored walls
19.
Unclassified
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)
Dis'ribuhon S'o'emen'
Unclassified
Reproduc'ion of completed page authorized
21. No.
1 Poges
535
22.
PrIce
Page 76 (7/99)
Change equation 3-12 to the following;
Ka
<
L~
FS OT (K ab )H [ Yb (H) + 3q]
3[q + Yr(H)]
(0.47)(10.24+ 15.45)+7.02
13.14
1.45
Calculate the radius of carbon steel at the end ofthe design life, Te,
where Tn is the radius ofthe wire at construction, which equals half the wire diameter,
d/2.
Tn =
g=
2
Ts is the thickness ofthe wire lost during the structures design life due to corrosion of the
carbon steel.
T 5 = 0.47 miVyr (75 yr-13.9 yr) = 28.7 mils = 0.0287 in
Te
0.106 in - 0.0287 in
0.0773 in
= 771lb/ft
FOREWORD
This study was funded as a part of the Coordinated Federal Lands Highway
Technology Implementation Program. It is intended to serve the immediate needs
of those who design and construct Federal Lands Highways, but it is also made
available to all other interested parties.
This Design Guide streaml ines and standardizes the art and science of slope
management. It is intended to assist engineers and managers in planning and
utilizing geotechnical information in the decision making process for selecting
an appropriate type of retaining wall.
I
~
f~,r Thomas
"j
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C.
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//1/'1)
_
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O. Edick P.E.
Federal Lands Highway Program Administrator
Federal Highway Administration
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of
Transportat ion in the interest of i nformat i on exchange. The Un ited States
Government assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof.
The United States Government does not endorse products of manufacturers.
Trademarks or manufacturers' names appear herein only because they are considered
essential to the object of this document.
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible
for the facts and accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not
necessarily reflect the official policy of the Department of Transportation.
This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
The second edition of the Retaining Wall Design Guide has been produced by the USDA Forest Service. The gUide is an updated version of
the original produced by Mr. David Driscoll of Geotechnical Resources.
Inc .. Portland. Oregon. in 1978. Funding for this revision was provided
by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) through the
Coordinated Technology Implementation Program (CTIP).
The principal changes to this edition are the emphasis on mechanically
stabilized backfill (MSB) , mechanically stabilized earth (MSE). or
reinforced soil type wall systems. their design. application, and
advantages. For the past decade the vast majority of new retaining
structures constructed have been reinforced soil systems. such as
welded wire and chainlink fencing walls, reinforced fills. reinforced
earth or VSL walls. and geotextile walls. Geogrid and geotextile
reinforced walls have used a variety of facing materials including
timbers. modular concrete blocks. tires, or hay bales. They are
generally cheaper to construct than traditional gravity structures
because of their relatively low materials costs. easily transportable
materials, and simple erection.
The design gUide is divided into four chapters:
(1) Chapters 1 and 2 are intended to aid the engineering manager
Table of Contents
Page
PREFACE
"
"
LIST OF FIGURES
i
, xi
XXi
XXiii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
lA Purpose
I
1"8 Slope Management
2
lC Lessons from Retaining Wail Failures
2
Chapter 2 WALL SELECTION AND DESIGN PROCEDURE
2A Introduction
2B Wall Types
2B.l Background
2B.2 Mechanically Stabilized Backfill
2B.2.1 General
2B.2.2 Reinforced Earth
2B.2.3 Geosynthetic Reinforcement
28.2.4 Stack Sack Walls
2B.2.5 Welded Wire Walls
2B.2.6 Chain Link Walls
2B.2.7 Modular Block Walls
2B.3 Gravity Walls
2B.3.1 Bin Walls
2B.3.2 Concrete and Timber Cribs
2B.3.3 Gabions
2B.3.4 Concrete Structures
28.4 Cantilever Pile Walls
2B.4.1 General
2B.4.2 Cantilever Sheet Piles
2B.4.3 Cantilever H-Piles
2B.5 Anchored Walls
2B.5.1 General
2B.5.2 Anchored H-Piles
2B.5.3 Anchored Sheet Piles
9
9
10
10
13
13
13
14
16
17
18
19
19
, 19
22
22
24
25
25
26
26
27
27
27
28
2C
2D
2E
2F
2G
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
...............................
" .............
...............................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
iv
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.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
............ .........
..
..
..
..
29
29
30
30
31
31
31
32
32
33
33
34
35
35
37
37
43
44
45
45
45
45
45
46
53
53
53
53
53
54
54
55
55
55
55
.. 55
56
.. 56
56
57
- 57
. . 57
57
.. 64
.. 64
68
75
. . 76
80
3E
3F
3G
3H
31
...................
...................
...................
...................
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
.................
.................
.................
.................
..
..
..
..
...................
.......... .........
...................
84
85
87
87
90
92
92
92
96
96
96
96
105
. . 110
110
110
.. III
112
113
.. 114
115
.. 115
115
118
118
118
120
122
.. 123
123
123
123
123
124
124
125
125
125
126
.. 126
.. 126
126
.. 128
.. 130
130
. . 137
. . 137
. . 137
137
138
3.1
3K
3L
3M
3N
30
3P
vi
139
147
147
152
153
157
157
158
161
164
164
165
165
166
176
176
176
177
178
181
194
205
205
208
208
217
217
218
218
219
219
220
221
221
221
228
230
230
232
233
233
234
240
240
240
240
245
246
246
246
3P.l.2 Geosynthetics
3P.1.3 Treated Timber
3P.2 Corrosion Parameters
3P.2.1 Soil Sensitivity
3P.2.2 Moisture Content
3P.2.3 Soluble Salt
3P.2.4 PH
3P.2.5 Redox Potential
3P.2.6 Organic Material
3P.2.7 Soluble Iron Content
3P.3 Design Considerations
3P.3.1 Change in Materials
3P.3.2 Sacrificial Materials
3P.3.3 Coatings
3P.3.4 Cathodic Protection
3P.3.5 Control of Drainage
3P.4 Construction Considerations
3P.5 Monitoring
3P.6 Geosynthetics
3P.7 Geosynthetic Construction SUrvivability
Chapter 4 SPECIFIC WALL DESIGNS
4A Introduction
48 Concrete Cantilever Wall
48.1 Problem Statement
48.2 Design Calculations
48.2.1 External Stability
48.2.2 Internal Stability
48.3 Additional Design CO:lsiderations
48.3.1 Drainage
48.3.2 Footing Embedment
4B.4 Construction Considerations
4B.5 Backfill Placement
4C Bin Wall
4C.l Problem Statement
4C.2 Design Calculations
4C.3 Additional Design Considerations
4C.3.1 Drainage
4C.3.2 Erosion Protection
4C.4 Construction Considerations
4D Gabion Wall
4D.l Problem Statement
4D.2 Design Calculations
4D.3 Additional Design Considerations
4D.3.1 Slope Stability
4D.3.2 Drainage
4D.3.3 Sliding Friction
4D.4 Construction Considerations
4E Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls
4E.l Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls
vii
246
246
246
247
247
248
249
249
249
249
250
250
250
252
252
253
253
253
255
285
259
259
259
259
261
263
265
270
270
270
270
271
271
271
272
274
274
274
274
275
275
277
281
281
281
281
281
283
283
284
288
289
295
301
308
308
309
314
314
315
315
315
316
316
318
332
332
332
332
332
333
333
333
333
333
333
333
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 341
APPENDIX A Geotechnical Considerations
A-I
Preliminary Site Investigations-Field Summary
A-3
Geotechnical Exploration by- the Drive Probe Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A-7
APPENDIX B Condition Survey-Field Summary
B-1
0-1
viii
E-47
E-60
ix
List of Figures
Page
Chapter 2
2-1
2-2
14
2-3
15
2-4
15
2-5
16
2-6
2-7
18
2-8
18
2-9
19
2-10
Circular metal bin wall, Fall Creek Road. Okanogan National Forest
20
2-11
Rectangular steel bin wall, Mary's Peak Road, Siuslaw National Forest
20
2-12
2-13
Concrete crib wall, Cape Perpetua Visitor's Center, Siuslaw National Forest ..... 21
2-14
Timber crib wall. White River Road, Mt. Hood National Forest
22
2-15
23
2-16
2-17
2-18
26
2-19
27
xi
.. 25
2-20
2-21
29
Chapter 3
3-1
3-IA
3-IB
Angle of internal friction versus dry unit weight for granular soils
(after NAVFAC DM-7, 1971)
59
60
61
3-1 C
3-2
3-3
67
3-4
Backfill coefficients for a plane backslope (after NAVFAC DM-7.2, May 1982)
71
3-5
72
3-6
Line loads-magnitude and action of resultant (after Terzaghi and Peck, 1967) ... 74
3-7
77
3-8
78
3-9
3-10
80
3-11
81
3-12
3-13
3-14
3-15
3-16
84
86
xii
3-17
89
3-18
91
3-19
91
3-20
93
3-21
94
3-22
95
3-23
98
3-24
99
3-25
99
3-26
101
3-27
Seismic example
103
3-28
Extensible reinforcement
3-29
114
3-30
116
3-31
3-32
3-33
3-34
3-35
127
3-36
129
3-37
External forces
131
3-38
Shear keys
132
3-39
3-40
134
3-41
134
"
= 45
xiii
......
106
117
3-42
3-43
.139
3-44
140
3-45
142
3-46
3-47
3-48
Earth pressure distribution cantilever sheet pile wall-uniform surcharge ..... 152
3-49
3-50
3-51
Earth pressure diagram for cantliever soldier pile wall with uniform
surcharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
3-52
159
3-53
161
3-54
162
3-55
164
3-56
Rockery...................................................... 168
3-57
Postconstruction gUideline
3-58
3-59
Typical detail native cut of any height over 4 feet (after Arc Manual)
3-60
Typical detail overbuild fill construction rock wall less than 8 feet
in height (after Arc Manual) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
3-61
Typical detail geogrid reinforced fill construction rock wall 8 feet or more
in height (after Arc Manual) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173
3-62
174
3-63
175
3-64
148
156
169
xiv
171
3-65
179
3-66
182
3-67
183
3-68
185
3-69
192
3-70
3-71
197
3-72
201
3-73
206
3-74
207
3-75
3-76
212
3-77
213
3-78
214
3-79
3-80
3-81
3-82
3-83
3-84
3-85
229
3-86
230
3-87
231
3-88
223
xv
227
3-89
233
3-90
3-91
237
3-92
238
3-93
239
3-94
243
3-95
xvi
List of Tables
Page
Chapter 1
1-1
Chapter 2
2-1
Wall classification
12
2-2
13
2-3
36
2-4
38
2-5
40
2-6
40
2-7
41
2-8
41
2-9
Inflation factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2-10
42
2-11
43
2-12
49
2-13
50
2-14
2-15
CBA decisionmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
. . . 51
Chapter 3
3-1
3-2
58
xvii
3-3
63
3-4
65
3-5
67
3-6
Types of backfill for retaining walls (after Terzahgi and Peck. 1967)
69
3-7
3-8
73
3-9
97
3-10
3-11
3-12
2-1
3-13
3-14
143
3-15
145
3-16
146
3-17
3-18
3-19
3-20
153
3-21
166
3-22
187
3-23
236
3-24
3-25
3-26
112
125
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
...................
147
244
xviii
3-27
248
3-28
251
3-29
256
3-30
256
257
3-31
xix
Greek Symbols
13
13'
~oH
~ov
o
0b
Yb
Yt
e1J
cPa
cPr
Reduce internal friction angle for use in analysis of stack sack walls.
e1Jr
dJ t
PI
Pa
0h
0mom
Moment-induced stress.
On
0p
0"
xxii
English Symbols
Foundatior.. width.
B'
Depth to zero shear ir. the upper portion of the retaining wall.
Cohesion between soil and wall.
015F' 0S5F'
15B. 0 50B'
Effective diameter of the soil particles at which the numerical portion of the
subscript passes that sieve. B or F refers to backfill or filter. respectively.
50F
dr
dr
Fa
Fb
Fr
FSy
fa
fb
fc
ft
fy
fe'
He
HI
Height of wall above section at which stresses are being considered in a gravity
structure.
Height of deadman.
xxiv
K,.
kd
L
Ratio x
xxv
N.A.
Neutral axis.
Bearing capacity factors.
Ratio ~ .
I equals ratio of lateral distance and distance to wall from point load to the
~oint at which stresses are being computed.
Pa
.iq
xxvi
Rmax
R'max
Maximum anchor tension reduced for interaction of active and passive failure
wedges.
Sf
Fabric strength.
Smln
Tf
Tn
Weight.
xxvii
We
Wn
Depth of embedment of driven pile retaining walls (measured below point of zero
earth pressure).
~~
Lateral distance along wall face to point at which stress is being computed.
21
Height of earth pressure reversal at the tip of driven pile retaining walls.
xxviii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1A Purpose
18 Slope
Management
1C, Lessons
from Retaining
Wall Failures
This section documents over 30 retaining wall failures that have taken
place over the past 25 years (see table 1-1). These failures occurred on
low volume road systems, primarily Federal and rural county systems
in the northwestern United States, from the central Sierras to Montana
This represents the experience of 10 individuals. Undoubtedly there
c..:>
'II:
10. 0
...
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lIllll
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oQ
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~lIl
0101
11:&
Il ...
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~'
101 11I
)..
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U
o
f..lIl
'I-
lIllt
"'::l
Ou
Ill-
IoJQ
ORIGINAL CONDITIONS
WALl
PILE
~;~;
DRAIN
/ /
1-,..//
,/
OR
BA.'::K
GRAVITY
OR
TIE
STRUCTURE
SOIL REINFORCEMENT.
F!/p/!rN~flt'?C:'''Co/,-rr:0''''''
BU"T rHI'
RETAININC;
WALL
OR
../ "
cur .........~
H-PILE
SHEF:T
TIMBER LAGGED
I~LINrORCED
RETAINING STRUCTURE
SOLUTION
ClJ
//
I.",~ / / _
TRENCH
RAIN
HORIZONTAL
DRAIN
NON - STRUCTURE
SOLUTION
..',':.
have been many others in the northwest as well as the rest of the
United States. Table 1-1 is a summary of the teams' experience.
A review of the table reveals the following reasons for the number of
failures:
(1) Many walls are designed for steep. rugged terrain with no
Type of Failure
Situation
Result
Bin wall
Foundation
Bin wall
Raveling of backfill
Structural
Bin wall
Structural
Bin wall
Structural
Bin wall
Sliding/overturning
Bin wall
Structural
Bin wall
Foundation
Gabion
Global stability
No geotechnical investigation
was done. and the wall was built
on an active slide.
Gabion
Foundation
No geotechnical investigation
was done. The foundation
conditions were unsuitable.
Gabion
Foundation
No geotechnical investigation
was done. The wall was founded
on side cast material consisting
of soil and logs.
Type of Failure
Situation
Result
Gabion
Foundation/global
stability
Anchored
H-pile
Structural / overturning
Anchored
H-pile
Horizontal movement
Anchored
H-pile
Structural
Cantilever
H-pile
Overturning
Cantilever
H-pile
Vandalism
Cantilever
H-pile
Sliding
Cantilever
H-pile
Overturning
Cantilever
H-pile
Overturning
!
I
I
Sagging
Wall Type
Type of Failure
Situation
Result
Welded wire
Foundation
Welded wire
Welded wire
Slump
Welded wire
Foundation
Welded wire
Foundation/sliding
No geotechnical investigation
was done. The wall was built
on loose side cast soil. and no
drainage was provided.
Reinforced
backfill,
geotextile
reinforcement
tire-faced
Loss of backfill
through face
Reinforced
earth
Foundation
Reinforced
backfill,
geotextile
reinforcement
gunite-faced
:I
Type of Failure
Situation
Result
Reinforced
backfill,
several walls,
geotextile and
chain-link
reinforcement
Secondary
compression of
backfill
Reinforced
backfill.
chain-link
reinforcement
Aesthetic
Reinforced
backfill,
geotextile
reinforcement
Chapter 2
Wall Selection and Design Procedure
2A Introduction
(2) The problem is defmed and reviewed by the geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist who completes a preliminary site
investigation/field summary as outlined in appendix A and
assesses potential solutions and costs.
(3) A preliminary site investigation/field summary is forwarded
to the responsible engineering manager for review. The report
details problems based upon information gathered in step 2.
stressing the risks and uncertainties related to subsurface
conditions and the relative urgency of the situation.
(4) The responsible engineering manager then develops a summary report based upon staff reports. The report includes
economic and recreation values, desired permanency of
solution, aVailability of funds. allowable construction
methods, and environmental concerns.
(5) The geotechnical and design engineer. under the direction of
the engineering manager. will either proceed with the process.
with a preliminary design based upon presumptive design
parameters, or expand the investigation to obtain additional
information.
(6) The geotechnical and design engineer provides the responsible engineering manager with preliminary designs for several
possible solutions. This report includes rough costs, relative
risks. factors of safety. construction problems, required
construction time, and other information about the possible
wall types.
28 Wall Types
2B.1 Background
10
_GROUTED ANCHORS
(b)
( a)
nE-~ACIC.OR
REINFORCED
BACKFILL
ANCHORED
ASSUMED F'AILURE
PLANE
TIMBER
LAGG~
ORIGINAL
GROUND
SURF'ACE
\v/-'
,,/
/'
/'
(d)
GRAVITY
(d
CANTILEVER
11
Mechanically Stablllzed
Backfill (Reinforced SolI)
Anchored
Reinforced Earth
VSL
Geosynthetic
Stack Sack
Modular block
Welded wire
Gravity
Cantilever Piles
Bin walls
Rectangular
Circular
Cross-tied
Concrete crib
Timber cribs
Gabions
Concrete gravity
Concrete cantilever
Several of the anchored walls and the Stack Sack wall have received
dual classifications in table 2-1. In the case of pile walls, this is
because tied back designs are common in addition to cantilever
designs. The Stack Sack wall is a hybrid design that develops its
stability from a combination of backfill reinforcement and tied back
anchoring. Essentially any gravity stnlcture can be tied back to
increase the factor of safety against overturning or sliding.
For purposes of discussion in this gUide. retaining walls have also been
classified as Mstandard" and Mnonstandard." A standard wall is
typically constnlcted from Moff-shelf' materials according to preexisting
designs developed by industry or State and Federal agencies. Standard
wall systems have been used extensively by low volume road agenCies.
12
Standard Walls
Nonstandard Walls
Bin walls
Rectangular
H-piles, lagged
Geosynthetic
Vertical sheet pile
Anchored (tied back)
Stack Sack
C~rcular
Cross-tied
Reinforced backfill
Timber cIib
Concrete cIib
Gabions
Concrete gravity
Concrete cantilever
Welded wire
Modular block
Although propIietary designs exist for many of the standard walls, all
standard walls may have nonstandard applications that require substantial modi:ication of the design. The following sections present bIief
descIiptions of the 14 wall types evaluated in this manual.
2B.2
Mechanically
Stabilized Backfill
26.2.1 General
Earth reinforcement is a very simple concept to use for both the design
and construction of retaining walls. Ease of use and economy of
construction and mateIials are its major selling points. Mechanically
stabilized embankments require minimal foundation preparation and
can sustain large amounts of differential settlement without seIious
damage.
26.2.2 Reinforced
Earth
13
28.2.3
Geosynthetic
Reinforcement
14
15
Figure 2-6 shows a Stack Sack wall. The Stack Sack wall i~ a nonstandard wall system. although it can oe made with standard designs.
Limited in use. the design is based upon a combination of tieback and
backfill perfonnance criteria. Thus. the designs should be carefully
checked for each design situation.
Stack Sack walls will endure minor differential settlement. They
typically reqUire smaller amounts of excavation than true reinforced
embankment walls. but they also require additional foundation preparation using an unreinforced working mat. Stack Sack walls have the
same general ease of construction as reinforced embankment walls.
Because of this low cost. Stack Sack walls are excellent for long. low
walls or a series of walls in one general area. However. for isolated.
short or high walls. the cost is high because construction can proceed
at a rate of only about 2 feet of wall height per day.
16
28.2.5 Welded
Wire Walls
Figure 2-7 shows a standard Hilfiker welded wire wall. This wall is
made up of preformed wire components that are lightweight. transportable. and easy to handle. While the standard wire facing is mostly
used. a variety of facings such as timber. concrete panels. shotcrete.
and stone are aVailable.
17
. .,.,."
""7.~:.',
.
~
.. "llo"
~.
...
II'
"'~'"
'.
.~., ~~'
"
~-
,,:,:~,
18
"I
'.'
,,;. ......
2B.2.7 Modular
Block Walls
~- .. -._-....~.
'III'
.,.
..,
-;
I
.",
....
4?..,
1"!
28.3 Gravity
Walls
2B.3.1 Bin Walls
19
Figure 2-1 O.-eircular metal bin wall. Fall Creek Road. OkwlOgan
National Forest.
20
2B.3.2 Concrete
and Timber Cribs
Figures 2-13 and 2-14 show examples of standard design concrete and
timber crib walls. Similar to steel bins. crib walls are designed as
gravity structures that rely on the stabilized fill within the cells for
mass. Crib walls are generally built in a "log cabin style" with openings
alternating with the Cribbing; however, concrete cribs can also be built
with a smooth face.
Timber cribbing does not possess the permanence that concrete and
steel do, and, consequently, it requires more maintenance. Another
disadvantage of open-faced cribs is the tendency of the backfill material
to run out.
21
Figure 2-14.-Timber crib wall, White River Road, Mt. Hood National
Forest.
22
28.3.3 Gabions
The advantages of gabions walls are similar to those of bins and cribs.
Constructed of clean rock. gabion walls blend in very well with their
surroundings. The preformed baskets are also light and easy to work
with dUring construction.
One of the major shortcomings of gabion walls is that free-draining
rock is required to fill the wire baskets. If quality backfill material is
not available within a reasonable distance. gabion walls may be
economically less desirable.
Experience shows that rupture of the wire baskets may be a problem
for walls in the 25- to 3D-foot-height range. This problem may be the
result of localized over-stressing due to excessive differential settlement
or to wire damage dUring construction caused by dropping rock fragments. Postconstruction damage resulting from stream load abrasion
or vandalism may also be a problem. Therefore. gabion walls in the 2Dto 3D-foot range should be closely monitored dUring and after their
construction.
23
28.3.4 Concrete
Structures
24
28.4 Cantilever
Pile Walls
2B.4.1 General
25
26.4.2 Cantilever
Sheet Piles
26.4.3 Cantilever
H-Piles
The cantilever H-pile wall shown in figure 2-19 has timber lagging to
support the backfIll. Horizontal sheet piling and precast panels are
other forms of lagging that have been used. Lagged H-pile walls
typically represent an economical and easily constructed means of
earth support and retention. An advantage of H-piles over sheets is
that fewer of them are driven. Since there are fewer of them. they are
generally heavier in section and can take more abuse during dIiving.
Tip protectors can also be attached to the piles to reduce the
probability of damage dUIing heavy driving.
26
28.5 Anchored
Walls
2B.5.1 General
There are two basic types of anchoring systems. The traditional form of
anchor is a protected steel tendon or bar that has been fIxed in the soil
or rock behind the assumed failure plane by a mechanical anchoring
device or a column of grout. Another common form of anchor involves
the use of a deadman and a tieback system. The deadman can be a
gravity or partial gravity device. or some type of soil anchor that
develops its capacity by mobilizing the passive resistance of the soil.
Generally. deadman anchors are used for soil-related problems and are
commonly placed in fill or undisturbed ground.
Recent developments in the use of anchored walls include the Stack
Sack wall. which develops its resistance by a combination of tieback
anchors and earth reinforcement. The use of tie back anchors
generally allows the designer to reduce the required structural section
of the facing.
2B.5.2 Anchored
H-Piles
27
provided that sufficient embedment can be achieved to fIx the pile tips
in the soil and/or weathered rock. Also. steel sheet pile or timber may
be used as lagging.
28.5.3 Anchored
Sheet Piles
Figure 2-21 shows a driven sheet pile wall that has been tied back
using a system of H-pile anchors and soldier piles. Sheet piles can also
be tied back using a system of walers placed horizontally across the
front of the wall.
28
.~.
"
.' ....
"
!l-'.~ ~ .~;..c'
'.~.
- ......
"1' "
../
28.6 Standard
Walls
The pIimary advantage of standard walls is that, typically, the components are prefabricated and readily available as shelf items. In
addition, a minimum amount of preconstruction engineering is
required except for excavation and backf111 quantity estimates. An
adequate geotechnical investigation, as outlined in appendix A, is
required to evaluate the probable adequacy of foundation support and
the resistance to overturning and sliding. Typically, standard walls are
overdesigned with respect to internal stress and, therefore, do not
require a rigorous internal structural analysis as long as the backfill
soil strength properties equal or exceed those used by the
manufacturer for design.
28.7
Nonstandard
Walls
Use of a nonstandard or custom wall design is required when geotechnical and/or topographic conditions necessitate. Geologic conditions
that might require a nonstandard design would include weak foundations, shallow bedrock, landslide conditions, or deep soils on steep
slopes. The most common topographic features requiIing nonstandard
designs are slopes generally in excess of 67 percent and narrow rock
chutes.
The primary advantage of a custom design is.the ability to design a wall
to fit the slope, rather than designing the slope to fit the wall. Cost
savings can be realized if this approach is pnldently used.
29
2C Wall
Dimensions
20 Geotechnical
Considerations
The first and probably the most important contribution made to the
wall design and selection process is the preliminary site review.
Therefore, it is important that the site review be done thoroughly and
comprehensively by a qualified engineering geologist or geotechnical
engineer. Appendix A shows suggested outline for completing a site
review.
The site review should provide documented infonnation about slope
stability. locations of surface cracking. probable depth of the failure
surface (if there is landsliding). probable depth and slope of bedrock,
foundation materials (soil and rock), estimated or allowable soil and/or
rock bearing pressure, ground water conditions, local and regional
faulting, seismic conditions, aVailability of construction materials, and
probable anchor locations and capacities. Topographic data relating to
the slope and physical configuration of the site should also be provided.
30
2E Management
Considerations
2E.1 Background
The current concern and requirements for protection of the environment have placed new constraints on construction. No longer are
roads constructed for the sole purpose of economics. Therefore, the
engineer and the engineering manager must not only consider the
immediate utility of the road or structure, but also its economics.
relative safety, visual qualities, long-tenn perfonnance, future demands
and required construction time. The following paragraphs present a
more complete discussion of the management considerations
introduced above.
Some types of operations require extra right-of-way or an easement.
An example of this is installation of tiebacks or anchors when they
2E.2 Future
Demands
2E.3
Environmental
Concerns
There are many environmental concerns that may influence the selection of one type of wall over another. Among the most commonly
considered factors are visual impact, fisheries and wildlife impact. and
long- and short-term effects on soil and water. The consideration of
visual impact is of such importance that it is discussed separately in
the following subsection.
Following visual impact, the next most commonly considered environmental concern is water quality and stream encroachment. The
primary concern is the long-term maintenance of water quality. The
wall and backfill must be designed to prevent stream siltation resulting
from discharge of eroded soil through surface drains or the structure
itself. Some "nonpoint source pollution," such as siltation dUring
construction, is generally tolerated, provided that it does not harm
downstream fisheries or water supplies.
Stream encroachment can present problems from the standpoint of
fisheries, streambed and bank erosion, and politics. If a substantial
increase in water velocity occurs due to encroachment, fish migration
is generally negatively impacted. This becomes a problem if the stream
flow is passed through a long culvert. In cases of severe encroachment, fish ladders should be supplied. Often encroachment further
affects fisheries and water supplies by forcing the relocated stream to
cut a new channel, thereby increasing the quantity of suspended
particulate matter to unfavorable levels. Compliance with the U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers or other stream encroachment limitations
should be evaluated.
Siltation following erosion can be a serious problem if large cut slopes
are required for wall construction. These areas should be treated
either dUring construction or immediately thereafter to prevent
deterioration of the visual resource and water quality. Slope protection
can take the form of vegetation or, in the case of a streambank., riprap.
Construction of retaining structures may also have the potential for
blocking traditional migration routes used by big game animals,
particularly in excessively steep terrain. In addition, there is the
chance that the construction might dislocate the nesting or breeding
ground of endangered species. In these situations the advice and
assistance of a fisheries and wildlife biologist should be sought.
2EA Visual
Impact
People today are concerned about the visual impact that highways have
on the landscape. Early in the design process, input should be sought
from those in charge of the visuals. This may be a site and design
32
2E.5 Construction
Timing
2E.6 Safety
33
2E.7 Inventory
and Condition
Surveys
34
2F Economic
Considerations
2F.1 Background
35
Factors
Remoteness
Small
project
Rugged
terrain
Cost Implications
Special equipment
requirements increase cost.
36
2F.2
Preconstruction
Costs
ing and the other related disciplines. to analyze the economics of each
site. These analyses should attempt to define the savings in construction costs and reductions in damage to the environment that can be
achieved by accomplishing a detailed engineering analysis. or by using
a nonstandard wall design instead of a standard design. Further. the
cost of the engineering studies should balance with the savings from
reducing the contractor's degree of uncertainty and risk.
2F.3 Initial
Construction
Costs
37
(FP)
Height
"'Cost $
Comments
Reinforced fills
15-50
5-14
TIre-faced walls
10
14
TImber-faced walls
1-8
16-22
Geotextlle-faced walls
1-20
15-29
Ughtwelght walls
28
16-25
22 -
23-29
Welded wtre
6-30
23-34
Modular block
5-30
14-25
10-20
10-20
33-54
25-36
ReInforced earth
10-30
20-27
Metal blnwall
10-30
35-45
Concrete crtb
10-20
25-32
10-20
11-21
Gablons
10-25
22-42
Anchored H-plle
1--40
45-60
5-15
15-22
5-15
15-22
100-125
8-15
5-30
"1992 costs that typically Include drainage, excavation, and backfill. Total wall cost can Increase slgnlflcantly
depending on wall size. site difficulty, and other road repair work.
Note: 1 ft
=0.3048 m
38
The following paragraphs outline an approach to estimating initial construction costs that will provide a reasonable assessment of expenditures and method of comparing the relative costs of various wall systems
for most projects.
The following assumptions have been made in order to simplify the
remainder of this section:
(1) The average slope angle of the original ground surface will be
39
Erection
60.00
120.00
200.00
Gabions
2.51
5.18
2.94
1.69
1.28
Reinforced backfill
5.01
3.73
4.73
2.73
2.06
Concrete cantilever
6.26
15.84
2.94
1.69
1.28
Timber cIib
14.20
5.18
2.94
1.69
1.28
Steel bins
16.28
5.18
2.94
1.69
1.28
16.28
18.11
4.00
2.30
1.73
28.64
18.11
4.00
2.30
1.73
18.79
18.11
4.00
2.30
1.73
Reinforced earth
10.50
4.73
2.73
2.06
Wall Type
'" Note: Erection costs do not include filling cribs. bins, gabions, or earth reinforcement.
These costs are included in backfill.
67% Slope
100% Slope
60
cy/hr
120
cy/hr
60
cy/hr
120
cy/hr
60
cy/hr
120
cy/hr
1.18
0.68
1.40
0.81
1.63
0.94
Reinforced backfill
3.92
2.26
4.08
2.35
'"
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
Wall Type
40
I
Wall Type
Gabions
Materials
Backfill
Erection
60 cy/hr
120 cy/hr
200 cy/hr
2.51
5.18
5.71
3.29
2.5
Reinforced
backfill
11.69
3.73
6.45
3.73
2.81
Concrete
cantilever
9.60
26.91
5.71
3.29
2.50
Timber crib
16.70
5.18
5.71
3.29
2.50
Steel bins
21.88
5.18
5.71
3.29
12.50
Cantilever H-pile,
timber lagged
32.73
11.39
4.57
2.63
1.99
Cantilever
sheetpile. soft or
loose soil
35.24
11.39
4.57
2.63
1.99
Cantilever
sheetpile, stiff or
dense soil
16.10
11.39
4.57
2.63
1.99
Reinforced earth
10.00
3.00
3.43
1.99
1.51
67% Slope
100% Slope
60
cy/hr
120
cy/hr
60
cy/hr
120
cy/hr
60
cy/hr
120
cy/hr
1.47
0.87
1.96
1.13
3.43
1.99
Reinforced backfill
3.18
1.83
4.24
2.45
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
Wall Type
41
*
0.03
*
0.02
Table 2-9-Injlationfactors.
Present ENR "Materials" Cost Index
1952.4*
Materials inflation
correction ratio
Excavation backfill
inflation correction ratio
Condition
Percent Swell
moist
wet or dry
dry
wet
40
10-15
15-35
25
50
wet or dry
50-65
Similarly, when loose material is recompacted as fill. shrinkage (reduction in volume) occurs. Shrinkage factors have not been included in
tables 2-5 through 2-9; consequently. the estimated cost of fill will have
to be increased appropriately in accordance with the material being
placed. Table 2-11 presents shrink factors for commonly used fill
material. Use of shrink factors is also demonstrated in chapter 4.
42
Condition
Percent Shrink
moist
wet or dry
moist
30-40
25-40
25-40
30-40
wet or dry
10-15
2F.4 Maintenance
2F.5 Projected
Future Use
43
2G Evaluating
AlternativesFinal Selection
2G.1 Approaches
engineering management.
(2) A review by engineering management with the aid of choosing
by advantages (eBA).
(3) An engineering staff, in case of an emergency.
Depending on the project size, sensitivity and timing. all the follOWing
suggestions are valid methods of selection. The following subsections
contain brief discussions of each of the suggested methods for
evaluating alternatives and the appropriate conditions for use. It has
been assumed in these discussions that all parties are well-informed
and understand the ramifications of the problem.
2G.1.1
Approach A
All major projects and any other projects that ,vill have a Significant
impact on any of the interrelated disciplines should benefit from a
consensus evaluation by a team whose members represent the various
disciplines. Each of the participating team members should be
prepared to present a summary statement about the project and its
influence on their area of concern. Subsequently. the team should
make a decision based upon the information provided. Quite possibiy,
44
the use of CBA by the team members might help to point out the
advantages or disadvantages of a given method of solution. (A
discussion of CBA is presented in the following section.)
2G.1.2
Approach B
2.G.1.2.1
Background
2.G.1.2.2
Alternative Analysis
those that have an interest in, or are affected by, the decision.
45
46
47
00
Design
Life
Construction
Flexibility
Design and
Considerations
Geotechnical
Visual
impacts
Land
disturbance
\
Factor\Alt
Total
Cost
Adv
Att
Adv
Att
Adv
Att
Adv
Att
Adv
Att
I
I
$100,000
-----------------
50+ years
-----------------
Very flexible
-----------------
$80,000
$50,000
-----------------
-----------------
Projected at 50+
years
50+ years
-----------------
-----------------
Very flexible,
comes on roll
$60,000
-----------------
-----------------
Somewat flesible,
comes in sheets
-----------------
-----------------
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
D
Welded wire
I
I
$70,000
-----------------
50+ years
-----------------
inflexible, premanufactured
-----------------
Galvanized or
painted face
-----------------
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
Steel binwell
Inflexible wi cone,
flexible wi wood
-----------------
Requires testing
for rock bolts
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
Requires testing
for rock bolts
I
Wood, concrete, or
painted face
I
Some variation,
show vertical H pile
-----------------
-----------------
-----------------
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
C
Geosynthetic
4 ft lateral excav
at toe
B
Anchored H.Pile
6 ft lateral excav
at toe
A
Tied back concrete
co
oj::.
6 ft lateral excav
Att
Design
Life
50+ years
Very flexible
Total
Cost
I
$100,000
Longer design
Adv I life
0 0
Adv
AU
Adv
Att
Requires testing
for rock bolts
Flexible in
Adv I forming
Adv I
9ft less
disturbance
II
Requires testing
for rock bolts
$80,000
Longer design
life
0 0
0
50+ years
II
ro
Less testing,
flexible
00
comes on roll
$50,000
Projected longer
design life
Projected at 50+
years
I
I
or--
~ Color of rock
100 backfill
--------------~-
~
I"
I
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
D
Welded wire
Galvanized or
painted face
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
E
Steel binwell
$60,000
Somewat f1esible,
comes in sheets
Less testing,
flexible
50+ years
inflexible, premanufactured
$70,000
I"
I
I"
I
Wood, concrete, or
painted face
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
nEasily
0
0 Ire-designed 0 0
0
Inflexible wI cone,
flexible wI wood
C
Geosynthetic
IVery flexible,
r1
Some variation,
show vertical H pile
11 ft less
0 oj
disturba~ce 0 I
-----------------
I
I
4 ft lateral excav
at toe
B
Anchored H.Pile
A
Tied back concrete
Att' at toe
Construction
Flexibility
Design
Considerations
Geotechnical
Visual
impacts
Land
disturbance
\
Factor\Alt
Table 2-13.-eBA decision table with attributes and advantages for each alternative. The most important advantagefor eachfactor
is circled and the UPARAMOUNl advantage is identified and assigned 100 points. Alternatives with no advantage are assigned
o points.
en
o
Att
Design
Life
Some variation,
show vertical H pile
11 ft less
0 o~
disturbance 0 I 50
4 ft lateral excav
at toe
B
Anchored H.Pile
220
ou
GO
ro
$80,000
Longer desl.g n 0
o0
life
50+ years
Project~d longer
Projected at 50+
years
180
$50,000
50 design life
r-:=-
comes on roll
IVery flexible,
270
C
I 40
$60,000
Somewat flesible,
comes in sheets
Less testing,
0 0 ~ flexible
nEasily
0
0
0 Ire-designed 00
Inflexible wi cone,
flexible wi wood
Color of rock
1100 backfill
------------~-i)-
ro
C
I 50
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
D
Welded wire
Galvanized or
painted face
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
E
Steel binwell
ro
ro
170
I 60
$70,000
120
Longer desig~ 0 ~
life
0 I ou
50+ years
inflexible, premanufactured
-----------------
Requires testing
for rock bolts
ro
Wood, concrete, or
painted face
15 ft lateral excav
at toe
C
Geosynthetic
I 40
o or;;I
. n
Longer desl g
life
0
50+ years
Very flexible
Total
Cost I $100,000
Adv
Adv
Att
Adv
An
Requires testing
for rock bolts
Flexible in
Adv I forming
9 ft less
Adv I disturbance
r::-
6 ft lateral excav
An' at toe
Construction
Flexibility
Design
Considerations
Geotechnical
Visual
impacts
Land
disturbance
\
Factor\A1t
Since each of the alternatives has different project costs, another step
is needed to make the selection of the best alternative. This is done by
plotting importance points against project costs as shown in table 2-15.
200
Important
Points
100
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
$90K
S100K
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
$50K
S60K
$70K
$80K
2G.1.3
Approach C
52
Chapter 3
Design Considerations
3A Introduction
The first step in solving any retaining wall problem is defining the
problem. This entails: (1) identifying the soil types; (2) describing the
local geology; (3) defining the topography and critical cross-sections at
the site; (4) estimating the loading conditions, that is, backfill and
surcharge; (5) studying the overall stability of the area; and
(6) establishing soil and ground water parameters for preliminary and
noncritical situations. Completion of the preliminary site investigation
fonn. outlined in appendix A, should provide much of the required
infonnation.
Having collected the infonnation above. the procedure for the design of
retaining walls consists of two steps: selection of tentative dimensions of
the structure, and analysis of the ability of the design structure to resist
the interr:al and external forces. The process is repeated until a stable,
economically feasible structure has been designed. The external
analyses should include evaluations of sliding. overturning. bearing
capacity. and overall slope stability. The internal analyses should
consider shear. bending moment. tensile forces. and differential
settlement (depending on the wall type). Since all forces acting on the
structure are transmitted by soil, geotechnical infonnation should be
incorporated in all retaining wall designs. For each wall, the designer
must deCide on the amount and type of geotechnical infonnation to
include in the analysis and the level of accuracy reqUired. The cost of
the investigations can be justified with projected savings in construction
costs or a higher degree of confidence in the computed factor of safety.
38 Geotechnical
Investigation
38.1 General
53
38.2 Field
Investigations
38.3 Essential
Information
54
38.4 Surface
Exploration
Obtain controlled survey plan and section profiles through wall area.
Use the field-developed cross-section method (see appendix 3.5 in the
Slope Stability Reference Guide for National Forests in the United States)
to develop geologically interpreted sections and tie to controlled survey.
Map and field classify soil and rock units according to the Unified Soil
and Rock Classification Systems (see appendices 3.2 and 3.4 in the
Slope Stability Reference Guide for National Forests in the United States).
Determine mass attitude of rock units from outcrop mapping and
three-point projection.
38.5 Subsurface
Exploration
3B.5.1 Hand Tools
Only
Use drive probe (see appendix A). hand auger. and shovel to obtain
subsurface profile information from soil. rock. and ground water regime.
Information is needed upslope. downslope, and along the grade line of
the proposed structure.
Develop initial approximations of vertical and horizontal distribution of
soil and rock units and ground water model. Drive probe pipe may be
left in place as open standpipe piezometer.
3B.5.2 Geophysics
3B.5.3 Backhoe
Trenching
55
38.5.4 Drilling
38.6 Laboratory
Studies
Like the field investigation, the laboratory studies and the data obtained
should be planned and conducted under the direction of an experienced
geotechnical engineer. Experience and familiarity with soil behavior will
permit the designer to optimize the laboratory budget through the
judicious use of classification and index property tests. The follOwing
paragraphs describe the minimum index property soil tests commonly
used in the geotechnical aspects of retaining wall design. Index
properties are used to group soils into major classifications with respect
to soil type and probable behavior. Prudent use of index property tests
may greatly reduce the number of strength and consolidations tests
reqUired to design the wall.
56
38.6.3 ASTM
01556/02937 Unit
Weight
These tests are performed for soil classification and filter design.
3C Soil
Properties
57
Compactness
Relative densHy, D
d
Very Loose
15%
Standard pene- 0
t rat i on resistance,
N = no. of
blows per
foot.
$ (degrees)*
Unit wei ght, pcf
moist
submerged
Loose
Medium
I
35%
Dense
I
65%
Very Dense
85%
100%
10
30
50
28
30
36
41
<100
< 60
95-125
110-130
110-140
55-65
60-70
65-85
*highly dependent on gradation and particle angularity
<130
> 75
Exudes
Molded
from
by light
between finger
fingers
pressure
when
squeezed
in hand
58
Difficult
to indent
by thumb
nail
en
W
W
45
,.-----------------------r-----,---------,:::r-...,
a:
~
Cl
40 1 - - - - - - - -
z
o
~
()
MATERIAL
,TYPE
~5
1----1---
a:
l&.
.J
<l:
a:Z30
-L-_ _-----j
-~'---..:....-_+"'-"____,,'='-~=-,....---,F__--__F_--
W
~
oA-__ O-
l&. 25 I-----..J~--~-------'-----~---_-L----------'----____.L
.ee
.5
.45
.4e
.35
.3
25
.2
_l
.15
Cl
1.2
20 '"-
<l:
75
1.1
1.0
.9
.8
.75.7
.811.8
.55.5
.45.4
35
.3
.2
VOID RATlo,e,
----'----'- F"OR G=2.68
eo
90
100
110
120
.15
..J
130
140
150
Yd PCF'
Figure 3-1.-Angle ofintemalftiction versus dry unit weightfor granular soils (after NAVFAC
DM-7. 1971).
59
Q)
,I
Nr-H
&rJlJ.
.. d
..
..
II
I-
J~
~
'-,
<
<
<
J:'\~)J
3.~
210 ~
-.,,,
~~
~~
.-O~
~~
'6
~~
.10~
~
~
,E ,ffi;~4;;I~
1 L
~~~~~h
D~PTN OF PNT/fAT/ON
...
,1'1 ,',
~ z~~~4
10. I.J
~~
"'
0 _
~~o
.J~'
/3 ,
0'
son
rI
N- Ar eFT. n"".rAl ~
WA,....rA.~. ~#.~h:
&4L
B.f"-
~70~
65"
tXAAlt2COF /vCOtfM'Cf/aN
...11}, AAII.tI
.by N~d.
.$ 1LA. N.",,"rr.
-90"
~Owll'" (11)
Dr
INIW4c~7
Figure 3-1A.-Cohesionless soilu v ' versus N and Dr (from Transportation Engineering Handbook. 1981).
O"I
"""~A
.s I/). HI",hMr.
c." N Dr/v."
Oh. FOd/
61
ty
0)
5 T
$0"'11' (mCONS13rV&y
~~
.s",. r
81
11.5
131
/8
~5
'2
~9
,~
7/
8'
8.5
73
10-
1,$
)(AMeJ. Jr
I?:f. /. S M .I'
1#-0)
(~,-$
s r. ~4tAI,s,~ C. -
.LJAlJl.J
N./~
IJN...,~ C~A... -U-hll..
bI4J..
Figure 3-1C.-Cohesive soils consistency versus Nand qu (from Transportation Engineering Handbook. 1981).
Dir.A_& ~~A'"
OIl_N/~
87
1118
:JI
1.)3
-'-A,I- CAr"
V-fo
s.J
3&
~I
lSI
74
liS
1#7
13t.
C~Ar"
SM. ry t:~.I" w/ ~
1Y*&l
I 8
Ntw.N (11)
~') I J:'.... (~o.
1",,-
Ls.r,. 1$,,-,,"
N)()
OAt'
.s..-... M SM.rr-
N'
81
.sOIJ.
'
CtJN,4SIVI:
.sTlMATeO DENSlry
.sOFr
FiRM
STIFF ...
!Milk" OIl'
HARD
S."~
i IMM,-!, a.~
10 PtMdI AmI.
::::::;:-:=_-=-_~I~==-l~ tJJ~
F/D
Group
symbol
Soil type
TypIcal value of
compressIon
Range of
maximum
dry unit
weight,
pcf
Range of
optimum
moisture.
percent
At 1.4
tsf
(20
pSi)
At 3.6
tsf
(50
psI)
Percent of
ortgInal height
Cohesion
(as compactedl
psf
Cohesion
(saturated)
psf
'" (Effective
stress
envelope)
degrees
TanI$>
Typical
coefficIent
ofpenneabUlty. k
ft/m1n.
GW
125-135
11-8
0.3
0.6
>38
>0.79
5 lC 10"
GP
115-125
14-11
0.4
0.9
>37
>0.74
10. 1
'"
>34
>0.67
>10-<1
...
>31
>0.60
>10. 7
m!lC
GM
120-135
12-8
0.5
1.1
..
GC
115-130
14-9
0.7
1.6
..
SW
110-130
16-9
0.6
1.2
38
0.79
>10. 3
SP
100-120
21-12
0.8
1.4
37
0.74
>10.3
SM
110-125
16-11
0.8
1.6
1050
420
34
0.67
5 lC 10"
SM-SC
110-130
15-11
0.8
1.4
1050
300
33
0.66
2 lC 10"
SC
105-125
19-11
1.1
2.2
1550
230
31
0.60
5 lC 10.7
ML
95-120
24-12
0.9
1.7
1400
190
32
0.62
10"
ML--CL
100-120
22-12
1.0
2.2
1350
460
32
0.62
5lC 10.7
CL
95-120
24-12
1.3
2.5
1800
270
28
0.54
10.7
63
Group
symbol
Soli Type
Range of
maximum
dry unit
weight.
pef
Range of
optimum
moisture.
percent
At 1.4
tsf
(20 psI)
At 3.6
tsf
(50 psI)
Percent of ortginal
height
Typical
coefficient
of
Cohesion
(as compactedl
psf
Cohesion
(saturated)
psf
(Effective
stress
envelope)
degrees
..
...
...
...
.. .
penneaTand>
blUty. k
ft/min.
OL
80-100
33-21
...
...
MH
70-95
40-24
2.0
3.8
1500
420
25
0.47
5 x 10.7
CH
75-105
36-19
2.6
3.9
2150
230
19
0.35
10.7
OH
65-100
45-21
...
...
..
...
.. .
...
.. .
Table 3-4 presents friction factors and adhesion values for interfaces of
various structural and foundation materials. The values indicated are
approximate and should be verified by field tests and/or previous
experiences.
3D Earth
Pressures
30.1 General
Three states of stress within the backfill are of general interest to the
retaining wall designer: (1) the active, (2) the passive. and (3) the at-rest.
The at-rest case is associated with the backfill forces acting on a
nonyielding retaining wall and on any retaining wall that has not yielded,
for example, by the end of construction conditions. The active state of
stress is associated with the failure conditions when all available shear
strength is mobilized in the backfill, and is related to the wall moving
away from the retained soil. as shown in example (a) of figure 3-2. The
passive state of stress is associated with the failure condition in the
backfill, and is related to the wall moving into the retained soil, as
shown in example (h).
Figure 3-3 illustrates the relative amount of movement reqUired by the
wall to develop the various states of stress and the relative magnitude of
the resulting lateral pressure.
64
Frtction
angle.
th. degrees
0.70
35
0.55-0.60
29-31
0.45-0.55
24-29
0.35-0.45
19-24
0.30-0.35
17-19
0.40-0.50
22-26
0.30-0.35
17-19
0.40
22
0.30
17
0.25
14
0.25
11
Interface matertals
Adhesion
CA'
psf
100-600
600-1,200
65
0.40-0.50
22-26
Friction
angle.
<1>. degrees
0.30-0.40
17-22
0.30
17
0.25
14
Interface materials
Adhesion
CA'
psf
I
200-700
700-1.200
0.70
35
0.65
33
0.55
29
0.50
26
0.30
17
6~ ~,......,..,..,.
!
- , ,"',
"..._
-,-
,,'
~d
/---..:;
~ASSUMED
l I, ~ ~
....
!
I I
I I
f I
CAILURE
PLANE
-PROelABLE
FAILURE
PLANE
~.-1>/2
66
a.
~~
rr
~~
:J
(J)
(J)
PASSIVE CASE
/"-
rr
a.
.J
<d:
/
AT
REST
CASE
rr
w
~
ACTIVE CASE
.J
o
AWAY FROM AGAINST
/ BACKFILL
BACKFILL "-
"
Soil
Dense cohesionless
Loose cohesionless
Stiff cohesive
Soft cohesive
Active State
Passive State
0.0005 H
0.002 H
0.01 H
0.02 H
0.005 H
0.01 H
0.02 H
0.04 H
After achieving the active or passive state of stress, soft cohesive soils
\\111 tend to creep (yield slowly). As creep proceeds, the soil approaches
the at-rest state of stress. Consequently, soft cohesive soils in the active
stress state MIl tend to increase in stress intensity and those in the
passive state of stress will tend to decrease in stress intensity. Likewise,
after achieving the active or passive states of stress, backfills of stiff clay
of moderate-to-high plasticity tend to develop slicken sides and lose
strength when allowed to strain. This loss of strength generally results
67
in an increase of stress intensity for soils in the active state of stress and
a decrease in stress for those in the passive state of stress.
1\vo commonly accepted approaches for detennining the design earth
pressure acting on a retaining wall are the semiempirical methods and
the theoretical methods (see sections 30.2 and 30.3. respectively). In
general. the use of the semiempirical method of analysis is reserved for
standard retaining walls that are low (generally less than 20 feet in
height) and have relatively small surface areas. Typically. these methods
result in a conservatively designed wall. It is the conservatism of design
and the attendant increase in construction costs that generally justify a
comprehensive design. based upon theoretical aspects of soil mechanics.
for larger and more complex problems and some smaller projects. In
addition to the cost and time factors of designing high walls. safety is an
important concern for walls greater than about 20 feet in height.. The
following subsections discuss semiempirical and theoretical design
approaches.
30.2
Semiempirical
Methods
(2) The wall will yield away from the backfill a suffiCient amount to
develop the active state of stress.
(3) The backfill will settle more than the wall.
(4) The earth pressure increases hydrostatically from the ground
surface to the base of the wall.
The semiempirical design method consists of classifying the proposed
project in tenns of the backfill type. backfill slope. surcharge loading.
and selecting the appropriate design parameters from the following
tables and graphs.
The first step in the analysis consists of classifying the backfill material
using soil descriptions presented in table 3-6.
Having detennined the type of backfill material to be used. the geometry
and surcharge conditions of the backfill are claSSified using table 3-7.
68
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Examples (a) and (b) in figure 3-4 show walls with plane-sloped backfills,
as described in classification 1, table 3-7. The earth pressure
distribution may be estimated with the aid of example (c), which
presents K v and K h as a function of J3, the slope angle. Using the values
of K v and K h obtained from example (c), the horizontal and vertical
pressures 0h and 0v are
(3-1)
and
(3-2)
Similarly, the resultant of the total horizontal and vertical pressures are
(3-3)
and
Pv
69
= 1/2KJ-f.
(3-4)
The resultant. Ph' is assumed to act at a point H/3 above the base of the
footing in a hortzontal direction. As shown in examples (a) and (b) of
figure 3-4. the effective height of the wall. H. is measured vertically
through the heel of the wall from the base of the footing to the overlying
ground surface. Terzaghi and Peck. 1967. suggested that for type 5
soils. the value of the effective wall height. H. be reduced by 4 feet for
calculating the total pressure. However. they recommend that the point
of application of the resultant be maintained at H/3 above the base. in
which H is the unreduced effective height.
Examples (a), (b), and (c) in figure 3-5 show classification 2 backfill
geometries. Classification 2 backfills slope upward from the crest of the
wall and become level at some higher elevation. Charts (d) through (h)
present K h and K v as a function of slope angle. soil type. and the ratio of
HdH. As (a) through (c) show. HI is the truncated slope height above
the effective wall height. H. The calculation of stress and total load to
any depth are similar to those for plane slopes. as shown in equations
3-1 through 3-4. The point of application of the total load is also at the
lower third point of H. For type 5 soils. H. the effective wall height.
should be reduced by 4 feet to calculate the magnitude of the resultants
Ph and Pv The point of action of Ph is assumed to be located at the third
point of the unreduced height. H.
The surcharge loadings mentioned in classification 3 include point loads
from the wheels of heavy vehicles and various loading patterns from
stockpiling materials (e.g.. logs or aggregate) such as line. strip. and
aerial loads. The stress distribution resulting from the imposed
surcharge is added vectorially to the earth pressures developed by the
backfill to model the design pressures.
For a uniform surcharge. liq. on a horizontal backfill the change in
horizontal stress. lio h on a unit area of wall is
(3-5)
in which C is a coefficient based on soil type (see table 3-8). The
resultant of the increase in stress is obtained from
(3-6)
in which H is the effective wall height and liol! is obtained from equation 3-5. The resultant of the increase in stress. IiPh acts at a point H/2
above the foundation base. The increase in vertical stress resulting from
a uniform surcharge is equal to the applied surcharge.
70
N,
, I,
lo.l$hP~- L
H
........ , , \
!.:.. :.. . ::,..::: .wl
....
80
N'
60
....
;H/3
-{;
.......
lD
..J
40
20
.;
t
Z
~t
160
140~----.;...-+---
120
100
..J
Z
80
2:1 MAX
~+-ll_+I:
@II
Y:s:
'-
<221
3; I MAXT--r-,--+--1------1
I
60 I-----I---+------i----j-+ -~oL-~7t--'---'r--REFERS TO
SOIL TYPE,
40
SEE TABLE 3-6
VI
..J
:;
20
o
o
6:1
3~1
2:1
1\12'1
~...J...--LJ_-'-...L...I._..J...,;".-L.--.J..l..-~_
10
20
30
VALUES OF SLOPE ANGLE f30
40
Figure 3-4.-Back;ji.ll coeJficientsfor a plane backslope (after NAWAC DM-7.2, May 1982).
71
L-.
SOIL TYPE
"
I 00
~ 801--~h---N'
I-
~
CD
...J
60 -
I
I
SOIL
r===--'--'--'--=--,..=---,
I SLOPE
74::::::~g
~:
/..-
'
A'OO'
I'
I'
...... - - - - Ky_~-' __ -
1.50: I
':.,...-
1.50 '
1.75:
-2.00 :
3.00 :
-~/...-::-..=--==__ -
2.00' I
/.
3.00 : I
"..,.--
...J
120
'~
OF
RATIO
MAX. SLOPE
Kh
CD
60
40
'i.
20
0
3.00' I
6.00: 1
l .___
3: I
,
,
/'
'K y
Ky=O
/-
;
/
: /
_.-
---1\
\2.00' I (MAX.)
3.00: I
--"9--:6.00' I
1./ - - -
I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VALUES
NOTE
FOR MATERIALS OF SOIL
TYPE 5, COMPUTATIONS
OF PRESSURE MAY BE
BASED ON VALUES OF H
FOUR FEET LESS THAN
ACTUAL VALUE.
/ ".//
/;'
.
0
3.00
HI IH
'i
80
~~-;::;~_----
"'2.00 : I (MAX.l
100
I-
...J
I
II
...,,---- j
:
".'"
I '1.50
Koy'"
_ _ -!-1.75
;.. ,.,..,-~':::--'- 2.00
~~PE
SOIL TYPE
~~~~~~~~~3.00
6DO
(0
" 140 - K h -
...
z
,
,...
---~/2.00
I
I
(d)
I-
/1.75
........2.00 ' I
VALUES
160
SLOPE
~--'-"'1.50
-.-;<' ..3.00' I
.".1.75: I
o ~ ....:-~-=----=,.=
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SOIL TYPE
SLOPE
-1.75 : I
:;6.00 , I
y!
-1.50: I
2.00' I
40
20
-----'-'v.
..;I
1.0
OF
~-
RAT 10
1.0
HI IH
(9)
72
The influence of a line load, q'. per unit length parallel to the crest of the
wall. as shown in example (a) of figure 3-6, can be computed using
(3-7)
Type of Soil*
1
0.27
2
3
4
5
0.30
0.39
1.00
1.00
A line load will also result in an increase in the vertical stress on the
heel of the wall. This stress can be estimated by distributing the line
load over an equilateral triangle with its apex located at point c (see
example (b) in figure 3-6).
The load is distributed to the depth of the top of the footing. When
computing the increase in vertical force, only that portion lying over the
heel of the wall should be considered. Hence, in example (b) of
figure 3-6. the net increase in vertical stress is
6.av
= !L
if
and the net increase in vertical force on the heel of the wall is
73
(3-8)
GRAVEL
.
...
WEEP..:;>' ............
HOLES ....
H
I
I
I
I
//
TOP LAYER
LOW PERMEABILITY
1/
~~:OO
-ru
\\<
I~ .6.fh = C q '
,
H
q./ e;
fj,uy =
Figure 3-6.-Line loads-magnitude and action oj resultant (after Terzaghi and Peck. 1967).
74
30.3 Theoretical
Methods
f3 = slope
of backfill
8 < /3.
(2) The Rankine method should be used for projects that can
afford a conservative design, or when the assumed strength
parameters are utilized.
(3) The log spiral method should be used in all cases that require
a refilled design from the standpoint of engineering or
economics.
The following paragraphs will show equations and charts to aid the
engineer in the development of earth pressure diagrams for the design of
earth and rock retaining walls. These charts and tables will be referred
to in Chapter 4, "Specific Wall Designs." The development of these
equations, tables. and charts appears in all texts on the fundamentals of
soil mechanics.
75
K
a
= oosftoosft-yoos13-00s-rp
2
2
cosft - Yoos 13 -OOS
(3-12)
(3-13)
76
T .
H
90+/3
.....
-=t---+--::-1'
/~
,~.gQO_P R~
L+-
(c)
( b)
77
Figure 3-9 shows a method for determining the location and orientation
of the resultant. Pa , using the Rankine earth pressure solution for a
backfIll with a transition in the backslope.
~--2H
>ic
= yHKa -
2c
JK"
(3-14)
and
(3-15)
in which Ka is obtained from equation 3-12. A comparison of equations
3-11 and 3-15 shows that the presence of cohesion reduces the Rankine
active pressure.
78
(3-16)
y.fKa
=~
(3-17)
yjK;,
(3-18)
= 1/2 yff~
(3-19)
Op
and
Pp
in which
K
p
= cos'p [cos,P
(3-20)
1 - sin(j)
79
(3-21)
TENSION
CRACK""
1
l'
l~b+
a
H-h/3
...>lL.-
Po =
r(C---~
cL...-..:..
PI = yHKa - 2C
P,[(H-hl/2]
-JK'C
C+
T,
antan.
80
T
I
Example (a) in figure 3-12 shows the soil structure system for the
Coulomb active case. Examples (b) and (c) in figure 3-12 show the
resulting force polygons for cohesion, Co equal to zero and a value greater
than zero, respectively. A comparison of these example shows that the
presence of cohesion reduces the value of. Po, the total active thrust.
However, time-dependent characteristics of the soil frequently cause E
to approach zero with an attendant increase in Po.
81
T
I
I
ISo-a+ 8-p+
p-
W
~
90+
90-P~
82
Equations 3-24 through 3-26 summarize the Coulomb active case for
noncohesive soils.
(3-24)
and
(3-25)
in
which
Ka
sin 2(a
+ <1
8) sin (a
(3-26)
ft)
(3-13)
and
(3-28)
in which
(3-29)
sin 2asin(a
+ ,;,)
1-
sin(cfJ
sin(a
+
+
5)- sin(cfJ
8) sin(a
+
+
fJ)f
fJ)
When using the Coulomb analysis, recall that for values of 8 > 10 and
8> cfJ/3 the computed values of passive earth pressure become
nonconservative.
83
T
H
____ goo+p
A plane failure surface has been assumed in the Rankine and Coulomb
methods of analysis: In fact. the failure surface observed in the field is
curved as a result of the increase in vertical stress close to the wall from
the downward-acting tangential shearing forces of the soil on the wall
(see figure 3-14). The curvature degree of the failure surface increases
with increasing values of 8, the wall-soil friction angle. Since the log
spiral method of analysis more closely represents the actual failure
surfaces, particularly in the case of passive resistance (Terzaghi and
Peck, 1967). it is recommended for all cases requiring a refmed design
from the standpoint of engineering and/or economics.
Figure 3-15 shows the earth pressure coeffiCients. reduction factors, and
equations required for computation of lateral earth pressure for
cohesionless soil.
84
t----""""-~ TI E
BACK
ACTIVE WEDGE
=,
1 - sin (f)
(3-30)
The coefficient of earth pressure at rest. Ro. may be used in either the
Rankine or Coulomb equations for the computation of the lateral earth
pressure (see equations 3-11 and 3-25). Depending upon the assumed
boundary conditions. the resultant should be located and oriented in
accordance with the gUidelines presented in the preceding sections on
Rankine and Coulomb theories.
85
I I
90 0 1---+-+- ~/Q
+ 1 -1:-1 I
I /. "- fJal"'I' = +.6
80.0
~/Q' + 8 t-rtl
r- 13/ = +.4
70.0
II / /
60.0
V V
-0.7
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
-0.6
20.0
8.0
70
.
~
~
4.0
!Zw
3.0
.912
.854
.787
.711
.627,
.536'
.439
.339
.898 I .881
.830 ,803
.752 .716
.666 .620
.574 .520
,475 .417
.375 I 316
.276! .221
.864
.775
.678
.574
.467
.362
.262
.174
/11
11 / /,
V
/1/
50.0
40.0
I ~
(31
=+.2
II I I I
VVVV
+~
-.2
,,~
-- '
LOGARITHMIC
SPIRAL
/"1
PASSIVE PRESSURE,
r-
'/
=-.
1/
A'V. V / . / V 1/
V V
/' /'
V
/
l,.....:: r- (31t/> = -.6
:::"'/V V
~//C/V
Pp~KpTH'12;PH'Ppce,';;p'~Pp"n6
Ir--
/ /
~V
A /l/ V
.N.'-,....
I(pTH
__,
Qp
/J /
W'
J
~//V/'
R~
Vhf............,.",.
711
2.0
10""'""
1~~~~~6~Q3.6~1~~1;:62~~~V ~V
u.
u.
I-
6.0
5.0
-0.0
'/
9.0I-iH~3.PH
>
-0.21-0.1
/I
'fAILU~EI : lJ.j
~VVV V I~ ~ 131</>
1Ip.d-!e.. ~_._._._. -:A.t.
,,~~SUIRfACE/~vV/v/vr
I
v; / 13/</>
I
.929
.881
.824
.759
.686
.603
.512
.414
0.3
I-
,""Q.
-0.5 -0.4
~r ~
j...--l----:,..V
............... r--- I
_l---~
i
l,....--'\!-'
l---~j..-
13/=-.8
131 = -.9
l:---"" ~.....-I----
I"...-~
, ..V::.....
'"
1 0 ,~
:2
w
a:
(/)
g:w
W
>
IU
u..
o
I~
. - -~-- -- .- -. - '
1""-.~...:.-J
-. -.
__
.8
-_
I,
__
.7
~--.~ -~
_"
_
;
~~-....~ ::-::~~ :
.6;
~~ -... ~ r- t-.:- ~ _
I ........ '.~
' - I -.~
~=...
.5
I
............. _,.~.,/.~
~ _........
4
~,'~"=~~~~~~' ~~
:9 . . . .
.
.3
~9!f-~
/'-. ';"-;..- FAILURE
......... f"""::':""r--....
-..
"<...../_SURFACE
_I
~H
.~
'~,f+5/'
2 , - H ( J V p,
'--
I
I
LOGARITHMIC
Qa
,.....
:'
.1
--"'~'~'.
- - .~~-
10
131</>=-1
{)
E~
S ~
~
.....
-...,
"
tr:
I--
__ ",-6=Q
"IQ" 8
~"""
6'0) e
- 6 <:>'
~/O ~ + 6
~~
,
Ita TH
1"""'--,",,-'. :"
...........;-:
~
,.......
20
30
~)..::...l ~{):~}131=+1
-.~.
.1
PQ = KQ 'H' 12
pp;
H' "co,
p
L........L.-_.....=_P..:.,"_"n_6~
1....l...........---l_..L......J.........l._L.-..J.....-J..._ _.l.........L..........
__
~J~-
-""""'1
t
I r'l""'-4o
SPIRAL
"....... ""-.,
~ "f-l:.,:::.
~',
-ACTIVEPRESSURE
u..
u..
w
O
u
=1
...
~ ~-
-........:.;
.. ,
t_=Ooo } OIQ
-,
~ .4
-_6'Q ~ ~!Q' 0
,1'0,
,::--6oQtOiQ<-.4
6-0 ,'
"~.........
,6Q\iJ/Q-_1.0
6.0 !
...J.........l._iW
40
45
Figure 3-15.-5lopmg backfill active and passive coefficients with wallfriction (after NAVFAC
Dm-7.2. May 1982).
86
30.4 Graphical
Solutions
3D.4.1 Culmann's
Method
and Wn along
87
=90 0
D
and
where
W n
= Wn_1
W~_I
W~_,
Cd
88
(0)
( a)
NOTE LINe AC IS
ASSUMeD TO INTeRSeCT THe SURFACe
OF THe BACKFILL.
(c)
89
va parallel to AC.
The trial wedge solution is similar to the Culmann solution; however, the
influence of cohesion may be included in the analysis. Example (a) in
figure 3-18 shows an idealized wall and backfill with the forces acting on
the failure wedge for the active case. The following steps outline a
graphical method of solution for determining the maximum value of Pa
shown in the force polygon in example (b) of figure 3-18.
(1) Draw a cross-section of the site with a tentative wall section.
Using equation 3-15, compute the theoretical depth of the
tension crack, h". and plot the tension crack profUe, as shown
in example (a) of figures 3-18 and 3-19.
(2) Draw the trial wedges ABEPI' ABEP2' ... , and ABErPn and
compute the weights of the wedges WI' W2 , , and Wn
(3) Compute Cw and cs ' Construct Cw to a convenient scale at the
effective slope of the wall, (see examples (a) and (b) in
figure 3-19). When computing cwand cs ' reduce the length of
the failure surface by an amount equal to the depth of the
tension crack. Frequently, Cwis assumed equal to zero.
(4) Construct weight vectors WI' W2 ,
. ,
(5) From the terminus of Cwconstruct CsI ' cs2 ' , and csn at the
respective slopes of the assumed failure planes. Note that Cw is
a constant for each wall geometry.
(6) Through points WI' W 2 , and Wn : that Is, the ends of the
weight vectors. construct Pa at angle {) to a perpendicular to the
effective wall surface.
90
~SLOPE AS
Cs
SLOPE AD
..
\
~ SLOPE
OF"
I9J
(b)
= DIRECTION KNOWN
Pa
C w
C s
KNOWN)
91
(IN
(a))
30.4.3 Generalized
Graphic Solutions
Generalized graphic solutions for the active and passive cases are
presented in examples (a) and (b) in figure 3-20, respectively. The
importance of understanding the free body and force diagrams presented
in the preceding sections on Rankine and Coulomb earth pressures is
now apparent. The use of this approach permits the engineer to
evaluate all possible variables acting on a retaining structure. Note that
this is a trial-and-error method. and the critical values of Pa or Pp must
be established for each trial wedge or failure surface. While this method
is somewhat detailed. the circular wedge-type. trial-and-error solution is
the only method available for detennir.ing the location of the critical
failure surface of a complex problem. In lieu of a circular segment in the
passive case. as shown in example (b) of figure 3-20, a log spiral may
also be used. However, this makes the problem even more cumbersome
and not much more accurate. As previously mentioned. the log spiral
method is presented by Terzaghi and Peck. 1967.
30.5 Surcharge
Stress distributions resulting from point, line, and strip loadings may be
developed by the use of the elastic theory, with modifications based upon
experimental results. The charts and graphs presented in this gUide
have been adjusted to make the theoretical agree with the measured
pressure.
Loadings by the
Theory of Elasticity
Example (a) in figure 3-21 shows a point load applied to a roadway and
the generalized location of a point on the wall facing. Examples (b) and
(c) in figure 3-21 show generalized curves of influence factors for the
computation of the lateral stress distribution on a vertical face
perpendicular to the line of the load application. Also shown are
equations reqUired to develop the influence factors.
The equations presented in figure 3-21 have been solved for various
geometries and are summarized in examples (a) and (b) of figure 3-22.
Example (c) in figure 3-22 shows the influencing factors reqUired to
compute the resultant, Ph' of a given point loading condition.
Example (d) in figure 3-22 shows influencing factors for the
determination of the location of the resultant, Ph' above the wall base.
92
/
/
,'Trial,,'"
C::'ll"'dltlons
8~oken
Slcpe Backfill
I-regula' Surcharge
,\'all Frlctlcn he ""ded
SlOP ... g Grour.d Water Leovel
Layered 5011.
Trial
~ ....... '
Wedge I,'
..
Wedge
.......--
.""",,
II/~a"e~ '-ir
5,
-7 O~,OI.1TI
e~
.
5,
Layer 2
,
PAl
0: ")'T3
RI\ W,
Trial Wedge I
Vector
Diagram
... Resultant PA Is
\
\
\
C, L
Vector
Diagram,
On Failure Wedge
Laver 1
")'
C 5
Tl' l' 1:....1.:.:.:
"
Conditions:
Broken Slope Backfill
Irregular Surcharge
Wall Friction Included
Sloping Ground Water Level
Layered Soil
93
"
-'\,
,\
"'"\""
POINT LOAD
qp
T
I
Z= nH
POINT LOAD
Y=pX
~-~--'---~
( b)
FOR
(c)
SECTION A-A'
m~ 0.4
G~~2./Qp-) = ~.;8_~2/(O.16~n2)3J
FOR
L CTh (
m >0.4
WHERE COS
(BOUSSINESQ DISTRIBUTION
MODIFIED BY EXPERIMENT)
94
B)
I./X2 _y2
01
(0
04
~O
m:So
0 4
<d
-I
(~)
"3
p.
cos" II-'ll'
B. )( 1.;;;:2;V..
WHI:AIl. COlI
Y/M
.,16,
:::::::::::0:0-
a. IS. a. coe:::a
..
P"C'If' m) 0.4
P'QIIt
I~,'~~~ ~~~~,.~~
of, 0
~ ::
'6"
It-
Or-=:::::
1.0'
.-0.
10
r~
0."
0"
e0"
..,.
04
I ............
'0
02\--\\\~'k-+~
It
8H
SH l....--L--
04H
O"H
oe
O.~1
08
"0.11I~
-!-
- -
O_ssf---~ 04
r,;
I -
Q2
a
0_
--
ldl
0,8
(b)
--
I) -
--
0_11
NO~
C'-"-. .-.ooc:
RClfiiULT. 'RO/W
TH1 AIM:'A
',0 )(.lH
1NT1""ORATING
UNO.
TNII:
----
I----+--
"IHI
IOmN/ ....
Example (a) in figure 3-23 schematically shows a line load. q], applied
behind a retaining wall and the resulting stress distribution. The
modified Boussinesq equations are also presented. Example (b) in
figure 3-23 shows a graphical summary of the solution of m and n. For
a given line load, q], the resultant, Ph' and the location of the resultant,
R, :nay be determined from examples (c) and ld) in figure 3-23,
respectively.
30.6 Seismic
Analysis
30.6.1 External
Seismic Stability
96
Total horlzontalload 6.Ph' kips on retaining wall due to 60 kip/axle. dual axle such as log
yarders or other heavy equipment.
Height of
retaining
wall H (ft)
10
Position
of
point
0
C
15
C
20
C
30
10
15
20
3.51
(2.54)
2.84
(3.10)
1.01
(1.05)
3.07
(2.46)
3.22
(3.46)
1.74
(1.78)
0.71
(0.72)
2.85
(2.42)
2.85
(3.05)
2.29
(2.35)
0.90
(1.29)
0.61
(0.61)
2.19
(1.89)
2.51
(2.62)
2.30
(2.36)
1.70
(1.72)
1.16
(1.17)
25
30
0.81
0.51
(0.82) (0.51)
B
Total homontalload 6.Ph kips on retaining wall due to 16.5 kips/axle (legal highway truck).
Height of
retaining
wall H (ft)
10
Position
of
point
0
C
15
C
20
C
30
10
20
0.97
10.70)
0.78
(0.85)
0.28
(0.29)
0.84
(0.68)
0.89
(0.95)
0.48
(0.49)
0.20
(0.20)
0.78
(0.67)
0.78
(0.84)
0.63
(0.65)
0.25
(0.35)
0.17
(0.17)
0.60
(0.52)
0.69
(0.72)
0.63
(0.65)
0.47
(0.47)
0.32
(0.32)
25
30
0.22
0.14
(0.22) (0.14)
Note: The resultants of different axle loads of similar geometries may be computed by simple proportion.
97
OJ
<0
0.\
'VII"
'0"
0"--
------
OS
+I
o.
I
1.28
(el
10
f
.~~~-J
_L
1-
---ttiT
m2n IIIn2
--+-1-
IH/',,,
(.1
I~
_>0.4
fJ"CJIf'
1"" '''''1,.''
I eoue.INIIt~ D.8T",BuTION
WOOI~I"D .-v axPl:AIMllNT t
oe
o llf----m
oe
0&
0.21-------+----
of 04C--
~.
O'~~-~
0,
...1---1.____
T
..
.1.,l .
Q UNI[ LOAD
L
m .. .... 'H
101
O.
oe
04
If
oe
...
04..
0" ..
---.----~-
(d)
_ L-
Ie
~2i]
.e""JC/H
I---
-_r__-
.1-. ..
- - . -l------
----l--__+_
10
L~(H~ii'n~Ift\~~~~
m~o....
PO"
0."
"'$
f'OfIlII
[~i~~;;10
IlICIUe.'NI:SQ DIBT""BuTtON
1oltOO1"'~O .... ~)I(f"'."'I""'l..HT'
~IH"I
_..1'
(b)
1l..J1L...L--1,_--L.'
o.e .. t--+-+-t--t-e;::+-----i
Oe
021-----4~~ ~ I ~
r,
IE--w---71
STRIP L.OADING = q FORCE/AREA
rr,
=2qllTlj3+SINI3 SIN2a_SINj3cos2al
-,
a - IJ
= 2q/TT[!~
13
NOTE
IS IN RADIANS
R~TF\ IN 'ffi
\...I J4.L'
't,..
!I
l'~E
OS'?rll.
l\V,
't o
I
~!
I
I O.~
-
~
~\
-I
99
r- 'S
~I,,>m\,
0.'" s
C:S
~c..""\,-
Procedure
(1) Select the peak horizontal ground acceleration, aeB. for the
a,."
100
J
,,
,
(
,_.
4.
---\
J -,
1--
'"
<. -
~"-
-- r
2--
1215
315
1715
1.15
101
65
!.\!"
It
...f '
102
:. Maximum acceleration
rM
= (1.45 -
ral r o
fr::' 3't ~
,.......,r--'1r--l,........,r--"1r--:1r-l~--=:....;;...~
...
... ...
r.,.. =/3S"~I.J
,
Iff H::/Z'
r
rl::. 1'1'
FOuAlDllrlt:>1V
Iff'::
3~"
Yf' = 1;;"0
2.
$<:>1"-
PCf
rmy.H L
(0.25)(135)"(14) 10
P1R
473 kjft
PAE
Ij2amYb H2
(1 j2)(0.25)(120)(14f
P1R
..u:=
2.95 k/ft
103
Adding P1R and PAE to the static equations for sliding and overturning:
For sliding from step 4.1.
STltpC
[q
SE1~'.tlC.
(Y B H ... q) tan
cPt
= (0.75) (15) [(0.33) (14) [250 + (0.120) (14/2)] + (.5) (4.73) + 2.95]
1.24
Mm
lnSrismu:
m &trmlC OT
6.8 it < L M
In Sermric SlidUlg
104
3D.6.2 Internal
Seismic Stability
Procedure
(3-31)
in which W is the weight of the active zone above level z.
(2) Calculate the total horizontal static stress in the reinforced soil
and the maximum static tensile force as follows:
Calculate the horizontal stress. U h according to step 7.3 of the
welded wire example problem in chapter 4. Calculate the total
horizontal static load, PH' for each layer in each reinforcement.
(3) Calculate the incremental force in each layer due to seismic
loading and distribute the seismic force in proportion to the
Uresistant areas."
(4) Compute the total maximum tensile force in each element for
breakage and pullout. and verify that the seismic factors of
safety equals 0.75 times the static factors of safety.
The recommended design method for seismic loading was
developed for inextensible reinforcements. The extensibility of
the reinforcements affects the overall stiffness of the reinforced
soil mass. As extensible reinforcement reduces the overall
stiffness, it is expected to have an influence on the design
diagram of the lateral earth pressure induced by the siesmic
loading. As the overall stiffness decreases. damping and
amplification should increase. Thus the resulting inertia force
may not be much different for inextensible reinforcement. In
addition. since there is a substantial factor of safety in the
design tension for potential creep of extensible reinforcement
under long-term static loads, an additional factor of safety
against a dynamic overload is provided. Therefore. the
inextensible reinforcement analysis should be safe for
extensible reinforcement.
105
";L-=--=-- -- -~
P=a
I
mW
~~~~~O~F'"
+- -:tt~~~~~~~~~~
5szcSs.,.,,,,,
----- --~ -="tFc . . -\oc+"
_A~..,o;\-~
Procedure:
I. Determine Oy
2. Oy = Kay = K(Yr Z+q)
{
K(yZj+q) Sz
3. PH
Dvnamic
I,
PH z, = PI
nb Le,
m
~
J=l
Ph
= P
T,
hi,
nb PI L e,
nb L e
PI L e,
--m
nb ~ L e
j=l
K (y,zj+q) Sz
Hz,
J=l
ej
L
~
j=l
106
e,
I -m--
Le
---~-
3.5" I---~-----f
7F-
'l<
-:-.
-.-
~ '::.
-- -
-=-=- _\J
1'10.
"P1.
l-l:: I 4'l. i
,OJ'"'>-----~=_Ir--_'"
03 \ v<.
E.t"lv~lo~
5. -,'
".5
:~
,&,~':::-'--.s~-----l
\:~.
\.N'''!'!' \",
\ <'i:-----(p
':"'...... ...... '" 2-
Ll!.
'-'J ---------,,:.
+0,<.(.
..
107
~..,,..
'Ii'Mer"" \ ~\~"'1<'
'-.
_..
,'<:1<1"'-:L_
_ ....
_..
--
~1\I:l-\,,\~!'~
= 31,200
FS
R
Static Condition
Layer
No.
Depth
Oy
Z (ft)
(psO
PHI
(lbs/wire)
Wire
Size
F.(p"l
Le 2: 3
(ft)
L
1"1=-'
P,
(lbs/ft)
FSp >
1.5
FT
FSR >
1.0
0.75
2.0
338.0
253.5
W3.5
7.243
4.8
6.4
1.801
3.6
4.3
3.5
496.6
352.2
W3.5
10,063
4.8
6.4
2.678
3.8
3.1
5.0
601.3
450.9
W3.5
12.884
4.8
6.4
3,554
3.9
2.4
6.5
732.9
549.7
W3.5
15,705
4.8
6.4
4,430
4.0
2.0
5.
8.0
864.5
648.4
W3.5
18.525
5.4
7.2
5,890
4.5
1.7
9.5
996.1
747.1
W3.5
21.346
6.3
8.4
7,917
5.3
1.5
11.0
1128
845.8
W3.5
24,166
7.2
9.6
10.272
6.1
1.3
12.5
1259
944.5
W3.5
26.987
8.1
10.8
12.955
6.9
1.2
14.0
1391
W3.5
29,807
9.0
12.0
15,967
7.6
1.1
1043
.035 in 2
For z
7:
Le
Le
=9
=9
162.5
7T'd
4
or d
=
=
= 0.6 (l
0.211 in
0.0176
+ z)
108
31,200
Fr
Static Condition
Layer
No.
Depth
Z (ft)
PHI,
(lbs/
wire)
2.0
253.5
3.5
W
(lb)
Lei
ELe
(ft)
64.8
318.3
2.8
3.4
352.2
4.8
64.8
417.0
3.2
2.6
5.0
450.9
4.8
64.8
515.7
3.4
2.1
6.5
549.7
4.8
64.8
614.5
3.6
1.8
8.0
648.4
5.4
72.9
721.3
4.1
1.5
9.5
747.1
6.3
85.1
832.2
4.8
1.3
11.0
845.8
7.2
97.2
943.0
5.4
1.2
12.5
944.5
8.1
109.4
1.053.9
6.1
1.0
14.0
1043.0
121.5
1.164.5
6.9
0.9
2.977
744
9.0
55.2
Yr
W= 67.5A
PH2,
P,
13.5L
55.2
r. Le
Mp
= 0.25g
f!l
P,
FSP,
am
744L
P _e_,
j=I
F~>
4.8
FS pl >
.75(1.5)
PHT,
(lb)
44.1
PI
(lbs)
(ft)
PH2,
(lb)
(ft) 2
r,
31,200
1,092
PH ,
r
109
e,
.75(1.0)
3E. Backfill
Considerations
3E.1 Materials
3E.2 Placement
and Compaction
110
3E.3 Marginal
Backfill Materials
III
Wall Type
USC
Percent
minus
200
Welded wire
SM
SC
21
20
5
8
34
31
200
300
Reinforced fill
1:1
SM
ML
38
55
2
3
34
33
100
150
B. Longville
Plumas, NF
Welded wire
CL
50+
26
200
Poor foundation
Grave
Plumas, NF
Geotextile
SM
26
NP
35
850
Irregular face
Butt Valley
Plumas. NF
Tire-faced
SC
38
26
400
8% face settlement
Klamath, NF
Timber-faced
SM
27
NP
30
Minimal settlement
GP
NP
32
Some settlement
Site
Goat Hill
Plumas, NF
L. North Fork
Plumas. NF
Willamette. NF
I
I
PI
Phi'
deg
c'
psf
Comments
Note: Phi' and c' are from consolidated-drained tests at 95 percent ofT-99 density.
Zornberg and Mitchell (1992) have reviewed the use of poorly drained
backfill materials in reinforced soil structures. The use of cohesive
backfill materials presents design and construction difficulties. such as
making drainage and compaction difficult to achieve. Under the circumstances. deformation must be expected and acceptable. The material
must be compacted under relatively dry conditions and should be on the
dry side of optimum. Large surface deformation in plastic embankment
materici.ls suggests that the reinforcement should be longer than that used for conventional materials. Some pore pressure build up may oc- cur.
reducing the frictional resistance of the backfill. Also. poorly drained
soils can cause significantly accelerated corrosion rates in materials.
Walls willi "clayey" soils for backfill can be designed. but there are
unknown long-term creep. deformation. and strength and stresses on
the system. Walls should not be vertical; they should be constructed
with a batter or a stepped. flexible face to accommodate the expected
deformation. Expansive clays should be avoided. unless considering
adding lime to improve the soU properties. Forces on face connections
will be relatively large.
The use of thick nonwoven geotextiles for reinforcement may be valuable
to act as a "wick" drain throughout the backfill to dissipate pore pressure buildup and increase shear strength and pullout resistance. It
may also speed up construction by reducing excess pore pressure
induced dUring compaction.
3F Drainage
113
For these methods it is assumed that the water is collected behind the
wall or backfill and passed through the wall face or around the
structure. usually in a pipe. To additionally achieve good drainage, the
surface of the backfill matertal should be shaped to drain towards
ditches or gutters. off of the backfill. Occasionally. an impervious seal.
such as a layer of asphalt concrete, can be used to cap the backfill and
prevent or reduce infiltration of surface moisture.
The following sections present analysis methods and crtterta or
requirements for drainage of various ground water conditions found in
retaining wall applications.
3F.1 Perched
Water Table
Figure 3-29 shows a wall with a perched water table and the location
and orientation of the active and hydrostatic forces acting on the wall.
f1w.
(3-37)
and acts at a point HI3 above the base of the wall. Pa and Pw are
obtained from equations 3-35 and 3-36. respectively.
3F.2 Free-Draining
Backfill
3F.3 Sloping
Underdrain
115
T
I
20FT.
1~L_~. . :PS~I::;;~~~'"
h = 20' -
DRAIN
IIMPERMEABLE
SOl L
,....--.,r----f:....--i--.--.---r--....,~7
16' -1---+--------1---+--+--+-~~
HEAD
DRAIN
FLOW LINES
116
~h
EQUIPOTENTIAL
;;
~h
~h
--
POINT
---.
/"'"
--~j
..................
~h
........
~L7
X
I
~h
~h
~h
~h
/
~L6
<
""
I
,,:
/ /'\45"P
I
:':,
"'" "
~"'"
hp
0
1.5
3.0
3.9
4.8'
5.1'
4.9'
3.5'
INTERNAL
6L
(hPlove 6 L
1,2
0.9
1.7
3.8
2.1
7.2
2.3
10.0
3.1'
15.4
3.8'
19.0
5.5'
23. I
8.5'
14.9
94.3 It 2
= 45.
0=
(3-38)
Re~"J Oicemenl
FOU"KIotion Soa
3F.6 Filter
Requirements
3F.6.1 Granular
Filter Criter:a
118
To prevent the build up of pore pressure in the fine grain material (soil),
the filter material must be relatively pervious. so D15f (filter
material)/DI5s (soil) shall be greater than 5 percent. Criteria referring
to ratios of D50 (fJ.1ter)/D50 (soil) should not be used.
For fIDe sUts and clay-rich soils. the D 15f should be less than or equal to
0.3 mm. See figure 3-34. which graphically shows the previously
specified fJ.1ter criteria.
100
85
r-----,-----r~...."..._r__rr-----r__--_,
I-------i--~~+-__+_+_
Gr<.lU<.l t ion
range of
material to
be drained
0'1
c:
.....
c: .....
.'
~.::}::::::.:
Gradation range
of sui table
fil ter material
c.J.r::
u 0'
.... lj
I- .~
(l)
,....
Q;
'.:",
Cl._
j
."
.....
'"
;:I
E
::::l
:i.
l5t----*~f----+--_B3r-.;.,..~'lF_---------__1
OL-.-------I--....L---....L--_....L-.
Grain size
---J
(Log scale)
119
3F.6.2 Geotextile
Filter Criteria
120
Normal applications
k (fabric) ~ k (soil)
~4.0
Fibers used in the manufacture of civt1 engineering fabriCS shall consist of long-chain.
synthetic polymers composed of at least 85 percent by weight of polyolephJns, polyesters, or
polyamides. These fabriCS shall resist deterioration from ultraviolet exposure.
B. The engineering fabriC shall be exposed to ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) for no more than
30 days in the time period following manufacture until the fabriC is covered with sol1. rock,
concrete. and so forth.
IV. Physical property requirements (all fabrics)
Fabric
unprotected
Fabric
protected
180lb
80lb
80lb
25lb
290 psi
130 psi
50lb
25lb
Footnotes:
i
All numerical values represent minimum average roll values (i.e.. any roll in a lot should meet or exceed the
minlmum values in the table). Note: These values are normally 20 percent less than what manufacturers
typically reported.
2
Tension testing machine with ring clamp (I.e. steel ball replaced with a 5/ 16-lnch-d1ameter solid steel cylinder
With hemispherical tip centered within the ring clamp).
3
Diaphragm test method.
4
Fabric is said to be protected when it Is used In drainage trenches or beneath/behind concrete (Portland or
asphalt cement) slabs. All other conditions are said to be unprotected.
Examples of each condition are:
Protected:
highway edge drains. blanket drains. smooth stable trenches <10 feet deep. In trenches where
the aggregate is extra sharp. additional puncture resistance may be necessary.
Unprotected: stabilization trenches, interceptor drains on cut slopes. rocky or caving trenches. or smooth
stable trenches >10 feet deep.
121
3F.7 Use of
Geocomposite
Drains
122
mateIials aJre typically specified for general use. For the best
performance. the geotextile should be tight or glued to the core mateIial.
3G Construction
Considerations
3G.1 Construction
Changes
expected. When this occurs there may not be enough room for
the wall (i.e .. reinforcing elements may need to be shortened.
rock-excavated. or the wall redesigned or relocated). Any of
these solutions may require the wall design to be reanalyzed by
the design engineer for both internal and external stability. If
the construction engineer or inspector is not familiar with the
design. then an expeIienced designer should be consulted.
(2) When soil changes occur (e.g.. soft soils. wet soils. and water
or past water evidence such as piping cavities or mottling). For
soft soils reanalyze external stability (bearing capacity.
overturning. sliding. overall stability). If unexpected water is
encountered. check the drainage system to make sure it is
adequate to handle the water.
(3) If conditions require a higher wall (i.e .. if good foundation is
not founded at the expected depth) you will need to reanalyze
both internal and external stability or overexcavate and backftll
with good mateIial.
3G.3 End
Treatments of
Walls
Walls are often built too short to tie into natural ground. Wall ends
should be buried. otherwise the slope may ravel or slide. exposing the
ends. If dUIing construction it is apparent that more length is needed.
steps should be taken to lengthen the wall. This may require some
redesign, and it may be necessary to have the designer review any field
changes. Fills placed at the end of retaining walls cannot be placed on
slopes stee:?er than 1 1/2: 1; walls need to be extended to slopes that are
no steeper than this ratio.
Handling surface drainage can be another problem at the end of a wall.
Steps should be taken at the transition point to make sure there is no
erosion. Once the erosion process starts. it is very difficult to repair.
3G.4 Inspection
To veIify that the foundation. soil. and water conditions do not differ
from the values assumed for the design. the design engineer should
inspect the excavation site prior to erecting the wall. If conditions differ.
the engineer should check the design with the new information to make
sure that the safety factors are sufficient. or to redesign if necessary.
123
3G.5
Geosynthethic
Walls
3G.6
Appurtenances
124
his or her own walls. In the absence of any other guidance. foundation
loads should be modeled as area or line loads.
3G.8 Drainage
3H Factor of
Safety
Overturning
Sliding
at base
Global
stability
2.0-3.0*
1.5-2.0*
1.5-2.0*
1.2-1.5
1.5-2.0
1.2
1.2
1.2
* The upper factor of safety range refers to silt and clay backfill or foundation soU.
125
Note that if either the backfill or the foundation soil is clay or silt, a
somewhat higher factor of safety is required to provide satisfactory
performance.
If, when designing a structure, the factor of safety does not conform with
31 Stability
31.1 General
31.2 External
Stability
31.2.1 Allowable Soil
Bearing Pressure
126
r--
-e- 300
-- .,.....-
20
~
~
..J
c:(
>
i",
NC........'
l/l
Nq
1'\.N
10
.....
VN'
'-. ",
/'
'i
60
50
40
20
30
10
~,
VALUES OF NC AND Nq
Y-
~ -Ny
1.,. 0
20
40
60
80
VALUES OF Ny
-: 0
IC'l
..;
qa = FS
(3-41)
The foundation soils of the retaining wall must support not only the
dead load of the wall. but also all moment-induced stresses. which are
generally the controlling factor with respect to the bearing capacity of
gravity and cantilever walls.
It is known that the bearing capacity of the footings on slopes should be
127
The following equations show relationships for computing qd and q'd for
square footings. Again, the allowable soil bearing pressure should have
a factor of safety of 2.0 to 3.0, depending on soil type.
(3-42)
(3-43)
In t.lJe bearing capacity equations (3-38, 3-40. 3-42. and 3-43). the
ground water table has been assumed to be at a depth equal to or
greater than t.lJe footing width, B. below the base of the footing. If the
ground water level is at the ground surface, the buoyant unit weight
should be used in the calculations. For intermediate ground water levels
the unit weight should be proportioned accordingly.
If the water table were at the ground surface. the allowable soil bealing
pressure would be equal to half of the value shown for the equivalent
1 inch of settlement. Intermediate values of water level should be
proportioned accordingly. Other design charts and tables are available
that relate probable foundation behavior to various test data and soil
conditions. They include those by Peck Hanson and Thombum (1973)
in figure 3-36, Teng (1964), and Bowles (1988).
For undrained conditions. i.e., 4J = O. the ultimate soil bealing capacity
for ail footings is approximated by uSL-lg
qd
= 6.2c
(3-44)
31.2.2 Overturning
I: resisting moments
I: overturning moment
(3-46)
In addition, the resultant of the mmr.ents should lie within the middle
third of the retaining wall base.
128
0,/8= 0.25
U. 6 ,---,...---r------,
(/)
l- 5 I----+-+--+---t------.,
W
II 4
:::J
f----tf-~-_+-_l
~~~c=t==1
II: 2W~4~~~
Q.
Figure 3-36.-Design chart for proportioning shallow footings on sand (after Peck. Hansen, and
Thombum, 1973).
If the resultant of the forces acting on the structure is not located at the
center of the wall base. a moment-induced stress occurs beneath the
structure. The magnitude of the moment-induced stress, 0mom' is
computed by taking the moment of the resultant, N. about the center
line (eL) of the wall base and dividing by the section modulus of the base
as in the following equation
mom
= MeL
S
(3-47)
129
N tan8b
Ph
Pp
I: resisting forces
I: driving forces
(3-48)
Alternatively. the wall could be tied down with anchor tendons or bolts
in order to increase the normal stress along the potential slip surface.
31.2.4 Bearing
Capacity on Slopes
WHERE:
T
= Cb8+N tan
8b
Figure 3-37.-Extemaljorces.
The reference provides curves for 1V2: 1 and 2: 1 fill slopes. and
extrapolatio:l to flatter slopes is probably reasonable. Any slope steeper
than 11/2 : 1 probably has underlying subsurface materials which violate
the assumptions of homogeneity and cohesionlessness. The Gemperline
equation is invalid for B ) 45 degrees. For steeper slopes. global stability
should be considered rather than reduced bearing capacity. As noted in
figure 3-39. the critical failure surface for bearing capacity is assumed to
pass through the heel of the wall. If it does not, then global stability
controls.
Due to the width-to-height ratios of many retaining walls and the
increase of bearing capacity with increased footing or retaining wall
width. B. the bearing capacity for cohesionless soils are often not a
problem for retaining walls.
Figure 3-42 shows an example of the use of this method.
131
VERTICAL STEM
STEEL
L..:=L
..
... ..}<i
HEEL KEY
LOCATED HERE
~~~:IBLE
POSSIBLE PASSIVE
SOIL FAILURE
132
~o I i "'~ 1--+-----1-----__:-
1_"
- - - - - - -...- - - - -
y ..
,\ G LO<\A. t,;'
~"'\ LU1<.e.
Note:
A =bI 8
." = D/B
'It=LIB
Legend:
13 = on91e of slope with respect to horizontal
o = depth of footin9 with respect to the
level of the horizontal ground
B = footing width
L
= footin9
= horizontal distance
length
GE'r"IrERLI1o-J .::.
i= u:rr
G g '0 lJl-Jt:l
13 E.I= e. It. {;, rYe.
~ E.~~ 11\)'::.
(.1'. tlc.\\ y
i::Qv j:>."'T Il)N
133
-4
-2
:3
es
...J-+-_..L....--..:I---L._-+-_J.....-+_....L.._+--..I._-+_..L--7+--J,,~oI-t--"""'"'::::'i+--'--"'"'+-O
3 ~:;.c:::;.,..--+-.,....--i-I...e-,---+-"T--+--""'~----l"--l'""'''--+-''-.....,..:.....:..+-..,..-+-~-+ 3
-6
-4
o
2
NOTE: COOTOURS GIVE PERCENT CAPACITY
-6
-4
-2
,.._..L....-~_..l....--+_..L....--+_.L---+-_"---+_J..-.~"7"'""~~_.L.-.~_...L...-~
3 -+--r-----+----1~+_~-+--r--+-_+-+""'-"""'T"":......-~'_,_L...L..q-~--+-_.____+-3
-6
-4
-2
a
2
NOTE: CONTOURS GIVE PERCENT CAPACITY
134
r----...,
'S ,. = I lSpd
----r
H = \0'
r, ...,. G ....
<P 38
v"-","=.I,---,,
~<''''''\ '-'..\",
-:'v<
~tlL<'
b:
1) :
Fo ("
~ ~ ~ ~,
G:
~ :.= \ 4 0 f'~
:3 '
2'
~.;<,
= -_10
~,.'I"'C;(~)_2.')%~~_IC(O.~4-0.<'\I1"",)~df.j
-;to
lJ
. ~I,,~
~\J ...h~("'\
~::
"'1.
-6
(:04.))( 0,"101
:-<....-t",. :
b/5
=~/S
~~a'"
-4
3/;,:; ~.<I,.
'2.'11' ;'C.!
-2
O-;---..I_-+---"'--+---'--+_..l---+---J~+---.L.~~+'-~bo--'-"'-~-""""'.arO
200%
.,
,.
-4
-2
135
os =
0.!..4
(0.41
-S~' '30 /0
(so -:, tJ J ~
(..... )
~0
:r.) :.' ~
:: ~
Z~
J( e, 4)
~9
s.
= tl.S~(3\JrG
-~'>
:: (0.
Cj
'::.
-,J
c,
-c.. -
q kd
I C;
J
:.:; ':
~~
c: : ~.~ k:',~
c..
"JOlt::.
'!n;r0\.041
loc.-d. ..... Cj
J.,
Y,t4 :
(.I~-;;"IO\ __
~l>
136
I:~
~,.,.,,:;k.("
'<,I
<.::: ~'-
~ ... I
.... ' .
Upon completion of the wall design. the overall drained and undrained
stability of the wall slope system must be calculated. Many methods of
slope stability analysis are available. Any of the commonly used
methods are sufficiently accurate for most retaining wall problems.
Many stability methods. such as the modified Bishop or Janbu methods.
are available in computer form for easy use. One such program that is
widely used by highway agencies is XSTABL (Interactive Software
Designs, I:lc.). A slope stability gUide has been developed by the Forest
Service as a reference on slope stability analysis.
Construction of retaining walls often requires excavation that produces a
steep cut slope as a temporary situation dUring construction. This slope
may also need to be analyzed for safety dUring construction.
Appropriate soil, water. and slope parameters reflecting the short-term
construction conditions should be used in the analysis.
31.3 Internal
Stability
3/.3. 1. 1 Concrete
Gravity Walls
From figure 3-43. the following equations are recommended for design of
a concrete gravity wall.
(1) The shear stress on any horizontal plane, bb', must be less
than the available strength of the concrete in shear or
(3-53)
e is
Ie =
137
l/B'
(1 -
~~)
:$
0.451 c
(3-54)
Mechanically StabUlzed
Reinforced Earth
Geosynthetic
Stack Sack
Modular block
Welded wire
Gravity
Cantilever Piles
Bin walls
Rectangular
Circular
Cross-tied
Concrete crib
Timber cribs
Gabions
Concrete gravity
Concrete cantilever'"
(3) The maximum allowable tensile stress at points b'. c', and
d'is
(3-55)
Bin; crib. and gabion wall systems are generally considered proprietary
wall systems. Their designs are typically accomplished with preexisting
charts and tables. The design charts have been developed so that if the
external stability of a wall is adequate. the internal stability is also
generally satisfactory. For extreme loading conditions. the latter may
not be true. Examples of proprietary wall design charts and tables are
also presented in appendix E.
Bins, cribs, and gabions are designed to withstand some differential
settlement. However, differential settlement resulting in angular
distortions greater than about 1: 100 should be avoided in order to
prevent localized overstressing of structural components around
connections. pillow blocks. and basket wires. Differential settlement
may also induce localized failures in the form of tearing. buckling. and
crushing of structural members at points of high contact stress (see
Schuster. Jones. and Smart and Sack. 1978).
138
,~f:3/
.,.~,.,".
= 112 Y h 2
K a I
( possible 1
3/.3.1.3 Concrete
Cantilever Walls
Figure 3-44 shows three typical concrete cantilever walls. Of the three
wall types, (c) is the most common, although types (a) and (b) have
useful applications if encroachment is a problem, as on a stream or
property lir.e.
The earth pressure distribution used in the analysis of a concrete
cantilever wall is similar to other gravity or semi-gravity structures.
Many organizations and agencies have standard wall designs for various
height and backfill, considerations. Examples of designs by the Portland
Cement Association are included in appendix E. Depending on the size
and complexity of the job, the standard designs may provide the
complete solution or a good preliminary design for cost estimating. If a
complete analysis is necessary, a trial and error solution is required in
order to optimize the design. Table 3-13 and the following paragraphs
present gUidelines for the design and analysis of the internal stability of
a concrete cantilever wall. Assuming that the external stability of the
wall has been satisfied in accordance with Section 31.2, "External
Stability," the internal stability should be evaluated.
139
(3-56)
140
=t
- (2
d/2)
(3-57)
12,000
(3-58)
ad
(3-59)
141
We
H
I
e1
(Sometimes omitted)
,I
V= Ws+Wc + Po slnf3
( a)
E~TI RE
UNIT
r
(b)
(c)
STEH
TOE
HEEL
i42
T
1
T
P = AS Ibd
k=
I 1 I
+ I fain fe )
P= Ife 12f,llk)
0=
il
j = I - 1/31 k )
I K= fe /2 lkjl
for use In AS
= M/ad
or AS
= NE/adi
f' c
fc
ksi
2500
1125
40
1.44
179
60
1.76
161
40
1.44
266
60
1.76
204
40
1.44
274
60
1.76
248
40
1.44
324
60
1.76
295
3000
3500
4000
1350
1575
1800
143
steel required in the wall is variable and should be calcuiated for several
different locations above point A (see figure 3-45). Likewise. the stem
thickness can taper toward the top of the wall. and this variable should
be evaluated in order to develop the most economical and eye-appealing
design. Walls are generally tapered to keep the tilt from being noticed.
A word of caution regarding tapered walls: increased forming costs may
outweigh the savings in materials accrued by tapering the wall. When
evaluating the internal stability of the stem, the relationship of M to KF
and the required area of steel. As. should be computed for each point
analyzed.
Tables 3-15 and 3-16 show properties of steel reinforcing bars to aid the
designer in the selection of size and spacing. When sizing vertical
reinforcement. it is customary to select members so that every second or
third bar will extend to the top of the wall. The intermediate bars stop at
lower points. as determined in the analysis previously described.
(5) Minimum requirements for other wall reinforcement depend on
the gross planar cross-sectional area of the wall. Required
coefficients of minimum reinforcement are presented in
table 3-17. These coefficients are used to compute reinforcement
for wall components in which negligible steel areas are computed
by equation 3-59. The use of these coefficients in equation 3-60
gives the required minimum area of reinforcement ~ _min
(3-60)
Regardless of the relationship of KF to M. all walls greater
than 10 inches thick must have steel on the front and
back of the stem. In addition. neither the front nor the
back of the wall may have less than one-third of the
required reinforcement at a given section. The minimum
allowable bar size is a no. 3. and the maximum allowable
spacing is 18 inches.
The required area of tension steel calculated in step 4 will
generally satisfy the minimum requirements of vertical
reinforcement. Therefore, for walls greater than 10 inches thick
the required vertical reinforcement on the face of the wall is
simply one-third of the tension steel. Horizontal reinforcement is
usually evenly divided between front and back. although it may
be apportioned on a one-third to two- thirds basis. Typical
reinforcement for cantilever walls is shown on page E-44.
(6) An examination of figure 3-43 shows that the concrete will
be in tension at the top of the footing behind the wall and
at the base of the footing in front of the wall. The greater
tensile stresses are generally always behind the wall. The
requirements for compressive steel and the minimum area
of reinforcement are evaluated with equations 3-59 and
3-60 and the aid of table 3-17.
144
Coefficients
Spacing #2
2
0.30
4.7
2-1/2 0.24
3.8
0.20
3
3.1
3-1/2 0.17
2.7
4
0.15
2.4
4-1/2 0.13
2.1
0.12
5
1.9
5-1/2 0.1
1.7
0.10
6
1.6
6-1/2 0.09
1.4
7
0.09
1.3
7-1/2 0.08
1.3
0.08
8
1.2
8-1/2 0.07
1.1
0.07
9
1.0
9-1/2 0.06
1.0
10
0.06
0.9
10-1/2 0.06
0.9
Is
a = 12,000
X}
0=--
7/8 du
M
ad
=-
or A
=
s
NE
adi
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
Spacing
0.66
7.1
0.53
5.7
0.44
4.7
0.38
4.0
0.33
3.5
0.29
3.1
0.26
2.8
1
2.6
0.22
2.4
0.20
2.2
0.19
2.0
0.18
1.9
0.17
1.8
0.16
1.7
0.15
1.6
0.14
1.5
0.13
1.4
0.13
1.3
1.20
9.4
0.96
7.5
0.80
6.3
0.69
5.4
0.60
4.7
0.53
4.2
0.48
3.8
0.24
3.4
0.40
3.1
0.37
2.9
0.34
2.7
0.32
2.5
0.30
2.4
0.28
2.2
0.27
2.1
0.25
2.0
0.24
1.9
0.23
1.8
1.86
11.8
1.49
9.4
1.24
7.8
1.06
6.7
0.93
5.9
0.83
5.2
0.74
4.7
0.44
4.3
0.62
3.9
0.57
3.6
0.53
3.4
0.50
3.1
0.47
2.9
0.44
2.8
0.41
2.6
0.39
2.5
0.37
2.4
0.35
2.2
2.64
14.2
2.11
11.3
1.76
9.4
1.51
8.1
1.32
7.1
1.17
6.3
1.06
5.7
0.68
5.1
0.88
4.7
0.81
4.4
0.75
4.0
0.70
3.8
0.66
3.5
0.62
3.3
0.59
3.1
0.56
3.0
0.53
2.8
0.50
2.7
----
----
----
----
----
-------
----
----
----
2.88
13.2
2.40
11.0
2.06
9.4
1.80
8.3
1.60
7.3
1.44
6.6
0.96
6.0
1.20
5.5
1.11
5.1
1.03
4.7
0.96
4.4
0.90
4.1
0.85
3.9
0.80
3.7
0.76
3.5
0.72
3.3
0,69
3.1
3.79
15.1
3.16
12.6
2.71
10.8
2.37
9.4
2.11
8.4
1.90
7.5
1.31
6.9
1.58
6.3
1.46
5.8
1.35
5.4
1.26
5.0
1.19
4.7
1.12
4.4
1.05
4.2
1.00
4.0
0.95
3.8
0.90
3.6
----
----
----
2-1/2
4.00
14.2
3.43
12.2
3.00
10.6
2.67
9.5
2.40
8.5
1.72
7.7
2.00
7.1
1.85
6.5
1.71
6.1
1.60
5.7
1.50
5.3
1.41
5.0
1.33
4.7
1.26
4.5
1.20
4.3
1.14
4.0
----
----
4.36
13.7
3.81
12.0
3.39
10.6
3.05
9.6
2.18
8.7
2.54
8.0
2.35
7.4
2.18
6.8
2.03
6.4
1.91
6.0
1.79
5.6
1.69
5.3
1.60
5.0
1.52
4.8
1.45
4.6
----
3-1/2
4.68
13.3
4.16
11.8
3.74
10.6
2.77
9.7
3.12
8.9
2.88
8.2
2.67
7.6
2.50
7.1
2.34
6.6
2.20
6.2
2.08
5.9
1.97
5.6
1.87
5.3
1.78
5.1
145
4-1/2
5
3.405-1/2
6
6-1/2
7
7-1/2
8
8-1/2
9
9-1/2
10
10-1/2
11
lllh
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0.05
0.9
0.05
0.8
0.05
0.8
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
Spacing
0.12
1.3
0.11
1.2
0.11
1.2
0.22
1.7
0.21
1.6
0.20
1.6
0.18
1.4
0.17
1.3
0.16
1.3
0.15
1.2
0.14
1.1
0.13
1.0
0.34
2.2
0.32
2.0
0.31
2.0
0.29
1.8
0.27
1.7
0.25
1.6
0.23
1.5
0.22
1.4
0.21
1.3
0.48
2.6
0.46
2.5
0.44
2.4
0.41
2.2
0.38
2.0
0.35
1.9
0.33
1.8
0.31
1.7
0.29
1.6
0.65
3.0
0.63
2.9
0.60
2.8
0.55
2.5
0.51
2.4
0.48
2.2
0.45
2.1
0.42
1.9
0.40
1.8
0.86
3.4
0.82
3.3
0.79
3.1
0.73
2.9
0.68
2.7
0.63
2.5
0.59
2.4
0.56
2.2
0.53
2.1
1.09
3.9
1.04
3.7
1.00
3.5
0.92
3.3
0.86
3.0
0.80
2.8
0.75
2.7
0.71
2.5
0.67
2.4
1.39
4.4
1.33
4.2
1.27
4.0
1.17
3.7
1.09
3.4
1.02
3.2
0.95
3.0
0.90
2.8
0.85
2.7
1.70
4.8
1.63
4.6
1.56
4.4
1.44
4.1
1.34
3.8
1.25
3.5
1.17
3.3
1.10
3.1
1.04
3.0
11
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
- ......
.. _--
11 Ih
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0.167
0.250
0.05
0.376
0.375
0.11
0.668
0.500
0.20
1.043
0.625
0.31
1.502
0.750
0.44
2.044
0.875
0.60
0.786
1.178
1.571
1.963
2.356
2.749
10
11
14S
18S
2.670
1.000
0.79
3.400
1.128
1.00
4.303
1.270
1.27
5.313
1.410
1.56
7.65
1.693
2.25
13.60
2.257
4.00
3.142
3.544
3.990
4.430
5.32
7.09
146
Vertical
Hortzontal
40
60
0.0015
0.0012
0.0025
0.0020
= horizontal forces
stem width
::5
11
fit
(3-61)
Vile'
Figure 3-47 shows the earth pressure diagram for a dnven sheet
pile wall. In the figure, Pa and P p are eqUivalent fluid pressures in
which
(3-62)
and
(3-63)
Values K a and K p are obtained from the appropnate equation or
chart (see Chapter 3. ''Theoretical Methods").
147
r---- ,
L=
d+ h + x
)/2)
Pad
(3-65)
148
using
(3-67)
The solution of equation 3-67 is most readily treated as a trialand-error solution. The use of an electronic spreadsheet or
programmable calculator will minimize the effort reqUired for
convergence. Typical values of total depth of penetration (see
figure 3-47), m + x, are presented in table 3-18. These depths
are based on horizontal soils above and below the wall. Slopes
dropping away in front of the wall or rising above the top of the
wall Win increase these penetration depths.
Standard penetration
resistance (N)
blows/foot
Relative density
of soil (Dr)
very loose
loose
medium density
dense
very dense
0-4
5-10
11-30
31-50
+50
Depth of
penetration (m+x)
2.0 d'
1.5 d
1.25 d
1.0 d
0.75 d
(3-68)
and constructing the required lines in accordance with figure 3-47. (The problem can be solved without step 6.)
149
(3-69)
b) -
6b
2b
3)
mm
= - Fmax
(3-70)
Smin'
using
(3-71)
150
.1
.,
Jr>'
t
g'
......- -
~~.
I.
_ _ '.' __ ._J
60'
...
----.-.4
r
I
".
)71'
60'
16 I'"
;----196'-
...
~SAn
...
.'~ ."
...J......
---;:
:-
_ _ _ 'e' -
........
>-
om
1186
OW
11511
".,
"l%i
.---J
~.IR.
'4
n&l
... .........
2<0
-.z:J
'030
U'!I
-... .:"".5
lJ.2'
-:.J1
'''I
''"
19601' - - - - - - I
~I
_- -- --
.. ......
......
... .
...
'SO,
2'"
J:S.O
2IlL]
'~I
5Q.9
n.
'>.1
- -......
s..-_
=
2"
-.:1
lJ
JlO
>.I
lJ
....
'e'
'94
'94
U3
u
220
20
C11l' ....
~
_
.
1.:11
UJ
ur
He
JOII
......
64'
12
15
lIlII"fIeI ... II
)JJ2
g..
ee,~
<00
...... - - - - . . ;
s.a.an .........
Sou_
no
......
.... ."-
",'
<Q.5
6U
1-
<0.:1
"""
...~~~
~,
k'~
JIl'
PSJ'
155
''''
IJ 05-
'35'"
I f------2. -----
_
- - - ...-
....
........"'-I ......
.
ne
....
=1 .......
s--
.."
JIU
- 1
e:-.v-'
""
Bethlehem rE
PIling P!oduds
IlelhJehem Sleel Corporalton
IlelhJehem. PA 18016
151
3/.3.2.2 Cantilever
Sheet Piles with
Uniform Surcharge
(3-72)
(3-73)
6Ph(h
P d2
+_0_+
(ilqKap d)m
x) - x (Pp - Pa)
(3-74)
(3-75)
The equations for locating the depth below point A to the point of zero
shear. maxlmum bending moment, and allowable section modulus
remain unchanged (see equations 3-69.3-70, and 3-71).
152
3/.3.2.3 Cantilever
Soldier Pile Wall with
Lagging
The analyses of lagged cantilever soldier pile walls and cantilever sheet
pile walls are similar. The major difference is that the soldier pile wall
develops passive resistance only at the pile locations. The two analyses
are related by the coefficient C, the ratio of the effective width. and We'
the approximate effective width of the pile to the center-to-center spacing
of the piles. The value of We of the soldier pile may be determined from
table 3-20. For the ease of computation, the following analysis is based
on 1 linear foot of wall. Hence. when the H-pile sections are computed,
the bendi.ng moment must be multiplied by the pile spacing.
Soil type
B-3B"
B-3B
3B-5B
Figure 3-49 shows the earth pressure diagram for a cantilever soldier
pile wall. The earth pressure distributions shown in figure 3-49 may be
developed using the following steps:
(1) Compute C, the ratio of effective pile width to the
center-to-center spacing of the soldier piles.
(2) Compute the horizontal pressure at point 0 using
equation 3-64. repeated here. Construct line BC.
(3-64)
(3) Compute the depth, m, to the point where the passive stress
equals the active stress using
m =
CPad
153
(3-76)
1z
-.1.
(4) Compute Ph' the resultant of the forces acting above point A,
using
(3-77)
using
(3-78)
(3-79)
154
and constructing the required lines in accordance with figure 3-49. (The problem can be solved without step 7).
(8) Compute the depth below point A to the point of zero shear. b.
using
(3-80)
b3
b) - r;(Pp - Pa)C
(3-81)
(10) Compute the minimum required section modulus. 8 m in' per pile
using
(3-82)
(11) If timber soldier piles are used. the shear stresses should be
checked. One possible location of maximum shear is at point
A (see figure 3-49). Shear stress at point A can be computed
using
f"
1.33 Ph
= ---'7T ,2
(3-83)
155
~~
1<
( b)
s
Pc7S'
(3-84)
M = 1/6 PaZ's
in which Z is any distance down from the top of the pile, and s
is the clear span distance between soldier piles. For
intermediate soil conditions, combinations of the two loading
distributions may be used and the resulting moments
combined.
(13) Compute the reqUired minimum section modulus,
lagging using
Smlll'
of the
Smin
= -max
Fb
(3-71)
156
s.
mm
bt 2
=-
(3-86)
31.3.2.4 Cantilever
Soldier Pile Wall with
Uniform Surcharge
(3-87)
(3-88)
(3-89)
The equations for the depth below A to the point of zero shear (see
equations 3-80, 3-81, and 3-82), the maximum bending moment, and
section mcdulus remain unchanged. To complete the analysis, see
steps 11 through 14 of the preceding section on cantilever soldier pile
walls with lagging.
31.3.3 Anchored
Walls
157
Figure 3-51. -Earlh pressure diagram for cantilever soldier pile wall with
unifonn surcharge.
3/.3.3.1 Anchored
Sheet Pile Walls
When analyzing an anchored sheet pile wall, consider two cases: case 1,
when the sheet pile has the minimum required depth of embedment
(free-earth support method); and case 2. when the sheet pile has a depth
of embedment greater than the minimum required (fIxed earth support
method). The free-earth support method assumes that the pile remains
rigid and potential failure would involve rotation about the anchor rod.
The fIxed earth support method assumes that the bottom of the pile
cannot rotate, and consequently. that there are two possible points of
maximum moment in the pile. Depending on subsurlace conditions and
piling length. it may not be necessary to analyze both cases in all
situations. For deep, soft soils with minimum pile lengths. designing for
case 1 would be appropriate. On the other hand, case 2 would be
appropriate for situations with more than minimum pile lengths, dense
soils, or highly weathered rock conditions at the lower end of the pile.
Many situations will fall somewhere between both cases and require
analysis for both.
Figure 3-52 shows the earth pressure diagram for case 1, free-earth
support method. with the anchor near the top of the pile.
158
1T
dH
---T
R
~
h
In figure 3-52, the load. Ph' and the distances. m and h, are computed as
though the wall were a cantilever wall. The following steps complete the
analysis:
(1)
=0
(3-90)
(3)
159
c =
I -
for 0 < c
(3-92)
\ Pa
2(Ph - R)
c =H -
for d < c
(3-93)
R(c - Y) -
(3-94)
and
Me = R(c - Y) - Pad
2(Ph
in which a
Pad]
(3-95)
R)
(6)
(7)
Figure 3-53 shows the earth pressure diagram for case 2. the fixed earth
support method.
The analysis of case 2 is similar to case 1; however. equation 3-96 must
be evaluated for either x or R: that is. assume one and solve for the
other.
[(Pp - Pa)x 2 - 2Ph
2(pp - Pa)x
2R]2
Hp p - mP a
(3-96)
Equation 3-96 is the summation of moments about the base of the pile.
The maximum bending moment occurs at the point of zero shear. With
the consideration of the anchor force. R. the condition of zero shear
exists at depth c below R in addition to the depth b below point a (see
figure 3-53). The depths band c may be computed with equation 3-97
and 3-92. respectively.
I 2(P - R)
b = : - - 'h - - \ Pp - Pa
160
(3-97)
31.3.3.2 Anchored
Soldier Pile Walls
161
h
I
I
I
)I(
pa d --1l
CX(Pp-Pa I
Design stresses for piling and lumber depend on the size, shape, and
species of the piece. Shape descriptions are shown in table 3-25. Also.
the commonly used grades for various uses are presented. As there are
several grades of timber for each use, and care must be taken when
selecting structural members to assure that the proper grade is chosen.
Higher grades than those shown in table 3-25 are available: however,
they are expensive and frequently unavailable.
The following steps should be followed to complete the analysis:
(1)
Compute the minimum embedment depth by solving equation 3-99 for x using the trial-and-error method. Equation 3-99 is developed by taking moments about R.
(3-99)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(3-101)
d.
(6)
(3-102)
R(c - y)
Smin
(7)
= -max
Fb
(3-82)
Figure 3-55 shows the earth pressure diagram for anchored soldier pile
walls (case 2) that is greater than minimum depth of embedment. The
analysis of case 2 is similar to case 1, except that equation 3-103 must
be evaluated for either x or R that is, assume one value and solve for the
other.
6Ph (h
6R(H
+ x -
Y) - x 3 (Pp
Pa) C
x) -
2R]2
C[2(pp - Pa)x
Hp p - mPa]
=0
(3-103)
eb
2(Ph
R)
(pp - pJC
(3-104)
163
3/.3.3.3 Gravity
Structures
The use of tieback anchors with gravity walls generally involves existing
structures that require upgrading in order to meet new loading
requirements or to improve the stability of a marginal structure. If a
new wall were being designed and tieback anchors were required, some
wall type other than a gravity wall would generally be considered.
If an existing structure is being upgraded. for example the wall
presented in figure 3-37, a complete re-analysis of the stability of the
wall is required. In addition to the forces shown on figure 3-37, the
anchor forces should be included. If the anchor is not horizontal, the
vertical component of the anchor force must also be included in all
analyses.
As shown in figure 3-37, the external stability would require the closest
study. If the example wall had been a concrete cantilever structure, the
internal stability most likely would be more critical.
3J Rockeries
used. The :enn rockery used here refers to rock that is placed, not
dumped. Rockeries up to 20 feet high are seen, however most failures
occur in those exceeding 15 feet in height. It is recommended that
rockery heights be limited to less than 15 feet. Examples of rockeries
are shown in figures 3-56 and 3-57.
Infonnation in this section pertains to the design and construction of
rockeries. For further infonnation the reader should refer to Standard
Rock Wall Construction Guidelines in the bibliography.
3J.1 Design
Many rockeries are not designed; they are just built. However. there is
some design information available in the references. A rockery is not an
engineered system in the sense that a retaining wall is. If a slope
stability problem exists, a geotechnical engineer should be consulted and
possibly another method such as a retaining wall or buttress should be
used.
Figure 3-58 shows a design chart developed for Shannon and Wilson
geotechnical consultants and described by Gifford and Kirkland (2). This
chart gives critical height-to-width ratios for rockeries on soils with
friction angles of 30 and 35 degrees. There are curves for wellconstructec rockeries ewCR) and poorly constructed rockeries (PCR) for
each soil pc..rameter. In practice it is recommended that the curves for
PCR be used for design.
By knowing the friction angle of the soil and the angle of inclination of
the slope face. the critical height/width (He/B) ratio can be detennined.
In practice the maximum recommended heights of rockeries are 12 to
15 feet at slope angles of IH:4V to IH:6V. If a higher wall is needed. it is
recommended that two walls are built one on top of the other. The total
wall in this case needs to be checked for overall stability.
A check on sliding and global stability should be done especially in cases
where there are unusual loadings, such as heavy traffic close to the top
of the rockery.
Rockeries are used for both cut-and-fill slopes. Figures 3-59 and 3-60
show typical details for both situations. Figure 3-61 shows typical
details for a rock wall in front of a reinforced fill.
3J.2 Materials
165
Accelerated expansion
(15 days)
CRD-C-148 *1,*2
Soundness
(MsS04 at 5 cycles)
ASTM C88
CRD-C-137
Unconfined compressive
strength
ASTM 0 2938
-I.
-2.
The test sample will be prepared and tested in accordance with the
Corps of Engineers testing procedure CRD-C-148. "method of testing
stone for expansive breakdown on soaking in ethylene glycol."
Accelerated expansion tests should also include analyses of the
fractures and veins found in the rock.
3J.3 Construction
Rock size
Rock weight
Average dimension
One-man
50-200 pounds
12-18 inches
Two-man
200-700 pounds
18-28 inches
Three-man
700-2000 pounds
28-36 inches
Four-man
2000-4000 pounds
36-48 inches
Five-man
4000-6000 pounds
48-54 inches
Six-man
6000-8000 pounds
54-60 inches
166
167
Figure 3-56.-Rockery.
168
~_H_--lli
If-I- - ,- H
-~,---='<,~,
i\..,1
",
~~/'.-/.:-::///
,-'
-'
1H:1V
5 ft
2/3 H
HI
H2
1H: 1V
2H: IV
169
-f, f-
(I.mua
lIOn)
~ is
110 Ie I
130 Jet
=30 01 15"
~.a
ICI}
'CI
-co
~ _
lO
=~
-~
_ 15
---
UUlr( 111
.....
.., - ID
-...
15
Figure
3-58.~ritical HelB
30-
.~
co
_
-------....----.-.....- "..
~e/l
10
,15
10
6~
ratios.
170
60
AOlJfo1imate
Diameter
SiZe
AplJfOxmale
Wetgtu . Ibs.
, Man
2 Man
3 Man
4 Man
50
200
700
2000
. 200
. 700
- 2000
. 4000
36 - 48'
5 Ma~
- 6000
SOOO . eeoc
48 . 54'
54 60'
~OOO
SMa'
Ie'
le26'
2e - 3S'
12 -
~ecessary
cEGEND
Drainage matenats to cors;S1 01 clean angula' ~ :c
2 II"1d\ spalls. or other matenal acoroveo 'Jy :~e
geclec'1n1Ca1 engnee r
Figure 3-59.-Typical detail native cut of any height over 4 feet (after Arc Manual).
171
!-EGENO
Crusned rock or :Ir,er apporved ,T,ate1a1 rang In, ~e: ....een 4 102 iroches
(Sl~ and c'.ay size oaClides passlllg tt1e No, 200 mesh sieve).
f1
Structural fill overoulk:f, oompaC:ed 10 dlleast 95'k 01 maJmum dry densrty as determ.,ed tVy' Asm -eS1 Method 0-1558-78
(l,1odrlulOj Proctor),
Compacted S1l1Jdural fill consiS1"'9 01 free-draming, organoc-free maleral Wl1h a ma:.:imum size of 4 l1dles Sr,ould conta., no more
lhan 7 percenl lines (oescriled above), rompacle<:110 alleaS1 35 pef1:ent of ASTM 0-1557-78 maJrnum dry denSIty.
allOve.
[]
PerlOOlted or sloneo orain p'!>8 .... ~h 4 f1Ch mllwnum C.ameler beoded on and surrounded by crusnec rod< liner rroalenal, descnbed
NOTES
All 1111 shouk: be placed IIlth'n !itts not exceedltlQ to i1ches in loose ~ockness Ead', layer should be comoaded to no less Ihan 95 percent of
'T1aximum Cry density, as determined by ASTM 0.1557-78 (Mod~led Froc.or)
Th:kness 01 crushed
fi~er
~,
~ec:-,nocal
Figure 3-60.-Typical detail overbuild fill construction rock wall less than 8Jeet in height (after
Arc Manual),
172
1
Crushed rock or crushed roncrele dralll rock material ranging between 4 and 2 nches n SIZe and free 01 organics, wrth less than 5
percent fllles (sib and day Sl2e panicles passng Ille No. 200 mesh sievel.
:J
IJM\N'I
Compadecl strueluraJ fill COIlSISting ollree-orainlllg. organlC-lree material wllh a maxmum SIZe of 4 i1ches. Should contaf1 ro roore
!hal 7 percant ff1es (desaibed above), compacled to a Ieas1 95 percent 01 A8m 0-155778 mamlUIT1 ory Density.
Perforated or sloned draf1 pipe W1lI1 4 i1ch mll1mum diameter bedOed on and surrourded by C1US'led rock filter material. descTbed
above.
....2.....- mar.
NOTES
An hli snould be placeC IIllhin lifts rol exceecing 10 inches f1loose tIliclcness Eacn layer should be ~ac:ed 10 no less It'.ar. 95 percent 01
maximum ory densrty, as deterrnllled by ASIM 0-1557-78 (Moorlied PrOClor).
M."num Ieng':l1 of geogno wrap over toe of fill.
lengttl of reinforCing geogr.d,
,'00< (as
Figure 3-61. -Typical detail geogrid reinforced fill construction rock wall 8 feet or more in height
(after Arc Manual).
173
174
-...l
......
(]I
:3.5'
2S'
.0
.t:F='7'
. I 'I
r::r 0(=
oru.. .' (
J'
'0
3.5'
- .J
LINE.
l\I
()
...
:::'TA Ot 2.0
2 n'
r--~
-t- W;,Ii
8,0'
C x I ::JTII~Ut
&.1~()IJNO
D~T"AIL'
----
FA"'..H.Ic'
REINFO~CINq
ExI~""INu
6oA.WNO LINe.
J . ',0'
I '.0'
WAU-
OO~I 06.
PLACE
IZ"
OI"'M6.T61\ ROet'(
,,-Tn
rR,A"IL
rtf
3K Reinforced
Soil Retaining
Walls
3K.1 General
This section provides gUidelines for the design of reinforced soil retaining
walls (also known as mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls) using
layers of polymeric (such as geogrids) and metallic (such as welded wire
mesh) reinforcement. This design method is applicable to a variety of
soil reinforcement and wall facing types. To name a few, some of the
more familiar wall types include proprietary systems by Tensar
Corporation, Hilfiker, Keystone, and the Reinforced Earth Company.
Because this gUide is intended to be used by a general civil engineer, the
size and complexity of the walls addressed by these gUidelines are
limited. The assumptions and limitations are presented in section 3K.4.
Designers of critical walls or complex systems should consult with a
qualified geotechnical engineer. For additional study, references have
been presented throughout the text.
Since the design methods presented here are applicable for a wide
variety of wall types, the results could be conservative for a particular
product or type of material. Also, since manufacturers often have design
assistance available, users can frequently request that a design be
reviewed by a registered engineer representing a particular
manufacturer. On some projects. the manufacturers can also provide
plans prepared by a registered engineer together with certifications of
material properties.
Sections 3K.2, 3K.3, and 3K.4 show a general overview of reinforced soil
retaining wall design, a discussion of the current state of the practice in
design, and a listing of the assumptions and limitations used for this
gUideline, respectively. Design methodology and design calculations are
presented thereafter.
3K.2 Elements
of a Reinforced
Soil Retaining Wall
Reinforced soil retaining walls act as gravity wall structures that depend
on the mass of the reinforced soil zone behind the wall facing to resist
destabilizing forces imposed by the retained backfill and other loads
such as surcharges. Reinforcing elements are placed in horizontal layers
within the backfill soil zone to create a composite reinforced soil mass.
The reinforcement provides a tensile strength within the soil mass that
allows the composite structure to maintain its integrity over the specified
design life.
A general cross-section of a reinforced retaining wall is shown in figure 3-64. The primary components of a reinforced retaining wall include
reinforcement, wall facing, reinforced soil backfill zone, retained soil
zone. foundation soil zone. and drainage features.
176
Orignal Ground
Surface
Finished Grade
Facing---....
Toe Bench
Leveling Pad
Foundation Soil
Other design considerations include the finished grades above and below
the wall, surcharge loads. original site grade. limits of construction
excavation, and leveling pad.
3K.4 Assumptions
and Limitations
178
704.10 Select Granular Backfill. Select granular backfill is sound, durable, granular
material free from organic matter or other deleterious material (such as shale or other soft
. particles with poor durability) and meeting the gradation in Table 704-4. The material shall also
conform to the fo.Howing quality and electrochemical requirements:
(a)
Quality requirements.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
34 (0.6 rad)
15% max.
50% max.
6 max.
Note: Compact samples for AASHTO T 236 to 95 % of the maximum density determined
according to AASHTO T 99, Method Cor D, and corrected for oversized material as set
forth in Note 7 of AASHTO T 99.
(b) Electrochemical requirements.
(1)
(2)
(3)
5.0 - 10.0
1,000 ppm maximum
any method
(4)
Note: Tests for sulfate and chloride content are not required when pH is between 6.0 and
Sieve Size
100
75 - 100
0-15
179
(2)
(3) The wall has level backfill conditions or sloping and broken
backfills can be modeled as a uniform surcharge of less than
500 psf (pounds per square foot).
(4) The wall has level toe conditions for a minimum distance of
one-half the height of the wall.
(5) Surcharges are less than about 500 psf and are uniform.
(6) The same length of reinforcement will be used throughout the
full height of the wall.
(7) The wall length will not exceed approximately 1,000 feet. The
conservative assumptions in this manual can result in
uneconomical designs for large walls and complex projects.
(8)
180
3K.5 Design
Methodology
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Step 1: Satisfy
Design Assumptions
Step 2: Generate
Wall Profile
Step 3: Establish
Wall, Loading, and
Soil Parameters
q =
181
270
Top of Wall
Finished Grade
Behind Wall \
I
......
c:
260
ca
>
255
-I
0+00
"
,
r
... I
..
.--I'.
I
Panel D
I "
0+25
. ..
0+50
.. . 'E' . r . F
0+75
1+00
~Bottom of Wa II
182
1+25
Wall Profile
Station 0+00 to 2+00
r-Finish ed Grade
in Fro nt of Wall
0
I
'"--
250
al
....
iii
. ,
I
ILimit.s
of I
Design
r-:--
I ....
265
.....
'\
1+50
1+75
2+00
Foundation Soil
s = Spacing of Reinforcements
183
lanes)
Soil zone
Moist unit
weight (pcf)
Internal friction
angle (degrees)
- --------------
Reinforced soil
Backfill soil
Foundation soil
Yr
Yb
Yf
Cohesion
(psf)
- -- - ---------- -- - - - -
o
o
Cr
Step 4: Complete
External Stability
Analysis
Step 5: Select
Reinforcement
184
Sliding:
. ..
... ..
.....
Overturning:
Horizontal Mow_
.. : ... J. .'
...
Bearing Capacity:
Tilting (inward or
outward) caused by
failure of the
foundation soils
z;&~ss:
Global Stability:
185
51ill 5urtace
186
-..:J
OJ
Table
Rlbbod
Smooth
_~oUrl~~
Metal
. :...
:.:.:...
X_X
x_x
C:=~~
~ Ko: Woldod wire walla uae a valull of..K .. 0.65, which la larger than Ko'
Rllnklne: The talluro aurfllco 1$ IInollr and oxtond, from th~ baao ~i tho Willi to thG ground 6unaoe at an anglo of 4$
ailinoar: The failure aurlacll approxlmatlla .. curvod.surface.
~Eurth Preasure Coefficient .
.
X
X
01 Ko to
+ /2 Irom
tho horizontal.
X
X
Ko
>
---
K.
x
--
K.
Reducllon
Unear
~h_i-rellure ICoeHlclen~
Friction: The atr88a88 are tranalerred between aoll alld r.elnloroemenl by ~h8llralong the Inlorlaco.
Pasalve Realstanoa: Tha alle88ea are tranalerred between aoll and relnforoement by bearing between tl1etrllnaverall elements aIJlllnalthe aoll.
2Aolnlorcem ent Malorlu'
.
Metallic relnlorcern0l11a: Mild aloel.
Non-metallic rolnlorcementa: Polymeric materlala Including palypr~pYlonel polyethylene, or palyo.lor polymora.
JRelnlorcomont Extenalblllty .
. . . . .
.
Inoxlenslble: Tho deformation at the rolnforcoment at falluro Is.much lua than the doformllblllly 01 tho aoll.
Exlenaible: The deformation.ol the reinforcement at fallure Is comparabl& to or ovon groater than the delormabillty of the soli.
'Folluro Sur1aco . .
....
.
...
:--:.
Nonmetal
Fallura
Surlace 4
Ma,t~rlaI2
EXlenslblillyJ
Relnlorcoment
X~I
~tx_j
Xx
Realatance
I
Frlcllon
I
Paaaive
.
..
Adapted from NCHRP 2~O and HIWA 89.043reporte. .
lStrua Tranafar Mechanlam :
.
.
Notoa~
Shool (00010,t,les)
Mechanl!rn~
---.--
Slreaa Transler
elements.
Surlace
O'ld.~~I'~ M06_ht--
Strip
Relnlorcoment Type
r----
3-22.~omparisonof reinforcing
-1
The wall facing provides structural confinement of the backfill and is the
primary determinant of wall aesthetics. Common facing types include:
Welded wire mesh
Shotcrete
Metal sheets and plates
Gabions or wire baskets
188
189
190
191
......~- Horizontal .. ~
.~~~
I
I
--~
b) Tensile Overstress:
...
192
---1
0.3 H
o
a) Bilinear Inextensible
Reinforcements
0
0
o
o
o
o
0.5 H
b) RankineExtensible
Reinforcements
Resistant Zone
193
r-
Step 8: Develop
Construction
Drawings and
Specifications
3K.6 Design
Calculations
Noncritical structure.
..
..
Wall has level toe conditions for a minimum distance of onehalf the wall height.
194
Step 2: Generate
Wall Profile
Calculation
Step 3: Determine
Wall, Loading, and
Soil Parameters for
Each Wall Section
~Assumptions and
See figure 3-67. Subscripts "r". "b", and "f' refer to reinforced soil.
backfill soil, and foundation wall.
Calculation
rPr
Yr
D
q
Step 4: Complete
External Stability
Analysis
Yr
Calculations
195
The width. L. of the reinforced soil zone must be great enough to ensure
an adequate shear capacity along the base of the reinforced zone to
prevent sliding of the structure along its base. The horizontal driving
forces are due to the backfill weight and any surcharge loading acting at
the surface of the backfill behind the reinforced soil zone.
Calculations
.h...:..or..:..:i:::zo:..:..n:.:.:ta::..:.l..:..:r--=e..:..sl:.:..st:.:.:in..:Eg!...-fi~o:..:..r..:..ce:..:..s
horizontal sliding forces
~ -
L 2:
(3-107)
FS SL
Kab )H [q
[q
a.S(Yb )H]
(3-108)
y,(H) J tancf>
The reinforced soil zone must have a sufficient total mass to prevent the
reinforced soil zone from overturning about the toe of the wall.
Calculations
moments resisting
~ -------"--
moments overturning
(3-109)
(3-110)
196
F = qL
T
I
Reinforced Soil
Backfill Soil
= r .H(L)
Mf-----I--.....,....-"""*--4------ F
= K.(q)H
~--:.,...-----F
= 0.5 K.H
--->~ F
= (H1' +q)Uan
r
197
2
"("
Calculations
Use the largest L value obtained from steps 4.1 and 4.2 for
calculations in step 4.3.
Kab (H 2) [YbH
6L[y,H
3q]
(3-111)
q]
B = L - 2e
q(L)
(3-113)
The allowable bearing capacity, qa' is defined in equation 3-114. The ultimate bearing capacity, QuJto should be
determined during the site investigation.
QUit
qa = FS
Be
(3-114)
step 4.3.
Step 5: Select
Reinforcement
Calculation
Step 6: Select
Facing
Calculation
Step 7: Complete
Internal Stability
Analysis
199
The reinforced soil mass can be divided into two regions. the active zone
and the resistant zone. The active zone is located immediately behind
the face of the wall. In this region. the soil is trying to move away from
the soil behind it. The stresses produced by this movement are directed
outward and must be resisted by the reinforcements. The forces in the
reinforcements are transferred to the resistant zone. where the soil shear
stresses are mobilized in the opposite direction to prevent the pullout of
the reinforcements. The reinforcements hold these two zones together.
making a coherent soil mass. Figure 3-72 shows the assumed variation
in earth pressure coefficients with depth for different wall types.
Calculations
1 - sin dJ r
(3-115)
200
Ka
........
./
a) Geotextiles
and Geogrids
Depth
(tt)
\/
0.65
..... K
./
b) Welded
Wire Wall
Depth
(ft)
\V
Ka
Ko
"'- K
./
c) Strip
Reinforcements
Depth
(ft)
20
\ If
201
Grid Reinforcement
for Welded Wire Wall
Grid Reinforcement
for Geogrid
Reinforced Wall
Sheet Reinforcement
for Geotextiles
The use of a constant reinforcement spacing for the full height of the
wall usually gives more reinforcement near the top of the wall than is
required for stability. Therefore. following the internal stability analysis.
alternative spacings can easily be evaluated by analyzing the
reinforcement strength requirements at different wall depths and
modifying spacing accordingly, or by changing the strength of the
reinforcement to match the spacing requirements.
202
Calculations
= K a z = K( Y Z + q)
T
(3-117)
or
(3-119)
Calculations
203
Material
ribbed strips
wire mesh
geogrids
Geotextile
!l!..sr
r
2/3</Jr
2/3 r
2/3 r
If FSp
Reduction
factor (f)
0.48 (requires corrosion evaluation)
0.13
0.10
0.08
If FSR
204
=
=
15 pm/yr
0.059 mil/yr for first 2 years
4 pm/yr
0.016 mil/yr for subsequent years
Carbon steelloss
=
=
15 pm/yr
0.059 mil/yr after zinc depletion
where 1 mil = 0.001 inch
Environmental conditions, such as temperature, microbial attack.
construction damage, UV degradation, and chemical attack can directly
affect polymeric materials. Product-specific laboratory data may be
evaluated when determining the Fa value for the reinforcement.
Calculation
Step 8: Develop
Construction
Drawings and
Specifications
Calculations
3L Reinforced
Embankments
3L.1 General
<,
\
\
"
'=1,
Potential ~',,Failure
"
Surface
.....
Conventional
--
Vnreinforced
Slope
\:l'
",
"
.......
Reinforced
.....
Slope
Slide
206
Stabilization
Prj mary
Reinforcement
Infermediate
Rei nforcemenf
~------.;;....,,;~
~enchJ
~~_~:;;;:=aUI terface
OriQinal
Failure
Surface
;C=~~----,fi1-..
eocomposite
Drain
Figure 3-74.-Reinforcedfill cross-section with drainage and a bench fillnative soil interface to prevent sliding failure.
3L.2 Design
Information
3L.3 Design
Process
209
210
-a.'"
- - _ .. "t'"
.
Jii)
,
.......
0,-
0.'
-f
0,-
.~
.
i
.
I'
a
!
t.-
ouLo::::..-c::::.,--"""-~,--"""-:-I:_"-~""""'--!
oD
AO
AO
IQ
..
A)
10
..
B)
Chart Procedure
Limiting Assumptions:
Extensible reinforcement.
Slopes constructed with uniform, cohesionless soil (e-O).
No pore pressures within the slope.
Competent, level foundation soils.
No seismic forces.
Uniform surcharge no greater than O.2yH.
Relatively high soil/reinforcement interface friction angle
.sr - 0.9 'r (may not be a~propriate for some geotextiles).
1.
2.
Determine T
Il
- O.SKy r H'
211
c' 0
.J:!... 0
rH
O. 6 . , . - - - , . - - , . - - - - , - - _ , . - _ - ,
15
.....
1. c
-=-....,....--..---....,..---,--........
-'
C. 5 +---+--~-7"~--+--:
O. J
l. 2 +----t--+"""'~+_--t_-......,
25
..~
c:
o
1. c+-"""'~-=-+--+---P"'oo;::-l20
"
..... C. B 4--~---+---+--~oIoc---;
c:
":>
OJ
0.6
~"
u
+-I---l./.=--+,.._';"':=:::;:::::~
~. 4
.,;
0.2
5.
O. 1
c:
""
J
'J
+----,H---1f--+--t--..,
-...
+----,,L-l-ye.c..:.....,,.c.....:...,,,,e.~--...,
40
SO
60
..,o
. : O. 2 #-......,f4--1-~+--;---+---l
70
BO
JO
60
50
40
Slope an",le
70
BO
Slope Angle!
Fig~rr B~J. S"mplifiHl des..gll chon ....th pore p'eSJ~'t c~jJicit1l1 tq~ol 10 zera. (Je...elJ et
C.
aJ., /98 4 b]
TH
O.~5
0.6
~
L C ,.--.....,.....---,.--~---,;---..,
-'
0.5
::0 5.
"
. e +---+---?'''C"-t_--;---.....,
='.4
20
:;
o
.? 1.' ~--+-"':::>O~--+------l
0.:;
"
~
.,
"'"a.
0.2
::
C. 1
c:
~
....,
~L 1 -. ~--+--+--~~"""'f---l
- c:. a IL:::4=::::j~=t=~
t'. 6
JO
sc
60
~_+_~
~o
Slo~
__-I-_----<__"'"
50
60
Slope
10
ar.<;~e
80
Fig~rt B~4. S"mplified dts"gll chan ~d pcrt p'tSS1irt c~fficit1l1 eq~QT to 0.]5. [Je...e11 el aI., /984b]
(from
Mitc~e11
Figure 3-76.-8implifted design chart with pore pressure coefficient equal to 0.25.
212
.L.
o. rr-,--.,---,r----r-....
..JL O.!>O
'0
"H
.1
r-..
II
I-...
'0
-Y'-+----,~-I-.,..F_.....,u
0'...
'0 ..
...
:=0-
f"....
'"c
..."
0
...
i'-.
""
-=
.........
-..
r---....
c. ,
~
0 1
I.)
r-..........
r-- ""'-
1.0
'C
)C
14
Slo~e
10
'0
10
)e
ansle /I
'0
'0
'"
_.
- "'l
'0
'0
':11
".J
bomple
-.........
Slepe znsle/l
. ., ""']
OOrI
.;
-.........
F7flJre B~J S.'rr.;lifittJ design dum ... il" pcre prlSI"'Te c~ffidenl eq"'G/ IG
7.26 Design
3
II
0.
-'"
r-...... ~
r-- t"..
10
o.,a
IJ...e!1
I,.".
'. =0
U5
Figure 3-77.-Simplified design chart with pore pressure coefficient equal to 0.50.
213
,~
.. =
506 fl.
7. Th. dr.plh! and IbiclJ'lcsI of Ihe 20n.1 o~ .qual reinfor~
mer.1 sp<ocing m.)' be calcul.ted (~ .. FIg, BE2) .nd lh~. are
sho..-n in Figure B87.
8 Th. lOW borizont.;1 foru reqL:ired 10 pro,id. equilibrium
is T = ~ K"1H' = 5,81<l Ib/ft
9. Th. c:.lculaled r.umber of r.info/um."t grids i~ 8 (Table
5.860 It-1ft
B', fig. B-H), p,ing the ,heel.
= 732 Ib/ft <
2.COO
S;ac,ng
Grlds
0=
in Zone :ft)
Depth to Bottom
of Zone (ftl
Svmir=O.74
0=50.6
2Sv..,in=1.48
Q:2=25.3
~hlckre5s
of
Zone (ft,
I/
4Sv1l1n=2.96
20-16.9=3.1
..
16.9-12.7=4.2
12.7-0=12.7
~(4=12.7
Heignt=~=20.0
I
3Sv 11,n=2.22'
=70--1 3Sv
V'
"""
I
Q/4=12.7
"<7
Gi3=16.9
...,..
,,"n=I.48r
0/2=25.3
v
SVClin=0.74
0=50.6 (NTS:
"<7
I Spa:::ins
in Z;lne
:ft)
Thiclr.:'\e. . f
lODe
( ft>
Calculated
number of
Q'f ld.
Choll!'O
r.... mber
2::'"ld.
IS
drawn In
:.9
Relllolinde-r
1ft)
20'" t
~ 9 . 7 "t J
1.0:
2.79
2. 21
4.23
2.95
12.70
2. 79i1 ."8
1.89
(4.23
0.5-;' :. 1.48
1. j~)/2.2
2.50
.2.
SZ
0.8 I: 2. 21
1.10
(12.7 -J.10)/2.95
4.67
Total
SZ
:sz.. . 3.8
2 '8 . 2
20 :sz
J .32
O. E
16.:
a: blll_e
1.48
_8_
2.0
214
Pullout resistance
= 1.5-2.0
Installation damage
=3
Creep deformation = 5
Chemical degradation
=2
Biological degradation
= 1.3
Connection strength
=2
215
~....CENTER
Y ...
I
I
I
Of ROTATION
........ R
SURCHARGE
........
....
.... ....
....
....
I
I
I
I
...............
Ts (EXTENSIBLE)
I
I
I
I
I
I
le
EMBED~ENT
LENGTH
r. S.
"
. .he re:
w ""
JL s p
0
if
dL
(58
(Wx + 6q d)
Lsp
mass
it
""
r.s."
(59
216
3L.4 Materials
3L.4.1 Internal
Reinforcement
Materials
217
3L.4.2 Backfill
Material
Sieve size
4 inches
No.4
No. 40
No. 200
With reinforcement, the final fill face most commonly designed and
achieved has a IH:IV slope. However, this slope can vary between
I-I/4H:IVand I/2H:IV, depending on the soil type used and extra
measures taken. Approximately, a IH: IV slope is the steepest slope face
achieved using a dominantly granular. low plasticity backfill material
typical of mountainous terrain. Because Lhe outer edge of the fill face is
unsupported, good compaction in this area is very difficult to achieve.
Without adequate density. soils placed on a steeper slope will typically
not hold. and local fill face instability will occur. Attempts to construct
an unsupported I/2H: IV flil face have failed, even using a slightly clayey
soil, and a I H: 1V slope was the end result.
Use of a material with some cohesion may allow a somewhat steeper
slope to be constructed, but perfonnance is probably still controlled by
construction limitations at the fill face. In very granular. nonplastic
material, such as decomposed granitic soil, experience has shown that a
1 1/ 4H: 1V face is the most appropriate stable slope. A steeper slope will
either ravel or it will need some additional type of support, such as a
reinforcement material wrapping around the face. Wrapping material
has included either the geogrid being used for reinforcement or a heavy
erosion control matting or netting. The TENSAR Corporation has
constructed 3/4H: IV-slopes using the primary reinforcement grid
wrapped around the face in up to 3-foot lifts. However, if abundant
wrapping is needed. a retaining structure may become more economical.
Eight-inch (200 mm)-diameter quarry rock has been used on flil faces to
218
3L.6 Drainage
Requirements
3L.7 Construction
Sequence
219
3L.B Cost
220
3M Low Cost
Shoulder Repair
3M.1 Introduction
Treatment extends less than 5 feet below the road surface for
excavated treatments; 30 feet for launched soil nails.
221
3M.2 The
Geosynthetic
Reinforced "Deep
Patch"
The typical road prism for which the geosynthetically reinforced deep
patch is appropriate consists of old, loose, side cast embankment that
often contains decomposing organic debris. The typical site has minor
subsidence which may be a safety hazard and requires frequent
patching, crack sealing, and I or a leveling course of surfacing.
Settlement is often accelerated by a crack on the road's surface, allowing
water to inftltrate into the embankment. The problem is often chronic,
but it is not severe enough to require conventional reconstruction
techniques. Figure 3-80 shows the general situation.
The following two cases, case 1 and case 2, are variations on the theme:
that is, they vary according to the judged mode and severity of potential
failure.
Case 1: Settlement
of Side Cast
Embankment
In case 1. the risk that the embankment will proceed rapidly downslope
is low and is often a chronic maintenance problem. The primary cause
of subsidence can be characterized as settlement. Settlement could be
due to a combination of many factors previously mentioned.
In case 1. it is judged that stability is not a significant concern and that
the problem can be treated as settlement.
A very important part of the design is to determine the nature of any
drainage problem(s) and provide an effective solution, if applicable.
In case 1, a simplified geosynthetic reinforced deep patch design could
be used. A single layer of geosynthetic material is placed approximately
3 feet below the road surface, between two cushioning layers of
compacted aggregate. Figure 3-81 shows a typical construction drawing.
If open cracks are encountered in the bottom of the excavation, they
should be filled with a slurry grout applied under low pressure.
Since nothing is being done to improve the settlement characteristics of
the underlying material, it is expected that the outside portion of the
patch foundation will continue to settle-but at a slower rate and
without the redevelopment of the surface crack. Since the settlement
continues after construction and stress is applied to the geosynthetic,
the materials must be designed for tensile strength and for the pullout.
A simplified geosynthetic design for case 1 is shown in figure 3-82. The
tensile strength of the geosynthetic is designed to meet the long-term
allowable design load per length ofroad. 51' such that 51 = CJXld y
in which
Cf
Xl
Note: this equation is conservative due to the sloped surface at the embankment
face.
222
-.J
cf.:
d
.....
"
t-
tc
\- ~
v.. ~
\}..,
't.
<.'~
\1.1
C'I
r::
:r.
1/\
1=
~ ~
~"Z"
.J )-
" <.'""
e
../1
<-
1.1,)"
~l"'l.
\-; ~
VI ~
.~
...J
::s
~ '-..J
\JJ
"
,.) ~ ~
l-)
:i
":
f'
IP
t\:
Cl
<t:
~
~
.j
j
~
~
>I-
------------
223
= ~/Sl
> 1.0
(3-124)
> XI
Case 2: Settlement
of Side Cast
Embankment as an
Incipient Failure
In case 2. the risk that the embankment will proceed rapidly downslope
is Judged to be sufficiently high to warrant a more detailed stability
analysis and design. Therefore. if the consequences of a potential slope
failure are significantly high. then a case 2 analysis should be performed
by a qualified professional.
A case 2 situation is shown in figure 3-84 and generally has similar
physical characteristics to those in case 1. In addition to the simplified
geosynthetic design in case 1. a slope stability analysis is performed. as
shown in figure 3-85.
The stabilizing component resulting from the geosynthetic is limited by
the frictional resistance mobilized along the geosynthetic/soil interface
between the potential failure surface and the embankment face. Note
that the frictional strength should be expected from shear development
only on the underside of the geosynthetic and may. therefore. be less
than frictional coefficients due to geosynthetic pullout and the available
published data.
In the case of an incipient failure analysis, a modified Bishop or other
circular arc search routine can be used. To model an incipient failure
condition. strength values. C and rP. are chosen so that the minimum
factor of safety for the critical failure arc is equal to 1.0. using the
expected critical ground water condition (refer to figure 3-85). A
resisting moment due to the force developed in the geosynthetic is used
to calculate an increase in the factor of safety above the incipient failure
condition. Tnis equation for the increase is
~FS
=L(min) x S(geo)/DM
(3-125)
in which I1..min) equals the minimum moment arm between the center of
curvature and the geosynthetic/failure surface intersection; 5(geo)
equals the strength developed from the geosynthetic/soil interface, and
DM equals driVing moment determined in the modified Bishop analySiS.
224
(]l
l\J
l\J
=:=
_~
211
--
. --
(SEE SUU~"g~AY
__~ _ __
I WORK DETAIL)
eO'
PlAN VIEW
2-H15
----
rAe. PAVDlEIIT
1m
IIIXCRADIHDI
~ rCRADIHO~CIlUSIml
_ _ _.. _
1
1
1
1
UA DEP.uFO:!-;:]:CI
mmNT 0' AOIIIC'lro:J[
1I:Cll!I:Al[
--- --~I
n n _
-;
PIAl:[
2)
:0,..
~o
Q&
"'-b.s>
?.-j,
'y~':I
'_
OIWlIHC
alUSHm
CDCRID
(ND ~DINTS
.It:CRCAl[
IH litiS SECllOO) (SI'S 721)
)~
~~r=--
NOT TO SCAlE
lr
TOE or nLL
=rr[T~~'-~~
I
1
--.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - DlTtHlIH[
---,_ - _ - - _ - __ - - - - - -I--- IHSIDE met Of' PAVDlEIIT
1+45
on" L
_.-----.-
-~_..
~~~IWHF
---~ ~PITRUN(rlWCS1
_
_
_
__.
__
__
__
I'
~'J.
.=e~ ---==-===~-- -'--'.f ' ( \--==='" ~
'- DrTAll
'"--1
PAYEll Dm:H
5[E ROAD S1RUC1\JRE
lIUITS!l!:::T.:> I
~~m~~
"
TO BE CONSTRUCTD
(j')
tv
tv
--c
MO.:! ~,.
LuA
II. N.! T
"
"''-.~
"'5 f~ ~J-
''Z,
oF-
E311:C.,,-H L.o
I-
Qt.-<.!
57..'TO,,-1
~0E;.':.(..,tllu<;,)
"
"--1
r .....J
"'-,
;:J.,.)Ttn).~('!:...-
~;--c.cSY,"nt-ll.--c;c. ')~
G,'"o,$y"..,-rt-li-,5c...h o .:t:'c
ON f'0I'"Z.T..Jo/,\
6~
r:>
Cot-f. of f,"ue/.ToN
"
5,
t~1~
- ' ,~
f::~:-.2
t \
~.L
y,
ti,
X ").
.....
CrF o.";,/2,! I)
"
Df
10 l,,1 Ol-U
CY'I
- "tu~ 11,'1..,
=c~x\ckl
S,: c~
'JL -;:
i,
C -.
f
..----V -:.
M
:5i -=
l!-r'z-cl zf]
~-
~ctLo.OU1
"'-'
t"--'
l-
--...:3
~---,-_.~
c---
'. . f
I
:;"1 ~ J<"
f=
r'
--=._-_-- __
__ _
__ __
Ov.~~
i?J.I:J)
---<:.,.~-
-----
-~-
E:x. TE::tJ S
I'V!i __ f<.Ei.l':l.4,/2..
. _'.'. ..
227
__
_
~ _
........
crv+ <-1"-
~~
OIZ.;~'"'It'
Or (2 C; t-i ,v r)
"S tA ,"Z F,AC..I::"
()/... 1) t.~c:,.. S
3M.3 Launched
Soil Nails
228
1\
-::"t\Ou.t-- ut rz.
t:. o6nI~
E-~Sjf"~
t<-i
e..E;.~ R
"r
CfVr(.J<:"
""-
ck:
m '5.J:c; ry-~ Co,
"'Due
7~
;::O/2..ct
6Eo'S'1/"'THc,.r,-
,,
L,ocAn:.
13/
v:;)!
2C~IA~LE:...
c-'
5V-Cf-I- 1M A\
"e:,
f5
s.f,A-rz.crl Tlov..';!"":?'=-
f 0/ ' Vlr~
C;I.
fS
-pI,,( ~
fZ;:-S.!:-SP""G-, MDWo,f.N'i
:=
l../
J<Or""'.
. -""
pe:~Art.~ FS
-=-1.
7-:
fS::.. "
00
"'"
10
of
""-
<:::::;.,:.os,....... ,tll.T.I<-.
)( S
'"
1"1 '3LL
229
""
230
TIE
(ROO
71"":'
/ANCHOR WAI..I..
I d
,~
!!
NOTE:
..;/
II d IS GENERAI..LoY EQUAl..
TO H/3 TO H/4 .
21 R IS THE TENSION IN
THE TIEBACK
Loads are transferred from the wall face to the anchor rods through
horizontal structural steel shapes called "walers." On occasions, rolled
steel channels are used in a back-to-back position. as shown in
figure 3-88. so that the tieback may fit between the channels. If a wide
flange section is selected as a waler, eccentric loading may result in
Significant torsal stresses. In this case, web stiffeners may be required
at the anchor connection.
Walers may be designed as simple spans and the maximum bending
moment computed using
M maz
= -R I
(3-126)
=~
Fb
(3-127)
in which F b is 0.66 of the steel's yield stress (for A36 steel, F b is 24 ksi).
To complete the waler-anchor rod assembly, the connection must be
designed. The waler must be checked for web cnppling. and the bearing
plate must be of adequate thickness to distribute the load.
lt is important to note that if the anchor rod or tie bar is not acting
perpendicularly to the wall. a significant vertical force will be applied to
the wall.
231
\T1EBACK
I
STEEL
CHANNEL
= Pp - Pa
(3-128)
If the active failure wedge of the retaining wall intersects the passive
wedge of the anchor wall (see example (b) in figure 3-88), then A pmax of
equation 3-128 must be reduced, as shown in
(3-129)
in which ~ is the depth to the intersection of the failure wedges (see
example (b) in figure 3-88).
232
J2
45 _
a
r.l..
+ - - -. P
/
,
,/
;:T/1~//=
~/
/45 +
::'y!
/l.......~---
~,
Ap
c"
. . . ~;-l;p . . K/~/"../'/..
' e ' P'~p~........
I"
e.,.......
"
........... c'
45 /
"2
........... ~.
Passive wedge
01 anchor wall
h/3"'~"'"
h
.....
...
' ..........
'..........
............ c'
----------'
/
/
45 -
:1.....
' -f,/
----J
j
=..,..""~,.,,m=~....,'
"'''/..7//..:;:'//,.:7//';;
.....
...
"I
2-
Pp
=(1/2) Kp 'Yh'
Pp
= (1121
Po
(1121 K,,'Yh'
Pp
p- Pal
K p 'Yh' - IP
Pa =(1/21Ka'Yh'
3N.3 Short
Deadman Near
Ground Surface
In this analysis it has been assumed that the passive wedge of the
deadman does not interact with the active wedge of the wall.
Experiments have shown that the maximum capacity of the deadman
(see figure 3-90). is
(3-130)
in which
L equals the length of deadman.
h eq:.mls the height of deadman. and
K" equals the at-rest earth pressure (granular soils).
For cohesive soils. A p is
(3-131)
in which c is the cohesion of the soil.
3N.4 Small
Structural Plates
and Bars
233
"j
I
A.
/ ACTIVE
/ wECGE
~/
"r/ 1
PASSIVE
WECGE
Po
= 1/2)"II2 Ko
Pp
= 1/2)"II2I<p
(OBTAIN
F'ROM
1<0
Kp
F'IG. :517 I
3N.5 Rock
Anchors
234
235
250 - 450
Granite (. Basalt
Lime~tone
300 - 400
(competent)
Dolooitic Limestone
200 - 300
Soft Limestone
ISO - 220
Slate~
120 - 200
30 - 120
Soft Shales
120 - ISO
Sandstone
Note:
Chalk
(varidble properties)
30 - 150
Marl
(stiff, friable,
fissured)
25 - 36
(4) Failure of rock mass. The criterion for failure in rock mass is
based on the weight of rock contained within a cone emanating
from the bonded zone. Figure 3-93 shows design criteria.
Actual anchor failure in this mode would be controlled by
discontinuity patterns and weathering of the rock.
The capability of epoxy grout to bond with rock 1s so great that the rock
strength is the controlling strength factor. Figure 3-93 shows a graph of
compressive strength in ksi versus ultimate anchor capacity in kips per
foot of grouted length. The figure should be used for preliminary
estimates of the reqUired grouted length of anchor. A suitable factor of
safety should be applied to the grouted lengths detennined from figure 3-93; that is, in the range of 3 to 10, depending on the rock quality.
236
a BEARING PLATE
SHEATHING
a PRESTRESSING STEEL
."Y .
.~K
ANCHOR
GROUT TUBE
!-M'--
t---
PRESTRESSING STEEL
- - =,;:; I'~ARY
~J
GROUT
237
(B.)
PLAN
3)
b:
I ~~8
La
~
~~--
~-
--i
-
(D)
9:
(B2_ d 2)C+-lrdLIC o
238
the grout ?lug. Regardless of the design method or grout type. the
minimum grouted length should be 4 feet.
Expandable shell rock anchors in hard rock should be designed on
40 percen: of the compressive strength over the surface area of the shell.
In soft rock. the design should be based on 18 percent of the
compressive strength.
-'
!
801----+!-HIGH STRiNGTH R O / :
70
>-
60 ~-_+_----+--+_---_'!'_-_+_-___,c______I
\----t--!i---+----Jf----+,---+V-----.lP'-----I
~~ 501------+I--+,-/-+-~AVER~GE
Y
~
ROCKSTRENGTH
!:
a:: 401----,------+--/--;--r----+---+---If---+----l
o~
JV
wEAK
W 20
:l
30 f--+-+---+--+---+---t---+-----..;-----I
ROCK
I
10
'I
2
4
6
COMPRESSIVE
8
10
12
STRENGTH.
14
qu, ksi
239
Soil anchors can be installed in nearly all types of soil. Types of anchors
and applicable soils are presented in table 3-24. Anchor capacity
depends on various factors. such as soil type and grout penetration.
Estimate of anchor capacity should consider past experience. pullout
testing of anchors. soils data, and consequences of failure. In some
cases, field testing of all anchors is necessary. Anchors in coarse sands
and gravels have had working loads up to 80 tons (factor of safety,
F s = 1.5) where the fixed anchor has had about 40 feet of overburden on
it. Anchors in medium sands. with the fIXed anchor below 20 to 30 feet
of overburden, have been installed with working loads up to 40 tons
(Fs = 2). Anchors with working loads up to 60 tons (Fs = 3) have been
installed in stiff clays.
Anchorages in granular soils are formed by the injection of grout under
high pressure so that a grout bulb forms along the bond length of the
anchor. Figure 3-94 presents a graph of anchor capacity versus bond
length for granular soil types of various densities. The figure may also
be used for pretest estimate of bond length (free or stressing length of
anchor is normally a minimum of 20 to 25 feet).
Guidance is given in figure 3-94 for pretest estimating and pullout
capacity of anchors in cohesive soils.
Because of the large number of variables affecting anchor performance.
anchors are normally proof-loaded to at least 115 to 125 percent of the
design load with selected anchors tested to higher loads and for longterm creep characteristics. Permanent anchors should be tested to
150 percent of the design load.
Anchors in soil should be designed using a minimum factor of safety of
2.0; a higher factor of safety is used for permanent or critical structures.
All production anchors should be proof-loaded to 115 to 160 percent of
the design load. Additional testing to higher capacities and to determine
creep characteristics may be justified for permanent installations, or
where the design conditions warrant.
30 Materials
30.1 General
30.1.2 Timber
tv
~
.....
I.
Undl'rrcamed Multi-bell
IIn,lf'rrl'i1med SI nr,lf'
8,,11 at Rot tom
LOW I'HF.SSIJRF.
Methoc!
Sh.1 [- t
Type
~mptf'r
IA"
4 - 8'"
12 - IA"
I)
12 - 24""
ni
8 - 24"'
30 - 42"
Nil
NA
Rdl
Typf'
(Inch('s)
II
NA
II
Gravity
Concrete
Nil
Nil
30 - 150
Nil
Groll t
Pressllre
(psi) ( I)
(l
Very stiff to
hard cohesive
soils
Dense cahes ive
sands
Soft Rock
Very stiff to
hard clay
nenl'le cohesive
sands
Loose to c!pnsf'
s ... ndr.
Very stiff to
hard clays
nense cohesive
sands
Soils
for Anchorage
Sult~hlf'
,1
n,l
Friction and
bearing
IllY
r I 1111\
hl'.!'
"r I
Friction
Friction
I.oac! Transfer
MechanIsm
t-.:l
*'t-.:l"
Friction and
bearing
Friction or
friction and
bearing in
pcnneable
soils
NA - Not applicable
A - Applicable
.. -
Local penetration of grout will fonn bulbs which act in bearing or increase effective diameter.
b) Varied and
difficult
soils
Same soils as
for nonregroutable
anchors plus:
a) Stiff to very
stiff clay
Hard clays
Sands
Sand-gravel
formations
Glacial t111 or
hardpan
Load Transfer
Mechanism
200 - 500
150
Suitable Sol1s
for Anchorage
(3)
NA
NA
Grout
Pressure
(psi) (l)
NA
NA
Gravity
Concrete
3 - 8"
3 - 8"
Type
Bell
(I)
Regroutable'- (3)
Non-regroutable (2)
Shaft
Type
Diameter (inches)
(2)
2.
Method
'
c.u
oj::.
t'-'
..-...
_---
(I\)
90
180
I
- -
.L
I~
20
10
-_
(FEET)
25
La
30
,..
SE
I
35
MED DE
MED DEtSE
nFNC::F
I
I ~~--I
I~~ I
I ,~~U'r~N~~
UNIFORMITY)
OVERBUADEN~
13 FT.
SAND
Cu :
SANDY GRAVEL
~ FINE TO MED
~.Cu:I_6-3.1
EMPIRICAL ULTIMATE CAPACITY Of ANCHORS IN GRANULAR SOILS SHOWING INFLUENCE Of SOIL lYPE
(COEFFICIENT OF UNIFORMITY), DENSITY AND BOND-lO-GROUND LENGTH .
::>
I...J
::J:
I-
.J
a:
a:
)0-
..-
1-'
(J
Q.
(J
:3
I-
'60
450 )
Except for walls intended to have a very short life (less than 2 years), all
timber exposed to soil or weather should be pressure-treated. Treatment
types fall into three general categories: creosote, pentachlorophenol, and
water-borne salts. All are effective and the designer should become
familiar with the local aVailability of each process. Pressure treatment
should be in accordance \vith the American Wood Preservers Association
(AWPA) C-14 standard, except for marine piling.
To increase its useful life, precut all timber to length and have any other
fabrication done prior to pressure treatment, unless required to be done
in the field. Damaged areas, field cuts, and holes in all pressure-treated
timber should be treated in accordance with AWPA standard M-4.
Marine (saltwater) piling should be costal Douglas fir pressure-treated in
confonnance with AWPB standard C-18 and specified in accordance with
ASTM D-25.
Piling for nonmarine use should be Douglas fir specified in accordance
with ASTM D-25. Pressure treatment should be required in accordance
\\-ith AWPB standard C-3.
Design stresses for piling and lumber depend on the size and shape of
the piece as well as on the species. Shape descriptions are shown on
table 3-25. In addition, the commonly used grades for various uses are
presented. As there are several grades of timber for each use, care must
be taken when selecting structural members to assure that the proper
grade is chosen. Higher grades than those shown in the table are
available: they are, however, expensive and frequently unavailable.
Table 3-25.-Timber shape descriptions.
Use
Grade
Common
Shape
Description
Piling
Class A
Round in section
Decking
Commercial
Posts and
timbers
no. 1
Beams and
stringers
no. 1
no. 2
Structural
joists and
planks
244
For reliable design stress values for lumber. consult the current edition
of the Unifonn Building Code or the W\.VPA Grading Rules for Western
Lumber. For piles. consult the current edition of the AASHTO Standard
Spec!ficationsfor Highway Bridges. Generally. \VWPA-tabulated values
are for sawn lumber and dry stresses (moisture content of wood no
greater than 19 percent). If the moisture content of the wood exceeds
19 percent. the wood is considered wet and the allowable stress must be
reduced as described in the grading rules. This is the case for most
retaining structures. Different reductions in allowable stress for wet
conditions are given for each type of stress (compression. bending.
shear. tension. and so forth).
The allowable design stresses for wood are also affected by several other
factors such as the duration of the load. Generally. a reduction of the
maximum allowable design load is recommended for permanent or dead
loads. However. for transient load conditions such as seismic and other
short-tenn loadings. the allowable design stress. reduced for wet
conditions. may be increased. Refer to the current edition of AlTC's
Timber Construction Manual for a discussion of each factor and
application examples.
The AlTC manual should also be used as a reference for other design
considerations, such as the combined bending and axial stresses being
subject to inspection with the "interaction formula"
fb+fa~1
Fb
Fa
(3-134)
in which fb and F b are the actual bending stress and allowable bending
stress respectively, and fa and Fa are respectively the actual and
allowable axial stress.
30.3 Structural
Steel
245
3P Corrosion
3P.1 Introduction
3P.1.1 Corrosion
3P.1.2
Geosynthetics
3P.1.3 Treated
Timber
3P.2 Corrosion
Parameters
3P.2.1 Soil
Resistivity
3P.2.2 Moisture
Content
247
INDICATOR
NonCorrosive
Mildly
Corrosive
Moderately
Corrosive
Corrosive
Very
Corrosive
Resistivity (ohm/em)
>10.000
5.000-10.000
2.000-5.000
700-2.000
<700
- - - - -
- ->
200-400
100-200
pH
Redox potential (mV)
4.5-9.5 >400
Chloride (ppm)
60-180
Sulfates (ppm)
90-280
Organic content
,$,0.01%
<100
60- 85%
Moisture content
Maximum corrosion rates seem to occur within this saturation range.
Soil
Surface soils, loam. etc.
100-5.000
Clay
200-10.000
5.000-100.000
Surface limestone
10,000-1.000.000
Limestones
500-400.000
Shales
500-10.000
Sandstone
Resistivity range
(ohm/em)
2.000-200,000
100.000
Decomposed gneisses
5,000-50,000
Slates. etc.
1,000-10.000
248
3P.2.4 PH
3P.2.5 Redox
Potential
3P.2.6 Organic
Material
Soils containing more than 125 mg Fe/gram soil have been found to be
aggressive, while soils with less than 50 mg Fe/gram soil are not
aggressive. Very aggressive biogenic iron sulphides may develop in high
soluble iron soils.
249
3P.3 Design
Considerations
Once the type and degree of corrosion of the soils has been determined,
then the structural components for the project may be selected and
designed. Risk analysis plays a major role in this evaluation. The
criticality of the structure, the planned design life. the cost, and the
corrosion of the site are all part of the aIlalysis.
There are several ways to deal with corrosion problems in a reinforced
earth structure. These include changing the materials in the
project-either backfIll material or structural components, using
"sacrificial" materials, coatings on structural components, cathodic
protection, and control of dra!nage.
3P.3.1 Change in
Materials
3P.3.2 Sacrificial
Materials
250
t-.:l
CJ1
......
1
3
> 400
Redox
200-400
potential
(mV NHE) < 200
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
1
2?
High
alloy
steel
1
1
1
3P
2P
IP
1
1
2
3
1
2
2
3
2
1
alloy
steel
Low
Lead
coated
steel
- Markedly affected
1 - Affected only slightlyP - Pitting attack pronounced
2 - Affected? - Behavior unknownfrom NCHRPR 290. p. 77 (table 21)
o - Generally unaffected3
Organic acids
<6
6-8
>8
pH acidic
neutral
alkaline
2
2
2
2
Dissolved salts
Chlorite
1
2
1
2
Moisture
> 80%
content (%) 10-80 %
< 10%
1
3
2
2
0
3
2
0
Soil property
Galvanized
steel
Mild
steel
Aluminum
coated
steel
3
3
1
2
2
3
3
2
Aluminum
and alloys
1
1
1
1
?
?
Glass
reinforced
plastic
(Grp)
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
Copper
2
2
1
2
2
1
Copper
steels
UNDERGROUND CORROSION
20
10
I~
1 6
RATE - ACID
2
SOIL
PIT MI IYR
WT LOSS-OZ./FT IYR,
10.000.---------!-----:~~-~--_r_-----_r_-----_r_------Tf
5.000t:===:tZ:::::::;~::z=::::::;~----_r~
__
- 4.000r-----t-r-----:;'?"-"7"'----r---__
3.000r-----,"'+...,..'-~-....,.'__
>
~
>
~
CD
a:
.J
5(JJ
~
::::l
~
Z
~
1-'
UNDERGROUND
1.0
O.~
CORROSION
0.3
0.2~
RATE -ALKALINE
SOIL
3P.3.3 Coatings
3P.3.4 Cathodic
Protection
252
Corrosion occurs at the anode. where the electrons from the iron are
given up.
Cathodic protection results in this electrical current being reversed.
slowing or stopping the corrosion. This is accomplished by use of an
electrical DC rectifier supplying electrical current from local electrical
power lines to a separate anode embedded in the concrete. This anode
is usually a wire mesh embedded just under the concrete surface.
When the impressed current enters the separate anode, the voltage on
the rebars is reversed, turning the network into a cathode. Since
natural corrosion occurs only at the anode, the rebars are protected.
With impressed current cathodic protection, the corrosive action which
would occur at the separate anode does not, because electrons are
supplied by the external DC rectifier. Thus, the artificial anode is also
protected from corrosion.
3P.3.5 Control of
Drainage
3P.4 Construction
Considerations
3P.5 Monitoring
253
254
3P.6
Geosynthetics
3P.7 Geosynthetic
Construction
Su rvivabiIity
255
PETP
PA
PE
PP
PVC
NE
Organic soils
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
Ferroginous
NE
Calcareous
NE
NE
NE
Modified soils
NE
NE
Low
Moderate
Equipment
Light
Medium weight
dozer
dozer; light
(8 psi)
(>40 psi)
wheeled equip.
(8-40 psi)
Aggregate
Rounded
sandy
Lift thickness
18"
Coarse angular
12"
6"
256
Table 3 -31. ~eotextile strength required for survivability during construction physical-property
requirements 50% geotextile elong~tion / > 50% geotextile elongation (2.3))
Survivability level
ASTM 0 4632 (lb)
Grab strength
ASTM 0 4833 (lb)
Puncture
resistance
ASTM 0 4533 (lb)
Trapezoid tear
strength
High
Medium
270/180
180/115
100/75
70/40
100/75
70/40
-----------------
Additional requirements
Test methods
ASTM 0 4751
<50% soil passing a no. 200 U.S. sieve, AOS <0.6 mm.
>50% soil passing a no. 200 U.S. sieve, AOS <0.3 mm.
(2) Permeability
ASTM 0 4491
ASTM 0 4355
ASTM 0 4759
Values shown are minimum roll average value-strength values are in the weaker principle
direction.
2 Elongation as determined by ASTM 0 4632.
3 The values of geotextile elongation do not imply the allowable consolidation properties of the
subgrade soil. These must be determined by a separate investigation.
From FHWA publication FHWA-HI-90-00, "Geotextile Design & Construction Guidelines",
tables 9-1 and 9-2, p. 225.
1
Note: These survivability requirements were not based on systematic research. These
requirements are based on performance of geotextiles as separators on temporary roads and
similar applications. Current research is suggesting that elongation may also be a factor. In
the absence of other data. these values may be used. Judgment and experience need to be
applied to geotextile selection and. for major projects, field tests should be used to verify
values.
257
Chapter 4
Specific Wall Designs
4A Introduction
48 Concrete
Cantilever Wall
48.1 Problem
Statement
V/~/70R5
ill TEl!..
--
GEM/AID
:--.........
(70 .1:"""1' IN )
1..0 '7
...
,-
ioo"._-~-
~o'
-".
length of the wall will be 178 feet. The walls will be constructed prior
to the construction of the visitor center.
Because there is a cafeteria in the visitor center, it is anticipated that
heavy trucks will occasionally use the parking area. Hence, the
structural design of the concrete walls must allow for such.
The visitor center will be founded 8 feet from the upper wall. The
bearing pressures allowed for the structure are 4,000 psf. The
structural design of the building will fully utilize this allowed bearing
pressure on the 18-inch-wide strip footing at 8 feet horizontal distance
from the wall.
Standard penetration test values average 20 blows per foot. From the
approximate correlation given in table 3-1, it is estimated that the
angle of internal friction is 33. Unit weight of the material is
estimated at 120 pcf in its natural state. The walls will be backfilled
with weathered sandstone. The water table will fluctuate between the
ground surface and 15 feet below on a seasonal basis.
Each of the walls will have a 13-foot retained face and will be founded
2 feet below the finished ground line. The same wall section is desired
for each wall. Therefore, the most conservative loadings should be
used in design.
260
48.2 Design
Calculations
= -X = -8 = 0.53
H
15
so Ph
The resultant is located at 0.55 m above the base of the wall, i.e.
8.25 feet.
The lateral case will govern design.
The lateral earth pressures, in this case, will be computed by the semiempirical method in figure 3-4. The sand backfill may be classified as
type 3. i.e. residual soil with stones and fmes and granular materials.
The slope angle {3 = tan- 1(1/3) = 18.4. Referring to figure 3-4,
K v = 15 psf/ft and K,., = 50 psf/ft are the eqUivalent fluid pressures for
vertical and horizontal earth loads on the retaining wall.
Select wall dimensions for initial trial per the design hints for cantilever
walls, table 3-13.
1. Footing width, 3 = 0.60H = 0.6(15) = 9 feet.
2. Extent of footing beyond face of wall = 0.21B or 0.21(9) =
1.89 feet, say 2 feet.
3. Wall thickness at top = 8 inches.
4. Wall thickness at base = 0.12B = 1.08 feet = 13 inches.
5. Footing thickness = 0.12B = 13 inches.
Consider the free body diagram on the next page. (Note that passive
earth pressures are ignored here.)
261
RS5UM C04!CR!:'<
I~
i-/'.,/7'
VW"
WF
WS1
6 /(14)(0.12 kef)
WS2
PAH = 1/2
KAHH 12
10.1 kIf
0.24 kIf
The vertical influence of the line load on the footing may be computed
as described in figure 3-6b.
-ef = 2 [16]
- - = 18.5 ft
tan 60
tJ.a v =
qL
6.0
-=== 0.32
ef
18.5
Considering the portion of tJ.a v over the heel of the wall gives P1u = 6tJ.a v
or P1u = 610.32) = 1.92 kIf.
262
FJ=
(l::FJtan8
where l::Fu
and
Ff
4B.2.1 External
Stability
= 7.20 k/ft
~M
resisting
l::M driving
F.S.
5.7PAH
8.25Pnc
1:: F resisting
:EF driving
F.S.
7.20
10.23
The net horizontal load required for F.S. = 1.5 is 10.23(1.5) 7.59 = 7.76 klf. A portion of this would be furnished if the
passive soil resistance was considered. For a level backfill-as is the case of the upper wall being considered-~is
given by equation 3-21.
1 + sin<fJ = 3.39 for <P = 33
1 - sin<fJ
1/2yKp d 2
Passive resistance
= 1/2(0.12)(3.39)(2i
= 0.81 klf
= 7.20
0.81
10.23
263
~
;
.,,/-{~
, i
ntL
N01G:
825 .
I
I
oJ::
~OWN
~ N1-'k:./..I/T<..J~
RIGC IN UNITS
.cl,.os/LF WA.u..
>j
12.17'"
I
72..3"'-)
---,::-
S 7'
U.
----r--
0\
~....,....,...,.
i.
3~
1Pp
= lI2y Kp )2 = 1/2(0.12)(3.9)(5.75)2
= 7.74 k/lf
Now F.S.
7.20
7.74
---- =
10.23
3.0_
7.Z-.3 __ Z. t7
2.17
10.1
~/O
1.'lZ
1.92
I
(4-q
264
1.9/ O.Z4
1.49
1.91
0.24
17.83
9
---
1.98 ksf
O~
~Fv by
Locate resultant
y
ff
92/6
= 1.41 ksf/ft
Resultant stress dismbution is
K'SF
1.'18-1.4/- 057
/.98~/.4f
= 3.3'3..t:s.e
Since maximum bearing stress < allowable (i.e. 3.39 < 4.0 ksf)
and minimum stress is compressive. the footing is adequate as
proportioned.
4B.2.2 Internal
Stability
= 3(8.25 -
= 54.71
k/ft
= 13 - (2
= -bd
--
12,000
265
= 3.500 psi
Try t
= 17 inches; d = 17 -
(2
0.;5)
14.63 inches
:. F'
= ~ = 12(14.63)2 = 0.21
12,000
KF'
12,000
248(0.21)
M
ad
54.71
= 2.12 in 2/ft
(1.76) (14.63)
=-
0.004 (17)(12)
ASH
= A wn (0.0020) = 1/2(8
17)(15')(12)(0.0020)
= 4.5 in 2
Splitting this minimum horizontal steel to front and back.
2.25 m2 will be reqUired fser side. From table 3-5. select twelve
#4 bars with spacing = ~ = 15 inches (ASH = 2.36 in 2 /12#4 bars).
12
Check shear stress at the base of the stem:
:EFH
v =
hariz. force/ft
estern area/ft
=
Ii
10,230 lb
17 in(12)
50.2 psi
~~
l.lJ3,500
)L
._. ._.
~~~~;
i'E--Z'
""(II,tff[j]TO
qsi =
~.
9 - 2
- 9 - (3.39
0.57)
= 3.08 ksf
-'
3.39 ksf (see ftg. stress dist.)
\.
~
0.16 + 16(0.12) = 2.08
....... - ,t...J~
qS2 = 5.5 (3.39 + 0.57)
r\' . .
0.57 K,,:
i '
267
'&>2.
2~2
ksf
= 1/2(3.39
=
6.79 kips/ft
HEEL M = -1/2(0.57
2
V2 t
3.08)(2) - 0.16(2)
-17.95
31.46
3.22 kips/ft
2.08(5.5)2(1/2)
2.42)(5.5)
=ad
a = 1.76 as before
d = 10 inches
6.25
= 0.36 in 2/ft
1.76(10)
= 6 inches
A
52
M
= -ad2 = 13.51
0.77 in 2/ft
176(10)
= 6 inches
ve}
~
13 (12)
268
15'-0"
udR u'
(fOP)
f 7&lf/Ml
Z'O"
269
48.3 Additional
Design
Considerations
48.3.1 Drainage
The seasonally high ground water table requires that engineered drains
be provided for both walls. In the case of the upper wall, a vertical
drain is recommended. The lower wall should be constructed with
adequate drainage as outlined in section 3F.
48.3.2 Footing
The footings are embedded 2 feet not only to increase the allowable soil
bearing pressure and passive resistance, but to provide adequate frost
protection. In some areas an embedment greater than 2 feet may be
required. Consult local building codes for information on embedment
reqUirements.
Embedment
48.4 Construction
Considerations
270
4B.5 Backfill
Placement
Uncompacted lift
thickness Cinches)
12
4C Bin Wall
4C.1 Problem
Statement
271
_ P.l!oPQSEO
"
I
/
I-IIGH
I
tJf1 7 cr<.
'--IN"
\~-
--
--_.-//
4C.2 Design
Calculations
The owner desires a galvanized bin-type retaining wall due to its known
economy in the project vicinity. The analysis for essentially all types of
bins and cribs will be substantially similar.
Check external stability
The wall and forces acting on it are shown in the following figure.
Lateral earth pressures wiII be computed by Rankine earth pressure
coefficients.
272
Fe/JCE
~s.~~
~,e;t+
P~I2ICIAJG
'I"J7:W7
rr
(j)
(j)
Backfill
36 y = 135 pef
K a = 0.26
Kp = 3.85
9'
C=
Glacial Till
30 y = 135 pef
0
~
O~p
O"TI'I
= 1.04
kp/ft
= (0.135
Ff = 4.15 kip/ft
(equation 3 -48)
= 2.49
273
Overturning stability
F.5.
resisting moments
overturning moments
(equation 3 -46)
_w-->.(5_.5-,--/2..L.-)
p ha (11/3)
7.18 (5.5/2)
2.12(11/3)
= 2.54
= w(5.5/2)
F.S.
max
+ 1.13 (2/3)
2.12 (11/3)
= 2.64
So, structure is stable against overturning.
Bearing capacity
For an overconsolidated till, with O.C.R. = ll.S, bearing capacity of a
9-foot gravity structure is not a consideration. For less competent
foundation materials, bearing capacity should be considered, including
the moment-induced stress as in the cantilever wall example.
4C.3 Additional
Design
Considerations
4C.3.1 Drainage
4C.3.2 Erosion
Protection
4C.4 Construction
Considerations
The major advantages of bin and crib wall construction include relative
ease of construction and lack of need for special equipment to
assemble the units. The major disadvantages are the problems
associated with field modification of prefabricated parts to fit changed
subsurface conditions. The latter is particularly problematic for steel
274
40 Gabion Wall
4D.1 Problem
Statement
275
d .
do
~ f~
(J
<J
<;)
. .
/8'
-----~~
.....
\j
276
40.2 Design
Calculations
K
A
+ JCOS
(3 -
COS
(j)
= 0.79.
Thus, consider
wrrll -
.I.,ZZF=r:
.1. z 1/ 1=f".
= 16.64 kips/ft
Pov = Posin{3 = (16.68 kips/ft)sin38
Po, = 10.24 kips/ft
Poh = Pocos{3 = (16.68 kips/ft)cos36
Poh = 13.49 kips/ft
277
Compute the location of the vertical resultant acting on the base of the
wall by summing the moments about point C and setting equal to zero.
~Mc=
C,.
c: =
=
+ )
0
7.87
Yv
Yv
5.7 + 52.85 ft
25.7
~MreSisting
FS = -----"~MdriVing
F.S.
278
Try to mod~fy the wall by creating a counterfort in the back side. third
tier from tl:e top.
~Me
UI FT COtJAJTERFO/i?r
(CONSTft:UC...,.E&J OF 3'x3'XQ'
I
I
80'
\,
~~~
/'
;1. O'
.,....
IS
~AeION~.
NOTe: NO
lS,J:JSK.r
eeOUIe/) IN &.A'JK.
l1t2e~, IF Nor IN
:(
N
8OrTcJ/o/1 .eQW.
~
'I
/'
,/
cc
~ ~,
" 1:s:.Z.t:.
N3
= 8.0(0.13)(6) = 6.24k1ft
F,
J]
(No'" N)tan
= (8.58
=
279
24J
3
6.24)tan
2(38)
COI)AJr~/2FO~T
,3' X!,')("
OIlIt.NT(.()
57HBIU TV O~ TEJv/PORA~ y
eXCAVATION MUST Be
C!OAJSWEJi:ED AND PR.OV/~/ON5 MADE.
TO
MAINTAIN CJ/T Du~/NG
CJONSILlC. TI ON.
WAL L ,v}//ST B. Blkt:.FI<.LD
I1S
PKo-
/8'
,/ 15'
,/'
280
,,/
Il.'
(0.47)(10.24 + 15.21)
13.49
40.3 Additional
Design
Considerations
40.3.1 Slope
Stability
40.3.2 Orainage
40.3.3 Sliding
Friction
40.4 Construction
Considerations
282
4E Reinforced
Soil Retaining
Walls
4E.1 Reinforced
Soil Retaining
Walls
VA~r(.S
....
I=-"-o.:>rr>
BAC,.KI='IU- / I2E-"rAIOf..D
bt
SoiL.
SOIL.
(h "
~.
?!~ = 120'''''6+ 3
Wall profile
J
0
1/0
-12.'
1-+
too
~. .......
10$
200
::>
\.J
7
/
10
C!
..J
\,J
__I-
..........
---
_.:..:\'1:;"'--"'"",f---
I+-I
if
+.
\
01~O
283
l/
'0,'
0'"
'+0
4E.2 Design
Calculations
= 12 ft
= 250 Ib/ft2
= H,eq + D = 12 ft + 2 ft = 14 ft
Soil parameters:
1>, =
Y,
34
= 135 lb/fe
1>J= 30
YJ = 120 Ib/ft3
1>b = 30
cJ= 0
Y, = 120 Ib/ft
Ib/ft2
= 0.33
284
L.
FSSL(KA)H[q + O.5(Yb)H]
-----'------[ q + Y, (H) ] tan4>
mm
(3-108)
->
mUl
L min
3[q
3q]
(3-110)
y,(H)]
285
= 7.1
ft.
KAb (H)2[Yb(H)
e =
6L[y,H
3q]
(3-111)
q]
3 (250 Ib/ft2)
250 Ib/ft 2]
+
+
e = 1.74 ft
1.74
+
+
3(250 Ib/ft2)]
250 Ib/ft2]
e = 1.24 ft
Check e < L/6 to continue:
L/6 = 10 ft = 1.67 ft
6
+
+
1.42 ft
L - 2e
= 5.86 ft
286
5.86 ft
(3-112)
q(L)
Qa = - - - - B
(3-113)
@ cPb
= 30
N c =30.14
N y =22.40
QUIl
Ib/ft 2 (30.14)
= cP
3(250 Ib/ft2)]
250 Ib/ft2]
1.37 ft
=>
continue
L - 2e
= 6.26 ft
287
9 - 2 (1.37 ft)
6.26 ft
Qa
y,(H)L - q(L)
B
QUit
4> (30.14)
= 9,465.1 Ib/ft2
FS h("
FS bc
Conclusions
External Stability Analysis Summary
Condition
FS
Sliding
Overturning
Bearing capacity
6.2 ft.
7.0 ft.
9.0 ft.
4E.3 Internal
Stability
Three types of walls having different reinforcing and facing material will
be analyzed for internal stability.
Example #
Wall Type
Reinforcement
Type
wire mesh
geotextile wall
geotextile
shotcrete
keystone wall
geogrid
precast concrete
blocks
288
Facing Type
4E.3.1 Welded
Wire Wall
Ka = 0.65
Step 7.2: Select spacing measurements.
For welded wire walls, standard vertical spacing. 5 z' between
reinforcements is 1.5 feet. Two feet of fill will be used above
the top reinforcement. This makes the design height of the
wall 14 feet.
- - - - ._- - -
- -- --- ----- - --
'1 bt
14
6-1
Layer #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Depth. Z (ft.)
2.0
3.5
5.0
6.5
8.0
9.5
11.0
12.5
14.0
289
where
(The standard
wire mesh sizes can be obtained from the manufacturer.)
~ 5"
~ ~'"
15,7051b/in2 )
FSR
290
~ I S 1'l'rlJi
= 1.556 ft
0.532 (z)
~'E..
N = L,IO.75 ft
S;r
Ko(y,z
= 6.7)
q)
250 Ib/ft2 ]
162.5 Ib/ft 2
291
Layer
No.
= 0.75 fe(732.9
Depth
z
wire
ax
PH
(ft)
(lbs/fe) (lbs/wire) size
lb/fe)
FT
= 549.7 lb
(lbs/in 2)
Le
(ft)
(lb/ft)
Pt
FSp
FSR
2.0
338.0
253.5
3.5
7,243
2.6
3.5
1.275
2.5
4.3
3.5
469.6
352.2
3.5
10,063
3.4
4.6
2,101
3.0
3.1
5.0
601.3
450.9
3.5
12,884
4.2
5.6
3.187
3.5
2.4
6.5
732.9
549.7
3.5
15.705
5.0
6.7
4,605
4.2
2.0
8.0
864.5
648.4
3.5
18.525
5.8
7.7
6,253
4.8
1.7
9.5
996.1
747.1
3.5
21,346
6.6
8.8
8.258
5.5
1.5
11.0
1,128
845.8
3.5
24,166
7.4
9.9
10.565
6.2
1.3
12.5
1,259
944.5
3.5
26.987
8.2
10.9
13,062
6.9
1.2
14.0
1.391
3.5
29.807
9.0
12.0
15,957
7.6
1.1
1.043
>3.0
>1.5 >1.0
= 2,143 Ib/ft
Yr(z)d[O.75(7T)Le(m)(2/3tanl/Jr) - 17.61(N)]
Washed sand:
PI
= 633 Ib/ft
292
Yr(z)d[O.75(7T)Le(m)(2/3tanl/Jr)
36.8(N)]
Pea gravel:
PI
= 712 lb/ft
y,(z)d[O.75('7T)Le(m)(2/3tancP,)
38.1(N)]
For design example, assume most like washed sand. For w3.5
wire mesh, d = 0.0176 ft.
PI
= 633 lb/ft
PI
= 633 lb/ft
36.8(N)]
36.8(N)]
= 633 lb/ft
P,
= 4,604.8 lb/ft)
36.8 (6.7)]
PI
m(P H)
=-P
FS
P
PI
= - - 2:
2 (PH)
1.5
1.5
Calculate FSp for each layer. If FSp < 1.5, increase the length of
the reinforcement or decrease the horizontal and vertical
spacing. Sx and Sz and recalculate Step 7.4.
(At layer 4, PI = 4604.8 lb/ft, PH = 549.7 lb.
FS
=
p
4604.8 lb/ft
2(549.7 lb
4.2)
293
= 0.059
Calculate the loss of carbon steel at the end of the design life.
Te ,
d/2
0.0176 it
0.211 in = 0.106 in
2
T.
= 0.106 in
Ts
T.
(Ti7T
= P fA
If
Fe
=
C
30,896.7 Ib/in 2
=
e
Fy
Fe
294
Conclusion:
The following design parameters have been determined:
Length of reinforcement. L
Vertical spacing. Sz
Horizontal spacing. Sx
Transverse spacing. Sy
9.0ft
1.5 ft
6in
9in
4E.3.2 Geotextile
Wall
1 - sin<l>,
1 - sin 34
0.441
Ko = 0.441
295
Ko(Y,z
q)
From the 1993 specifier's gUide, there are several geotextile fabrics that
could be used, including:
Strength (lb/in)
Manufacturer
Product
Structure
Material
Tu
Exxon
GTF 1000T
woven
polyester
1000
GTF 1500T
woven
polyester
1500
Huesker
Comtrac 270.270
woven
polyester
1500
Nicolon
HP 1500
woven
polypropylene/
polyester
1350
HP1300
woven
polyester
1300
Trevira 1135
nonwoven
polyester
152.9
Trevira 1145
nonwoven
polyester
183.5
Trevira 1155
nonwoven
polyester
205.5
Hoechst
From table in section 3.0, step 7.5, reduction factors (f) for polyester
and polypropylene are 0.13 and 0.08, respectively.
296
Fa =J(TJ
For HP 1500:
Fa
= 0.08(1350 Ib/in)(12
in/ft)
= 1296 lb/ft
For HP 1300:
s =
z
1560 Ib/ft
0.441 (135 Ib/ft3 (z) + 250 Ib/ft 2) (1.5)
For HP 1500:
Sz
1296 lb/ft
= -------'-------0.441 (135 Ib/ff (z)
For HP 1300:
s
z
2028 lb/ft
0.441(135 Ib/ft3 (z) + 250 Ib/ft 2)1.5
320.58 Ib/ft
0.441 (135 Ib/ft (z) + 250 Ib/ft )l.5
= - - - - -3 - - - - 2-
297
Sz (ft)
Sz (ft)
Sz (ft)
Sz (ft)
(ft)
GTF 100ar
HP 1500
HP 1300
Trevira 1155
4.5
3.8
5.9
0.93
3.0
2.5
3.9
0.61
2.2
1.8
2.9
0.46
1.8
1.5
2.3
0.36
10
1.5
1.2
1.9
0.30
12
1.3
1.0
1.6
0.26
14
1.1
0.9
1.4
0.23
Design using
HP 1300
?i! -::2ot~
MA-t f'A.o.~
IOS.oft.
5"2.=1.? ft
@ rJ.5fr
Sc=O1'5
f1
-'I.e
.0
t>
fl
'0
5c.~1l)
__ 6.Q.
_~2
5e : \.<;
_ _'LD_
rz
---I1-'-~5
,'I-
Sot
= o.i-S'
= Ko(Y n
250 Ib/ft 2)
298
+ 250 Ib/ft2)
= 586.5 lb/ff)
where
Le
L - [tan(45 - cP/2)](H-z)
Calculate Le and
0z
Le = L - (tan 45 - cP/2)(H - z)
Le
(For layer 4,
Le
= 9.0 ft Oz
= 8 ft
0.5317(14 - 8 ft)
= Yr(z)
(For layer 4,
Oz
= 5.81
ft)
+
250 Ib/ft2
250 Ib/ft 2
= 8 ft
P = 2tan2/3(34)Le(0)
P = 0.8353L,(o,)
(For layer 4, L e
P
= 5.81
= 0.8353(5.81
ft,
Oz
= 1330 Ib/ft2
ft)(1330 Ib/ft2)
= 6454 lb/ft)
299
= 2.0 ft,
zm
= 7.0 ft
PH
PH
= 1054 Ib/ft)
250 Ib/ft2
= P/PH ?
1.5
See table for FSp results. All layers have FS p > 1.5.
Step 7.5: Check rupture of reinforcement.
Calculate factor of safety against rupture. FSR for each layer.
FS R = Fa/PH ~ 1.0
f2.R
= 1054 lb/ft
FS~
Lo =
0xa S, (FS w )
2 (tan 24>/3) zr Y,
3.0 ft
Zm
Zr
ax
Layer
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
Objft2)
az
(lbjft2)
am
(lbjft2)
Le
(ft)
2.0
1.0
0.0
229.2
520
169.7
2.62
PH
(lbjft)
Objft)
1138
339
FSp
3.4
FSR
6.0
Lo
(ft)
oo~
3.8
2
4.0
3.0
2.0
348.2
790
288.7
3.68
2430
577
4.2
3.5
3.8
6.0
5.0
4.0
467.3
1060
407.7
4.75
4202
815
5.2
2.5
2.7~
3.0
4
8.0
7.0
586.5
6.0
1330
526.8
5.81
6454
1054
6.1
1.9
2.3~
3.0
5
9.5
8.75
8.0
675.5
1532.5
630.9
6.61
8458
946
8.9
2.1
1.6~
3.0
6
11.0
10.25
764.8
9.5
1735
720.2
7.40
10731
1080
9.9
1.9
1.5~
3.0
7
12.5
11.75
11.0
854.1
1937.5
809.4
8.20
13274
1214
10.9
1.7
1.5~
3.0
8
13.25
12.88
12.5
898.7
2038.8
876.7
8.60
14647
658
22.3
3.1
0.7~
3.0
9
14.0
13.63
13.75
943.3
2140
921.3
9.00
16087
691
23.3
2.9
0.7~
3.0
;:: 1.5 ;:: 1.0 ;:: 3.0
4E3.3 Keystone
Wall
0.283
Try H
Check overturni.ng.
FS OT
3(L 2 )(yJ(H)
= -------2
L = block width
Y, = 135Ib/ft3
q = 250lb/ft2
FS
OT
1.83ft
(3)(1.83i(140)(2.67)
(0.283)(2.67)2[(135)(2.67) + (3)(250)]
302
Try H
= 20 ft (three blocks)
=
FS
OT
(3)(1.83i(140)(2.0)
(0.283)(2.oi[(135)(2.0) + (3)(250)]
OK
Check sliding:
FS
SL
(L)(y...cc...._
K)(H)(tancPr)
_---'-_ _
(Kar)(H)[(q) + (O.5)(H)(y r)]
(1.83)(140)(2.0)(tan34)
(0.283)(2.0)[(250) + (0.5)(2.0)(135)]
OK
Ymax'
Sketch of Ymax:
303
Geogrid
Type
Tu
(lb/ft)
Ta = 0.10 Tu
(lb/ft)
UX1500
5.892
589
UX1600
8.004
800
For UX1500:
(589 Ib/ft)(l.O)
0.283 [(135 Ib/ft3)(z) +250 Ib/ft2]
For UX1600:
Y;max '" _ _. . . ;(>.. . 80_0_1b_/f----'t)'-'-(1_.0. .<. . )_ _
UX1600
Yimax
(ft)
No.
Blocks
Yimax
(ft)
(ft)
No.
Blocks
4.00
3'"
5.44
3'"
2.63
3.58
3'"
1.96
2.67
3'"
1.56
2.13
10
1.30
1.77
12
1.11
1.51
14
0.97
1.32
Place geogrids in wall working from the bottom of the wall. Use
Yimax block spacings to place geogrids. First geogrid should be
placed at a spacing of Yimax/2 or less. Other layers should be
spaced at Yimax or less based on the above table.
Step 7.3: Calculate tensile stress in the geogrids
Calculate geogrid tension in each layer based on actual
elevation of geogrid. Set up figure shown on next page showing
proposed geogrid elevations using above table.
304
(B
T
r
0-
'"',
Ir-/CH ilt..oC.K
U",.TS
y;
T,.
TC;
(ft-)
y'
].00
2.00
441
2,00
t.oo
'4-4/
58'1
OK
2.00
f:. .OU
GOD
goo
OK
/. b 7
8.00
628
eoo
OK
JJ
ct.:n
Sb8
800
Ok:.
ux./bOO - -
I. '3]
10.67
b1h
goo
Ol~
UX It. 0 0 -
.31
12.00
701-
800
010;
.))1./600-
/ .33
IJ 31
7,1
800
OK
1-
U"'500'
4--
ux 1500
58'7 ) T; ok.
b-
U.>\/bOo -
8-
UX/bOO~
.
Ux./f:,OO-
/2 -
I.
/0 -
/1-
= 13.67 ft
= 771lb/ft 2
771
s 800
OK)
PPi = (2)(1.83)(0.8)(140)(tan34)(zJ
=
277(zJ Ib/ft
305
(277)(1.)
554 lb/ft
PFl
(lb/ft)
(lb/ft)
441
554
447
1108
OK
600
1662
OK
628
2216
OK
9.33
568
2584
OK
10.67
636
2955
OK
12.00
704
3324
OK
13.67
771
3787
OK
z
(ft)
>T(
OK
-i
"'l
M
2
4
b
8
9.31
/0""7
IZ.oo
n.33
4
306
L-[(H-z)tan(45-1)]
for z = 2 ft and L = 9 ft
L e = 9-[(14-2)tan(45-34/2)] = 2.61 < 3.00
increase L
OK
= (2)(Le )(y,)(z)(tanq,s,)
FS
T.
po
cPs,
2/3cP,
FS po
22.7
= --------
Tj
(L el ) (z) (113)
Tj
Lei
(ft)
(ft)
(lb/ft)
FSpo
3.12
441
1.60
>1.5 OK
4.18
447
4.23
OK
5.24
600
5.92
OK
6.31
628
9.08
OK
9.33
7.02
568
13.03
OK
10.67
7.73
636
14.65
OK
12.00
8.44
704
16.26
OK
13.67
9.32
771
18.67
OK
307
(ft)
Length
(ft)
UX1500
2.00
9.5
UX1500
4.00
9.5
UX1600
6.00
9.5
UX1600
8.00
9.5
UX1600
9.33
9.5
UX1600
10.67
9.5
UX1600
12.00
9.5
UX1600
13.33
9.5
4F Cantilever
Sheet Pile Wall
4F.1 Problem
Statement
308
I~ ~I',IAX~
If)"
H,,'IJ.e-
t+------7_ ~'--""-5~
~C>r'
~AA\I~
e;...a rlL.L.
d;=-40"
4F.2 Design
Calculations
2..CJ Pt::-F
Use log spiral earth pressure coefficients, assuming wall friction angle
8 = c/J/2 = -200 (log - spiral sign convention).
For steel, or- see table 3-4:
From figure 3-17. for /3/c/J = 0 . KA = 0.22. and for 8/c/J = -0.5.
K p = 18(0.592) = 10.6.
Say, for stability concerns, use F.S. = 1.5 on K p ; hence use
Kp = 10.6/1.5 = 7.1. Alternatively. Kp could be left unreduced and the
calculated embedment increased by 20 percent to 40 percent.
Earth Pressure Diagram:
Compute horizontal components of traffic loads and location of their
r-esultants (refer to chapter 30.5.1. figures 3-24.b. c, d). Consider each
dual set as a point load of intensity 18.5 kips. See plan view below.
ClPA =
r---:r- (!)
7.3'--'fE~1- s '
gPG
qPB
T ,
~P~
Z.zs
4.5'
-L~---(@
jpc'
--l.-
'$PO
..,J
From symmetry,
(j)
(z.)
(3) "
309
Ph I
Ph J .
= ~ = ~ = 0.42
H
12
= M = ~ = 12.73 = 1.02
12
(.!!..)
PhB. {
~)
= 0.18 at
= 0 feet
Force reduction factors for qpc and qPD at (1) are from figure 3-24(c):
\!
45
P =.:!.... =
.
= 0.37 C
x
5 + 7.3
y
4.5
P =- == 0.90 D
x
5.0
t!>D
t/>c
= 0.86
= 0.50
= 0.18(qp)
= 0.18(18.5)
= 0.28 ki PS
H
12
M1.l
hB I .;
PhCl.l = 0.18(
PhD =
12
~ )/q,c = 0. 18
O.73(~)/q,D
e:i
RDI
0.57H
0.57(12)
= 6.8 ft
for MA
MD (figure 3 - 24.c)
for MB
Mc (figure 3 -24.c)
= R CI = 0.38H = 0.38(12)
=
310
4.6 ft
Ph~D
PM +PhB+PhC+PhD
A,D
C.B
I~
-+
I"' A = 0.77
'"
-+
12.3
d>A
= 0.97
PM
12
PhD
l
0.73(18.5)(0.77)
12
0.82 kips
Resultant location:
Rz
6.3 ft
=2.28 kips
at 6.3' above
311
FkO~/I EQ.
15f) :=
cr '"
12. R:..F
0. 12. .t:.e':
C.q J'd:
=: 0."2 Z
e.q': 0.2'2.
?a -=-
(.3 - 5 ':"')
p.,d
(0. 1"2;(12)
:= 0.32. r::.5,r:;
01"2..1022)
= 0.02'
a-=
I
/
"
Kp= '7.10
15= O.lZKCF
;::p = D. I 2 ( 7. I)
= 0. 852
-- --.=:-.~_.-
_ _ _ _ _ _-_CIJ8?FT
7.1 = 32.3
0.22
or d = 31.3 m = 12 ft
12
and m = - - = 0.38 ft
31.3
hE
Pd
= -q-(d+m)
2
= 1.96 kips.
Total resultant horizontal force includes:
Ph = Ph + PVES = 1.96 + 2.28 = 4.24 kips
E
312
}:C;=
= 5.58 ft
25.44x
= 1.87 ft
Compute point of zero shear. b. by equation 3-69:
2(4.24)
0.826
= 3.20 ft
313
(below A)
= 4.24(5.58 + 3.20)
.
= 32.72
kip - feet/ft
s.
min
32.72(12)
0.6(36)
18.18 in 3/ft
4F.3 Additional
Design
Considerations
4F.3.1 Pile Length
Sheet piles are supplied by most mills in lengths that range from 30 to
65 feet. Orders for shorter or longer lengths may require a long lead
time. In addition. requirements for most low volume road walls will not
meet the minimum reqUired roll lot quantity of 300 to 400 tons.
Hence, for the design pile length of 20 feet. the engineer must do one
of the following:
(1) Locate the proper length (either new or used).
314
4F.3.3 Drainage
4F.4 Construction
Considerations
315
Material type
Uncompacted lift
thickness finches)
12
4G Anchored
Soldier Pile
Wall-Timber
Lagging
4G.1 Problem
Statement
316
A geological study of the joint system in the basalt face leads to the
recommendation that if rock anchors are to be used, they should be
drilled into the face at an elevation 6 feet below the finished grade.
The equations and stress diagrams relating to anchored walls
presented in chapter 3 pertain to the special case where the anchor is
located at, or very near, the top of the pile. For the stated problem,
the anchor will be located some 6 feet from the top of the walL hence a
general solution is required. The generalized equations and free body
diagrams are presented before each case that was evaluated (the
minimum embedment, case 1, and embedment to some greater depth.
case 2).
Pi!.a PoED
~---..30.-----::~
PINIS;-I e])
KofiD 6112ADc
PIi!f:1POSED
AA/t::.rl~
77A1Be
Ll
L.~b I/\/G
317
4G.2 Design
Calculations
Kp :
13
Kp
= 38.6,
13#
= 1.0, 8/4J
-OS, 4J = 38.6
= 0.79(0.617) = 0.49
= 20 ft
= set back = 2 ft
Ph = 0.84 (~) = 1.88 kips
T
16.5
= 5 ft
aEeO
SHAe..
318
Po y 2
= R - (P o
1/2Pa Y
(P 0 Y
1/2P)Y
- 1/2C 2p a - CP0
a
---+.......L~E!
for C
319
1/2c 2Pa - R = 0
1/2P)Y
a
Pp
0.49(0.130)
Uh
0.064 KCF
d:lo'
= 0.60 KeF
lTI
~-+-.......
= CUhi where
U~
lB.""
11
* 11.r =1.9K
)0
Select W. = 4B
#=19.8'
= 4(~~) = 4.67
:. C
Uh '
8.0
= 0.58(0.30)
= 4.67 = 0.58
U h:
C( P p
Pa)
= 0.17 KSF
0.17
(0.58)(0.06 - 0.03)
9.77 ft
x- 8. z'
(J';,z. =0./4
=6 feet
First find total horizontal resultant on the active side of the retaining
wall, and dimension h (refer to figure 3-54).
320
= 1.9
1/2(0.30)(10)
= 1.9
1.5
1/2(0.17)(9.8)
0.8
4.2 klft
= ILl it
Simplifying.
0.3lx 2 = 0
68.04 - 1.03x 2
0.035x 3
68.04 - 0.72x 2
0.035x 3 = 0
...
8.2(0.030)(0.58)
= 0.14 KSF
Compute the tension in the anchor by summation of horizontal forces.
See equation 3-100.
321
The point of zero shear is found from equation 3-101. For C above
bottom exposed wall height. d.
1/2(0.30)(10)
1.9 - 3.62
= -0.22 k/ft
Now depth to zero shear C below depth d:
_ _2~(0_.2_2L)_ =.
5 03 f t, say 5.0 ft
C'
(0.03)(0.58)
J:n
"7.
I
0
'
PHT= I.
9~
--.:L
_ __
o.
).~.
"'""
apc.',
T Ii'
c': so'
_t-l
o.ca
322
where:
---.1..nL I
1.(,,'
0-/7
0.08 KSF
Me
= 5.6
kip 'feetlft
MR = 1I2Pay2[Y/3]
= 1/2(0.03)(6)3(1/3)
= 1.08
kip 'feet/ft
24.9 in 3
c=
4(10/12) = 0.417
8
say 0.42
c=
4(10/12) = 0.42
8
323
0hf
0.30 KSF
m=--H=Zo'
_0_.1_3_
0.42(0.03)
10.0 ft
. Resultant Ph:
= 1.9
1/2(0.3)(10) = 1/2
= 1.9
1.5
1/2(0.13) (10)
0.7
4.1 kips
11.4 ft
(1'112. =D.IZ.
0.025x 3
63.96 - 0.53x 2
0.025x 3 = 0
0.23x 2 = 0
= 4.1 - 1/2(0.42)(0.03)(9.2)2
= 3.57 kips/ft, say 3.64 k/ft
324
0.17 klft
2(0.17) = 5.19 ft , say 5.2 ft
0.03(0.42)
C'
3.~~
= 15.2.
TTTT
.
1i4
1 ~4~1Io.1
~ .3" --t
['>C'
= 0.13 - 5.2(0.03)(0.42)
= 0.06 KSF
e'
o.~
.r+'\
Smin = --s
F
h
= 6.0(12)(8)
0.6(36)
= 26.7in 3
:. use RIO x 42 if case 2 checks out OK.
Su = 43.4 in 3 for RIO x 42.
325
7A"()..W''AA~
T~-T
\
\
II
/%&/X,t
/4:'YJN),':;'
--l ~-----
. ---.L \
1
I
_1_
.:<____
-,
bt'. .4'x)pp-(m.
Cx.( Pp -/-to.)
'" t~~
r- -J cx
)(),q.]
T:=
(Pp-FfJ.)
16j.tP+efr't'I~:l:)~-v...x)~
0] 2R - 2P n
+ x[Cx(Pp -P)]
'Z=
-.
2R - 2P
n
+ Cx 2( P - P )
p"
+ 1/21/3z 2[Cx(pp - P
=0
3
0= P(x+/z)-6R(H+x-y)-x
C(p p-P)+z2[fJ.qKp+2Cx(P
-P)+CH pp -mpC]
n
u
pa
D
Substitute for z:
[2R-2P +Cx 2(P -p)f
6P(x+h)-6R(H+x-y)-x 3C(p-P)+
n
p"
=0
n
p
"
[fJ.qKp +2Cx(Pp
-P)
+CH p -Cm p a ]
ap
326
1
l
30%
ft
Substituting values:
6(4.1)(11.4 + 15) - 6R(20 + 15 - 6) - (15)3(0.03)(0.42)
[0.42(0.03)(15)2 - 2(4.1) + 2Rf
0.42[2(0.03)(15) + 20(0.06) -10(0.03)]
[2R - 5.37f
= 0
0.756
490.98 - 131.54R - 32.15
4R 2
OR
R 2 - 38.26R
153.02
487.67 = 0
+
121.92
=0
327
=0
-1li---tT
i
~~",
,1
d=/o'
.I
;I'2D
I
--r-'
I
From case 1
/:
84'
_. ---
Uhf
a.,:030
I;
,.
(113
---''---_
0.13 KSF
= 10.0
ft
H = 20.0 ft
;'
X."S'
0.30 KSF
";','
~...+l_j-:-/_'__
~",=~~rl
P,."r/.99f
m.lo'
hl
z =
C[2x(Pp
-P)
+h p -m p
ap
/
l~
"L
1';: 2./"
_ __ .1
-,c.gJl".l:)Pp-(,",l)~ C.XO'P".q,.)
= o.~o.t:SXo.~~
]
(J
_2----'('-3.----'5)'-----_2-'-4_.1L-)
( +_0_.4_2-,-(1-1.5)'-'2('-0._03....<...)_
0.42[2(15)(0.03) +20(0.06) -10(0.03)]
z = 2.16 ft
o.4L(/S)(O.0.3)
c:;-(~X"';;;S
=t:J. S 7 ..t:sP
2(4.1 -3.5)
(0.03)(0.42)
9.75 ft < x
15.0 ft
so, b is valid.
328
Far Mb
=M
I11lJX
MmaJ< S
Fb
8.08(12) (8)
0.6(36)
The waler is designed by use of equations 3-126 and 3-127. Say use
one tie rod per H-pile.
AI
M ffiaJ< = -!!....
8 and
or
_ Api
SRQD - -
8Fh
SRQD
MmaJ<
F
= -h
k/anchor
e = 8 ft
Fh = 0.66(36) = 24 ksi
:.SRQD = 37.6(8)(12)
8(24)
= 18.8 in 3
Assume a double channel waler of
2C 9 x 13.4 which has S = 2(10.6)
= 21.2 in 3 > 18.8 :. OK
Check waler for web crippling by reference to the AISC Steel Manual,
section 5, specifications. It is found that. for interior loads,
P
t(N +210
where P
329
= 0.233 in.
Bearing Plate
t'z.{B;f)
~
- (. I. lS IA.!.
~(!):)
T
z.5"n,/.
...:L_
= 3.13 in -kips
3.13
= 0.145 in 3
0.6(36)
2
tp= ~
:. tp
N"'RQD
~(0.145)
7.5
= 0.34 in
Say use 3/8" plate -7-1/2" x 7-112" x 3/8" IL for tie rod bearing.
330
Anchor Rods
Assume DYWIDAG high strength rock and soil anchors for the design
tie rod force of 37.6 kips. The rod size required would be:
A ROD
_ Ap
-
where Fa = 0.6 Fy
Fa
cP
= 37.6 = 0.522 in 2
72
=
ROD
4A ROD
7T"
J4(0.522)
7T"
:. cP ROD = 0.82in
Assume 7/8" rod diameters.
As the wall is within close range of the sound basalt face. anchorage
would be best constructed into rock.
Referring to figure 3-93. since the rock has qu - 10 ksi. the ultimate
anchor capacity would be approximately 61 kips/feet.
:. LANCHOR
LANCHOR
= Ap (F.S.)
61
say F.S. = 5
Lagging
For noncohesive backfill. use equation 3-85 to design timber lagging.
maintain same lagging for full height. Need to add component of
moment due to PAT'
M = 1/12Pp2
= 1.6
1/4PHT S = 1/12(0.03)(10)(8)2
1/4(1.9)(8)
331
F b = 1.300 psi (No.1, 5" and thicker, width more than 2" greater than
thickness).
Assuming width
= 12"
7.0(12) = 64.6 in 3
1.300
2
By equation 3-86: S
bt
="""'6
or t
6Smin
= ~ -b-
b = 12 in
4G.3 Additional
Design
Conside rations
4G.3.1 Drainage
4G.3.2 Anchor
Location
4G.3.5 Lagging
4G.4
Construction
Considerations
4G.4.1 Equipment
4G.4.2 Materials
Any pile driver capable of driving the H-piles is suitable. provided that
the pile is not damaged dUring driving. The piles should be driven to
specified alignment and penetration at the designated location under
the observation of a qualified inspector. The vertical alignment should
be controlled to 1/4 inch horizontal and 12 inches vertical. and the
horizontall location should be held to 3 inches of the design. Soldier
piles may be pulled into position. prOVided that the moment induced in
the pile by pulling combined with the design loads does not exceed the
design characteristics of the piling. However. the piles should not be
heated to achieve design alignment.
4G.4.4 Anchor
Testing
4G.4.5 Backfilling
333
Sample Problem
LT' 2"
-----o.I~1
5: S'
~o,.,f
0,.."" ... 1
II : 35
~---------....---." S/iJt.
PI a. ... e.
,
s= 3'
334
et>; = 24.
= 1/2 . K . Ym H,2
Toot
use
use 5
3 = 4,165Ib; 4.1651b
335
1,538lb = 4.06
use 3
= 2,082 lb;
2.082 lb
1,538 lb
= 1.35 ~
use 2
= 2.4 feet
Bottom zone
12 feet
5 layers
Middle zone
12 feet
3 layers = 4 feet
Top zone
11 feet
2 layers
= 5.5 feet
= 1,538 Ib/.17
(z = depth)
= 35 feet)
. 120 . 35
= 1,538 Ib/.17
= 18'
At depth z
, Smax
= 4'
< 2.4'
= 24 feet)
. 120 . 24
At depth z
= 2.15'
= 3.14'
< 4'
= 45
and
cI>/ = 24,
Lr/H' = 0.6
Lr = 0.6 . 35'
= 21 feet
La/H' = 0.85
, La = 0.85 . 35'
= 30 feet
336
c'=o
u =0
o.S
~
I-
Z
UJ
C3
0.4
u.
u.
UJ
(.)
UJ
()
0.3
cr:
0
u.
C
cr:
<:)
0.2
0
UJ
C)
0.1
,:,
50
80
0.75:'
SLOPE ANGLE, ~
337
c'=o
u=o
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
LlH'
"-.-. _0_'-.
L,.
"....-.
..e" =20.
0.8
0.4
----La/H'
-_-LT/H'
02
30
80
1:1
1.5: 1
0.5:1
SLOPE ANGLE,6
f/J/ = 15
to
f/J/
338
(degrees)
= 25.
O.B
_.....I.....,.......-...,...--4--.....,.......-l-,..;~~-..:...,-
..--_
c'= 0
u=O
0.7
"-'
./' "
L T/ '
0.6
/
0.5
O.~
LlH'
0.3
.I
./
./
.i
0.1
./
./
.I
LT/'
./
0.2
./
./
.I
./
.I
LB/H'
_ . _ . - LT/H'
.I
~
0
30
BO
1: 1
SLOPE
0.5:1
ANGLE,~
cP/ = 25
to
(degrees)
cP/ = 4CP.
339
Bibliography
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
Appendix A
Geotechnical Considerations
For each project. the early phases of the investigation should involve
gathering data related to the site. soils, rock, and possible existing
structures. The intensity of this effort depends on the size and scope of
the project. and on the soil and anticipated foundation problems. For
major projects. there may be several phases to the investigation, from
preliminary site visits and explorations to final detailed investigations.
The first step is to collect and evaluate available infonnation on soil
and rock conditions and ground water conditions from the following
sources:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Topographic maps
(4)
Air photos
(5)
Always visit ~e site. More often than not, you will observe something
which will have a bearing on the design and construction of the structure. A geological reconnaissance by a qualified engineering geologist
or a geotechnical engineer should provide useful infonnation concerning soil and rock conditions likely to be encountered at the site. The
Unified Soil Classification System from the u.s. Bureau oj Reclamation
Earth Manual. should be used to describe soils. and the Unified Rock
Classification System developed by Doug Williamson should be used to
describe rock for engineering purposes.
When visiting the site. take the following materials and tools:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Stereo glasses
A-I
(4)
(5)
Drive probe
(6)
(7)
100-foot tape
(8)
Brunton compass
(9)
Geologic maps
A-2
Preliminary
Site Investigation-Field Summary
File no.
Date of inspection
By
Accompanied by.
General
Agency.
Name of project
Location of site
U.S.G.S. Quadrangle
Description of proposed development
Size of site
Available site plans and other drawings (DWG. no., title, author, date). If no plans are
available, prepare a sketch and attach to the report.
Available photographs
Available bedrock or surficial geology maps
Site Access
Sketch location of roads and trails not shown on site plan and note type and condition.
Describe type of exploration equiprr:ent which can be moved into site, e.g. small or large
backhoe either rubber tired or tracked, truck mOWlted drill rigs, small portable rigs. etc.
Page 1 o__
A-3
File no.
"
Maximum elevation
Reference datum (USGS MSL, etc.)
Minimum elevation
Geomorphology (tidal marsh, bog, landslide. flood plain. valley floor, etc.)
Describe
Is the site virgin land?
Character of erosion gullies (steep. moderate. or gently inclined)
Page 2 of_
A-4
File no.
Existing structures on site or nearby (describe and locate on sketch: type (such as
buildings. retaining walls, bridges, fills. roads. size. owner, foundation available bOrings.
performance)
Page 3 of__
A-5
File
nO,
(2)
Page 50f__
A-6
Geotechnical
Exploration
by the Drive
Probe Method
Introduction
Equipment
7 inches long (minus the guards), and 2-112 inches in diameter. The
driving section has a hole in the center that is 718 inches in diameter
through which the pipe will pass freely. Welded on each end of the
driving section are round handguards. The handguards are 4 inches in
diameter and are made from 3/8-inch-th:.ck, mild steel plate.
Additional equipment needed are: two pipe wrenches (preferably Rigid
brand) of the magnesium-aluminum variety for convenient weight; a
plastic, 5-gallon bucket to carry tools and equipment, and to add water
to the hole. or to stand on, if necessary: an electric water level measuring device (M-scope); a funnel; a 5-foot measuring stick: yellow keeltype marking pencil; a field notebook and pencils; and a folding shovel.
Several spare couplings are also convenient.
A l/2-inch pipe die and die stock, a pipe cutter, a pipe reamer, a pipe
vise, and a 112-inch "Easyout" to remove broken pipe threads from
couplings are convenient and economic in-house equipment. A supply
of smooth-walled. full thread pipe couplings should be kept on hand.
A drive probe operation is designed for a one-or-two person operation
for either technical or nontechnical personnel members. Depths up to
30 feet have been achieved without unusual effort. When "refusal" is
reached With the "free-falling method" the hole can be continued by
"hand-driving" methods to "absolute refusal."
A small portable tripod is useful if extensive drive probe drilling is done.
The tripod can be made from three lO-foot lengths of l-inch-diameter
electrical conduitjoh"'1ed at one end by a l/2-inch-diameter bolt. A
convenient sheave suitable for use with a 3/4-inch diameter rope is
attached to the bolt at the top of the tripod. The hammer can then be
raised and lowered by attaching the rope to the hammer and pulling on
the rope. A loop can be tied in the rope and a foot can be used to raise
and lower the hammer. This method is especially useful when "pulling a
string." Gloves are a must when either driving by hand or using a rope.
Procedure
The site selected for the probe is cleared of the surface duff or organic
material to expose the upper surface of the soil deposit. The starting
5-foot length is measured and marked in l/2-foot intervals With the
keep or marking pencil. The 4-foot length wiL~ the hammer on it is
screwed into the top of the 5-foot length. The hammer is then raised
up to the coupling on the upper end of :he 4-foot length and allowed to
fall freely and strike the coupling on t.'i-}e upper end of the 5-foot length.
A coupling should always be screwed into the top of the 4-foot-Iength to
prevent the hammer from flying otT the top of the pipe when raising the
hammer.
As each segment is driven, the number of blows reqUired to advance
the hole for each one-half foot (6 inches) is recorded. Mter driving
5 feet, the amount of open hole is measured and the hole checked for
the presence of water. The 4-foot pipe segment is unscrewed and t.he
hammer is moved to the uppermost pipe as each additional 4-foot
A-8
Field Notebook
Date
Crew
Calculations
When doing drive probe exploration. the blows needed to advance the
hole for the 1/2-foot (6 inches) interval are doubled to get "Blows per
foot" that represents the strength of the material for that interval. Six
inches are drtven in order to be sure of detecting a layer I-foot or more
in thickness. The longer the interval drtve. the less likely that thin
layers will be detected. Any depth interval can be driven and converted
to blows per :oot for that interval. In all cases, whatever interval is
advanced. the blows per interval are converted to blow per foot. which
is the standard of comparison for that given material. The blows per
foot has been found to be a discrete and reliable means of correlating
between drive probe holes.
When a hole is drtlled into a soil deposit by geotechnical driving
methods, there is a "typical anticipated result." This anticipated result is
that the num::Jer of blows necessary to advance the hole will increase
with depth to a point which the hole cannot be advanced. In other
words, soil deposits normally increase in strength and density with
depth. When doing drive probe drilling, the result that is of most
A-9
Editor's Note: The blows per foot deterntined by this method is not
equal to the blows per foot in the Standard Penetration Test
where a 140-pound weight is dropped 30 inches to drive a
standard 2-inch outside diameter spHt spoon ampler. Although
the blows per foot are not equalfor both methods, the relative
change in blow counts at various depths will provide an
indication of changes in relative density.
Water
Measurement
A sheet of 8 1/2- by II-inch graph paper is used for a log form. The
depth in feet is recorded along the left side of the sheet and the blows
per foot are shown along the top. A convenient scale is used, usually
two small squares equal I-foot on a 10th grid. The blows per foot
interval are shown as a bar graph from left to right which indicates
wrelative strength" according to length. The usual interval is I/2-foot
(6 inches) although any interval can be shown. Elevations are also
shown along the sides of the sheet. Interpretative lines are drawn
showing correlations of hole segments having similar blows per foot.
These correlations indicate changes in material and strength.
A-lO
Appendix 8
Condition Survey-Field Summary
B-1
File no.
Date of inspection
By
Accompanied by
General
Agency
Name of project
Location of site
U.S.G.S. Quadrangle
Description of proposed development
Available site plans and other drawings (Dwg. N., title, author. date). If no plans are
available. prepare sketch and attach to report.
Available photographs
(1) Describe the general condition of the structure and surroundings: Indicate evidence of
(2)
Describe any specific areas of deterioration (rust. corrosion, rot, degradation of fabric. cut
fabric. broken gabion baskets. loss of soil from crib walls. cracks in structure,
overstressing of structural elements due to settlement crushing and cracking). Augment
verbal description with color photos.
B-2
NO
(4) Perform lift-off tests on the tieback anchors (if possible). Append all test data and
summary report.
(5) Check internal and external drainage for blockage and describe conditions.
(6) Monitor all field instrumentation and evaluate data. Append all data and a summary
report.
Excellent
Fair
4
Poor
2
Signature
B-3
Appendix C
Construction Details
C-l
'-"
(')
NOT TO SCALE
tv
(J
",-,m
,","'''''-\oJ
ONE COURSE
BELOW GRADE CTYP)
1 _8 ' .
I
NOT TO SCALE
SUBDRAIN
FIELD LOCATE TO
OPEN END OUTLE T.
2% SLOPE (MIN)
(SEE LEVELING PAU DETi\lLl
ISn~TF--';- - - -
'I
1
'-
SOILS)
BACKFILL
7-( RETAINE~
16 \
_I
~PAVEMENT
I
I
VARIES
GUARD RAIL
:8:0~~~;:~Ni- ~
- ~MIN:1
*"
()
L..oI
I
3 -0"
N,T,S,
I..
I
I
I
I
I
I
--; 6"
KEYSTONE UNIT
CJ1
()
64.00
27.00'
I"
CEOCRID EMBEDMENT LNClH 8'
58.50'
I I
7.50'
28.50'
'"
I"
r-----------------------------;
_
(EYSTONE LJm" mp J
I
~
,/
- --<:
rl
I
I
I
I
I
\
\
""
\.fALL
'-
(ll)
I
I
I
I
..,
,/. - - &A
if
:W
FACE
AUCNIoENT
"i
\...~
VI
... u
"-
....
II
~-
r r-
t++
J
'" f - -
I
I
'\
-. - 1
-- r.......
l\
P
1I
I
\.....J
~TURE
lPERf'Ellllcu..AR
TO IJALl. FACE ALIC~"l'ENTl
C-7
()
(Xl
3'-0:'
FILTER FABRIC
L 6"
to
()
MAT
DETAILS\ TIMBER
OS
I c:::::
1"
5'
FACING
=-0
BRIDGEJ
DETAIL
TIM8~
BonOM MAT
4 X 12 TREATED
TIMBERS AT MAXIMUM
VERTICAL SPACING
OF 6'-0".
PLACE INSIDE WALL FACE,
BEHIND HARDWARE CLOTH,
FOR NAILER FOR TIMBER
SCOUR PROTECTION
---
MUDSILL:
BACKWALL
.......
RIPRAP
4 X 12 TREATED TIMBER
SCOUR PROTECTION,
SPIKED VERTICALLY TO
4 X 12 NAILERS
TOP MAT
~\
\.
FACE OF
WALL
REINFORCED
\.
SOIL
SOIL
\.
::-C::INFORCEMENT
,..ATS. TYP _ _-
z>-
VOLUME
-0:::
::::i:::J
PROPOSED
GRADE
SUBSURFACE
DRAJNAGE SYSTEM
PER OWNER'S
ENGINEER, AS
REQUIRED - -_ _-,0
~
CD
IW
1'-6"
Nt-
---,,--
----J
V-DITCH
BY OTHERS
BOTTOl.1 MAT
TYPICAL
,"
SECTION
5'
NOTE:
THIS DETAIL ILLUSTRATES A STANDARD WELDED WIRE
WALL WITH A V-DITCH AT THE TOE.
ACTUAL APPLICATION OF
THIS CONCEPT MAY REQUIRE DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS THAN
THOSE SHOWN HEREON
V-DITCH DETAIL
STANDARD DRAWING
sou:: NOTED
l),I,T(;
14 OCT 92
'ox
C-IO
.....
.....
()
6"
X 9"
WWF
(6" HORIZONTAL)
WIRE SIZES VARY
ACCORDING TO
PROJECT REQUIREMENTS
6"
FACE OF MAT
f.'i\(ts
~~~l
~J\I ttN
~PAf\
1/4" CALVo
HARDWARE
CLOTH
(CONTINUOUS)
MAT
eASE OF SOIL
REINFORCING MAT
FACE OF
BACKING MAT AND
WALL
CONVEX ANGLE
HARDWARE CLOTH
CONTINUOUS AT CORNER
NOT TO SCALE:
GUARD
RAIL
2"
TOP MAT
A.C. CURB
(OPTIONAL)
=1I~
~ffi
>
-
tno (/)
m~z
- - ' l r - - - - " ' - I w :5--+---40.----~.
<Ou...
Iw
Na..a..
~
I
I
I
~o
----+-~CUT
L_.J
FACE OF WELDED
VvlRE WALL
C-12
TOP
t,,1AT~
,,
'11'_6" MI~
l
v-
COVER
SAnER VERTICAL
WALL 1:48
STANDARD SAnER
IS 1:6
\
' - REINFORCED
SOIL VOLUME--...
........
I
---..-
==1:1'-6" LIFTS
TYPICAL
(j
W
I
~1
I
I I
I
let!
- Mf~
BOnOM MAT~
-it--Ii
ir---iit"'"
r
~
5' MIN.
\1DRAINAGE SYSTEM
WHERE REQ'D
(NOT PART OF
WALL DESIGN)
T Y P
NOT TO
CAL
SECTION
sou:
C-13
-l
-l
TOE BURY
10% OF "1-1'
2' MINIMUM
(HARDWARE
CLOTH NOT
SHOWN)
8'-0" WIDE
BACKING MAT
PICTORIAl
SPACER
SECTION
WELDED WIRE RETAINING WALLS
NOTE:
WHERE MATS ARE
PLACED ON ANGLE OR
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
CURVE, ONLY ONE
SCAI..: NONE
~ HILFIKER RETAINING WALLS
SPACER IS USED AT
~~;';';';';;"'--I
P.O. Box 2012 Eureka. CA 95502-2012
FRONT OF MAT BASE.
Dot.TE: 25 NOV 91
e
707/443-~093 F"ClX 707/443-2891
C-14
. -- - -
ELEVA nON
HOlts
f'Ioce
lS"tr~
crt 4"0
"c:etrtero
C-15
---i
('1
I.
$4!'1
'fer", en cornplete-d
'11t~
ia r I
!L~
/~
__
r:'"",,":O,
~.
~:C=t~111
e-YI
n Crc_w_ _
4. Place 0 windrow fo slIghtly
--
&~:
~ToIIH OVer
t~ windrow crd loclt Info
place wl1h bockfili.
GEOTEXTILE WALL
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
1St::: SPECIAL PROVJSIONSJ
NOTE:
C-16
I
I'
7 fl.
II f +a
I
- I
:.. \
\
\
llrr.l11 0'1 ceo+ex'1'rle wall
boe,fllono eOl'lpoot1orl +0
,~ o,,.ee,...i of mexlm","
d<lrl!l~y.
I
I
I,
.....
)(
\
won beck ,nl mo~ erlel
,hOI' bo 7.
7 H. ml",rmum lmolomlrlt
3 1t...In,
overlap
1X M -------~
TEMPORARY GEOTEXTILE
WALL SECTION
(SEE SPECIAL PROVISIONS)
C-17
00
.....
()
"
eaoh.tlla loya,s
.holi be 1. '
'-1101 bock1111moterlol
\
\
den.lly.
:. \
\
\
\
\
lXH
IIflo
1 f1.
Shotora10 foolno
1f.mln.
ove,lap
I)
PERMANENT GEOTEXTILE
WALL SECTION
Wf4----
at
()
.....
co
.-/
;~
3'
max.
IflUIJI
A~,m
"'lfi IIlC!10',
AIrY;
Shotcrete
~~'
~\
--
wlcJu 10
CUfl(:I'(~I(~ 1'(~lfll'(J('C()lfll~nl
- --'~>'1v~-\
,--
~- 30"----
""", ,
20
18
16
z
-aca
14
en
c
0
'i
E 12
...
-~
..
CO;
Gl
Q.
10
,.,."
.J!!
"i
c
..
'0
,I""
".,
I'"
", ,"
.,.,
:::::l
,.",.,
"., "."
"I'" "
,J""
11
"
"I'"
"",,'
""
------~-------
... "".,.
,, .....,'"
.,1 1"
11111.,1'
,.""
,.,
1
" , ' '"
_ - 7 .,.
,/
,/
------------,/
,/
.J'
_--~
------------,/
----- """
'
",
./
", 1"'"
1
., "'"
,,.
-------
...,./
.,1.,1111
,., ,.,
-------
----:, /
--,'
-7-""
----
",
"7- " ,
o~."'~:;=::I:::===:C~
15 ft
10ft
2m
20 ft
4m
25 ft
8m
A .J x/H = 0.4
phi
=20
,.,B
....,..../ x/H = 0.6
phi = 20
C J x/H = 0.2
pni = 20
0 ,/ , x/H = 0.8
" ",.
pni = 20
C-20
E .J xJH = 0 2
phl=25'
20
18
16
14
z
t;
l'CI
...o
Cl
C
o
'i
12
--Gi
.!!
10
CO')
...
II
Q,
.!!!
.;
-...
c
o
B
.",,1.,1 "."'
II
.Q
,.",,1'
E
;:,
1
" ,
,1 1 '
1 ,1 .,1
,III"
.1""
,1,,1',.'
..,
111111111
1
,.,'1 '"
..,"'- I"'"-
II,C.,,I 1
I,ll"
" ,1"
---
_------
_---
_-----
__
---------
1"
_"'-"--------
-- --
-----
"."'
.."
",
I'"
."
",
---
--
0-+---+---..,...--+----.......4-----...
10ft
2m
20 ft
4m
6m
25 ft
8m
A J
xIH = 0.4
phi =20
= 0.6
,.. ,.~".,',/ xlH
phi = 20
CjxlH =02
---
phi =20
xIH = 0.8
phi = 20
C-21
E .J xIH = 0.2
phi=2S
r::l
..,;
III
...o
CI
C
o
'i
5
-...
--j
M
...
QI
a.
.!!
";
c
'0
j
e:::l
Z
----+---.....
ft
o....
---t~----T-t------....,
10
20 ft
15'ft
8m
2m
AJ
XI1-t .. 0.8
phi::2So
B ",1'
1.. 11111111111'
....,. .,._'
phi. 30
......=.~
F ) XI1-t .. 0.4
~ phi .. 3So
.!
XI1-t II 0.6
phi ':I 30
G~ XI1-t ,. 0.2
C-22
DJ
XI1-t ,. 0.2
~ phi::3S'
phi .. 40
Mile Post/Station
Road No.
Location T.
Data _ _
R. _ _ Sec.
Repair Priority
Completed by:
(1-10 High)
Dimensions (FT) or (m)
Projected
limit of
slide
movement
X'
\
Slip
01
02
03
Surface-~"",-
04
H*
Hw
e
To toe of embankment if lower
limit of slide cannot be located
e
Cross-Section
... 1_-
Inside Shoulder
Cracks
Toe of Slide
Plan
C-23
SITE FACTORS
Low
Hi h
Med
2:1
1.5:1
1: 1
<5'
5'10'
10'15'
Moist
Wet
Seep
None
Some
Many
Soil Type"
Sand
Silt
Clay
Low
Med
High
Low
Med
High
Remarks
..
,
I
I
I
I I
I
,I
!
I
I
I
I
!
I
I
,
i
C-24
-i... _ i
''""
-..
(33
ru
..-_o_-.._~
\
\
Na.l. Evel""ll.,.
Sor C1 0'"
91011_
, ...,
(3.3 ft)
ROAD
...L
1m
(3.3 It)
~pre'erredD ...gonai
Nails Evenly
Spread on
Slope
Slide Area
...L.
1m
(3.3 It)
T
a. Pref4ltTed Diagonal Panem
ROAD
I
~NaILs
,
i
Sude Area
SQuare Panem
NaUpattem.
C-25
Panem
Appendix D
List of Manufacturers
0-1
Appendix E
Standard Designs
E-l
G;
c-:8
I
I
I
I
wrappedjaced wall
,.. . . . . . .- 1
wrappedjaced wall
with shotcrete cover
:1-'+-' +-.-
I}-.-+-_._+--
jull-heigJu concrete
MSB wall
timber-faced wall
(two-phase construction)
tirejaced wall
Geosynthetic-Reinforced
gabionjaced wall
E-2
./
Simplified CTI
(Colorado
Transportation
Institute) Design
Method
Design Procedure
De~ermine the
reinforcement length.
~)
+ 0.2] H
2
Step 4. Calculate the maximum tensile force in the reinforcement.
TMAX' which is calculated as
~x
S(yH
E-3
Ed'
that
..........
" \
~
,~
.........
~I
/ I
~ ............
-'-/'
;:..,
f-'-
II$.
'1_
= 12 ft
1\ ,-
'Y = 115
,~
..........
"I/ /
, -'\
t:b
=0
4>
= 35
per
'l'"
f-'--
/."
1,\
I
\ \~
v..........,.
V
. . . 4.
'-
/.1'\'
E-4
cn
and
TUIl
;::
Design Example
Given Conditions
The cross-section of a en timber-faced, geosynthetic-reinforced soil
retaining wall is shown in figure 2.20.
Charactertstics of the wall are:
Uniform wall height: H
= 12 feet,
vertical wall,
all geosynthetic
length, and
reinforcemen~ layers
= 35 at
E-5
O'l
tr:l
II
"
II
1610
1760
1920
1010
1340
1470
670
450
340
220
1110
740
490
370
250
5.3
5.2
,--
42~
T Uh
s: vertical spacing of reinforcement
Surcharge pressure = 250 psf (increase T. d and T Uh each by 22 % for every additional 250 psf surcharge pressure
3.
4.
5.
T. d
2.
* .dm.J%, where t...n.. is the maximum allowable lateral wall movement (in inches)
1210
810
540
400
270
5.5
1320
880
590
440
290
5.7
1440
960
640
480
320
5.9
"I'
= (1.3
2090
2260
s = 16"
Ed
1560
1040
1700
<=
1130
690
12"
s = 8"
750
520
350
6.0
"4(f
I.
TUh
(lb/ft)
s = 16"
s = 12"
570
380
= 8"
T. d
(Ib/ft)
6.2
= 8 ft
cn
Wall Height, H
Design
Computation
35
= [tan(45 - )
2
0.2]12 = 8.6 ft
E-7
1,980 (Ib/ft)
= 660 (lb/ft)
Design Charts
The design charts shown in table 2.4 are based on the simplified CTI
design method. The design charts can be used when the wall height is
not greater than 15 feet, the foundation is firm, the backfill is granular,
and a "qUick" design is desired and war.-anted.
To use the charts for design of a GRS wail, the following four
parameters are needed:
the wall height, H;
the friction angle of the backfill, cP:
the vertical spacing of reinforcement, s; and
the maximum allowable lateral wall movement, .:1 MAX'
The design charts allow one to determine:
GO
Design Example
'" H.
= 12 feet.
Tult = (2,000
E-8
Wrapped Face,
GeotextileReinforced Wall
Construction
Procedure
Step 1. Level wall site. and place a series of L-shaped forms of height
slightly greater than the lift thickness on the ground surface. The
L-shaped form is composed of a series of metal L brackets and a
continuous wooden brace board running along the wall face (see
figure 3.2).
E-9
......
t'1
I
en
l::ifM..;.
Surcharge pressure = 250 psf (increase T. d and T Uh each by 1R % for every additional 250 psf surcharge pressure
1610
1200
800
540
400
270
6.5
5.
1760
1320
880
590
440
290
6.7
1930
1450
960
640
480
320
6.9
4.
2100
1580
1050
700
530
350
7.1
Tul
2290
1720
1150
760
570
380
7.3
3.
2490
1870
1240
830
620
420
7.5
,h
2.
..
40" .
Design limit strain, Ed = (1.05 A...J%, where A.,.. is the maximum allowable lateral wall movement (in inches)
2700
1350
s = 16"
900
I
2030
= 8"
680
450
s = 12" I
= 12"
s = 16"
s = 8"
7.8
".'
....:;.
-. ..
. ,"::~~,~!/:.J' ~:
1.
T ul
(Ib/fl)
(lb/ft)
T'd
~rlbti~.;~~~~~~~~*~:;j4~
";(':36~w
..~ . ::.
.(
Wall Height, H = 10 ft
t%j
....
....
Ii
Ed
I
I
2660
2000
1330
890
670
440
8.8
1400
1870
2050
2240
2450
930
620
470
310
7.7
42
1540
1020
1680
1I20
680
510
340
-8.0
"
1830
1220
750
820
370
8.3
560
610
410
8.5
',
T UII
s: vertical spacing of reinforcement
Surcharge pressure = 250 psf (increase T. d and T Uh each by 16 % for every additional 250 psf surcharge pressure
3.
4.
5.
2.
:
where L\",.. is the maximum allowable lateral wall movement (in inches)
2890
2170
1480
970
720
480
9.1
= (0.9 .1 m..J%,
3140
s
s = 16"
1570
I050
790
520
2360
= 12"
= 16"
= 8"
= 8"
= 12"
9.3
':.'
40
..
I. '
T Uh
(Ib/ft)
(Ib/ft)
T. d
Wall Height, H = 12 ft
Table 2.4(c) Design Charts based on the Simplified CTt Method for Wall Height, H = 12 ft
tv
......
t:J:j
l:!fJ.I.;.
II
= 8"
s = 12"
s = 16"
s = 8"
s = 12"
s = 16"
5,
4.
TUh
3,
2260
2480
2710
2960
3220
3500
3800
1700
1130
2,
Ed
1860
2030
2220
2420
1240
750
830
900
1360
570
380
9.7
620
410
10.0
, '4211
680
450
10.3
2630
1480
990
1070
1610
740
490
10.6
810
540
11.0
2850
1750
1170
1270
1900
880
580
950
630
11.3
.,:j ~ rl:~~~(: .
'.}
11.7
:;.
.';~<::;~{tj~'
;~:~I; "",',,~f>
s38.
40"
1.
T UII
(lb/ft)
T. d
(Ib/ft)
F~.J~!i~~~~
36 "
Wall Height, H = 15 ft
Table 2.4(d) Design Charts based on the Simplified CTI Method for Wall Height, H = 15 ft
rC - Brace}
c::Ib:~board Form
Step 1
Step 2
-------~-.
---,---- ---
--'
. . CI
. ' Q'
'0
.'
. Bacldill
WindrOW
Step 3
Step 4
6:
-'-<1-----<1-.-.
~-;-~-:C>-'-_ _~._"_. .
IlL">
~. ".
b ..
...
~.
..
.,
. c
"".
Step 5
Figure
3.1.~onstructionoj USFS
"
___
.
.
<3
_._ _._C".....;....
wrapped-jaced wall.
E-13
".
._~._._
~.
-------,-,---, -.-'-
I' . .
,
""
_ N"~
- - .,---------,--,
~'.
~
~""_.
_"'to'
'~~~
.i
.'.
'1
.~..
. .1
~
".:~~....
~::
,...
.----'---------------------~
Figure 3.2.-Erection of a USFS wrappedjaced wall with the use of an L-shapedfonn (courtesy
Gorden Keller, USDA Forest Seroice).
E-14
E-15
Construction
Guidelines
The following are some construction gUidelines for the USFS wrappedfaced, geotextile-reinforced wall:
If the geotextile is sufficiently wide for the required reinforce-
E-16
CTI Timber-Faced,
GeosyntheticReinforced Wall
Construction
Procedure
The typical construction sequence of the CTI timber-faced, geosyntheticreinforced wall, as illustrated in figure 3.4, can be described in the
following steps:
Step 1. Level wall site, place the initial row of ties or timbers, and place
the first geosynthetic reinforcement layer with a minimum of 12 inches
tail length.
Step 2. Attach the frrst reinforcement layer to the initial ties or timbers
by nailing the forming element (3-1/2 inches in width) to ties or timbers.
Step 3. Backfill to the top of the forming element, compact the lift, and
fold back :he tail of the reinforcement (see figure 3.5).
Step 4. Place the second tie and block; place the second layer of
geosynthetic reinforcement; attach the reinforcement layer to the ties
and blocks by nailing through the forming element (12 inches in width);
backfill with a nominal lift thickness of 12 inches; and compact.
Step 5. Repeat step 4 for subsequent layers until the planned height is
reached. For the final layer, the fold-back tail length should be at least
6 feet.
Construction
Guidelines
E-17
Step 1
--fV~L---_----/-,""
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
~I%jI~~ _ _-
) -- - ..
-,..----I
- ---
( 1("000
'-------
11/
...,Y
E-18
--- -n
----1l
- ---iJ
----0
-----{1
----{]
---{l
----11 -- - -0.
E-19
.-l
~~~~:~
I"
.-
.~
. ----
--:~
."
0'-
-I
t ,I
~ .;
'::.,
"
.".
-~=---------
E-20
.J
\."
\
\
\.\,
\
,
\
"
\.
,
I
': l
i
\; \
:';;'
: I
I
, I
!,
l
~
>
'."
'
""-2.i ",'"
." .... ,..1,
','
1-,
....
E-2l
tt1
o
DRAIN Dunn
WALL FACE
bill:MiJ
ON WALL! FAC
C-L-
utlE:
!-PfROXIMATr f;ROUND
I!~-Jif~
....
...
....
oJ.
WALL SITE
20
PACtnc
PLUMAS
IIA. TlONAL fORES
5CV1Mon1 R{CIIJN
or
(J6/5)
16 (3599)
/2
2
J
4
US. DfPARTMfN
ACRICUL JURi
FORfST SfRVICE
...
8-to
tv
tv
trl
I
ili':
fj x fj
a' TIMBERS: 2J6
fj X fj )( .' TIMBERS, 226
GCOGRIO (so. YDS.J: '70
GEOCOIIPOStT OWN (so.
1660
TOTAL ARfI. or WAU rACE so. n.): IN8
NOT'[: - LIST INCLUPES
QR AII,T'[RII.J.S rOR
BOlli II'A.LLS. oUAlmnrs IlA.Y VARY TO
FIT ACTUAL SfT CONDmONS.
- un DOrs NOT INeLIIOC INCIDENTAL
M4T1liIU.S MO DRA.lN PIPC.
.x
LIST OF MATERIALS
2"
2J'
,.'
~ -I
CPTH or TOC
BDRlAl
""N.J~+
Ir
NP~
CROSS SECTION
~o
<'~<"
________
Dl.POSfO HEIGHT
VARIS 1'-lJ'
----hl~l'r
II'
*'"
t..:>
t:r:]
2'"
Fl,~
POLrrJlIl'UNf TIT
R~J'
COilRUc..rro
POL rrJlIl'UNC PIPC
MIN.
90 ELBOW DETAIL
PLOyrnm.Nf PlPf
__.
"w,~,~u~'-~
m
r CORRUc..rro
f--J;'
CORf ASS0<8L Y
l' OF CORf
CROSS SECTION
NO7;
ON WALL ~HH HeiGHT OF 6." OR LeSS,
UINll/UU RCiNrORCf)./flol1 LCNGTH IS S'.
ON WALLS WITH HflGHT GRU,TR THAN 6.S',
USC l" UINIl.iUI4 RflNFORCfl./flol1 LCNGTH.
ON WALL SfGUe/flS OvrR 8. S' I/IGH,
INSTALL ruu LmCTH {7'J RCiNFORCfl./f/ol1
GRIDS ON THe 80TTOl./
nl./BJIS
D PfRFORArUJ CORRUCATfU
POL YTH'r1.JJf PIPe
WAU FACf
IIAnJI 1.7<
PROJfCT ......,.
GRIULY
10
-.-r ,
NAnONAL FOI
5
PLUMAS
iOvrMtO'T Rn:
PACflC
OF ACRICULT
FOREST SfR
u.s. OfPARrA
"-4'
VARIes
EXPDSro
HflGHT
_ _L
C11
t--1
tr:l
I
~"'<{,,<~'
%'"
~,,~((
SEQUENCE /I
/,
L'
;Y7);)~~~
..(~"
nc
SEQUENCE IV
ISm'
nltScr
""BL~ ;wm;
ceOCAID.
J'.
ere
J1.W8CJIS
1/6"),
.'''A/XCI/CD AS SHaM< ON FAlX 1ICli'.
:ITI7' .. SPIKf IlUSCRS IOCro<CI/.
SfV' j; ...... a ANO C'OWPA&T /YoCIUILL NO ~"l'1LL
.9W.I.
PI.AC'fD IN "AU T~ 1tlIClS.
C('OChlD
.~ ~SN~tJ~ ~.
1/4"---1~1IP
" !'LA" NDfT LAlVl 0'
~ ~~ ~
SliP 3: __
ID LO~
,~ t;~.
SEqUENCE I
. '
-_.-
,.:>_ :1
. v-.
--~--~-........................
..
_---------
-r
i....--e r
----
.\.?....-'
_--
------
___ .
-------~
---------.-::-~:
:-~-----------~==
~.:::.-------~
_- ..s:---------- ~---_.
---
---
--~
' ---~-'
i ~
L...-------- ---.;;'.-P___
--- ~
A
..---------------
------
- __ - : : -
..
'
.'
L"
SEcnON-A,
. .
'
lIN.:1nc
CHuar
PROJeCT
"
.=
. PLUMA
NAnONAL F
SOVDiWflT Ii
DEPAR
OF ACRICU
FOREST Sf
u.s.
___ -::~------~r
-_.............. --::::::.:::;::::...-rll...--(~------
.......::=::>'""::__._ :::.------" L----~,.....__ 1-----
.....
._--- __
"--',
---.
~. ~, ..,.,;-,,<,.~--- __ --~."
~ --~--- ~! -~,
",. .---~
~__
'-"{'
~~<"'.::~:~ ~=--_._~\
<:--.~'>.~
. - .i--ef;~ ----- -----~
--' --" -...;---~---f
-,~
/~
- ---. .~. -,-=- '~~----- --~
~
-------------
(j)
tv
t%j
~-
...........
...........
IWI.JlClAu ncs
r;"xo OR oxtr
rJlf;<rID nwaCRS OR
PILOT HOLeS
:!
--I
''\.
""'. 1
~ o-ff'
I-
"T
ii
NOTES
THCS~
RfQUJRCl'fNTS.
GCOeRlD USCO FOil SOIL RClNFDRCC.'CIfl SHALL BC A PDLYPi/OPYlCJiC POLYlJCR OR POL rrsTCR CRID AlMCRIAl WITH A
MINIUUIJ ALLDKA9L OCSICN TCNSILE STRENeTH OF .20
lBs/n fROU LONe TCRJ.l TSTlNe, AND Pf,>,J( STIiCHeTH
IMTCRl.-:l SHAU 8C INS11J...lCO
OF AT l.L<ST 2100 lBS/n.
IN ACCORDM'CC WITH DlC IMNUFACTUIIES IIECD/,/\ICNDAIIONS
A'iO SHALL ",ca THE REOUIREMCIflS OF SPEC. 6 !JC.
rrNSAR BX- 1200 BIAXIAl ccoelilO OR EOUIVALENT ",ECTS
J.
~
~'-~r2
--------
~::OCJi;:/~Rc:,:t::oru;Jf:'
7,
'I'Dnc
PHOJrr;T
CRIZZLY
12
PLUMAS
~!IONAL FOR.
SOVJ)-l'W'(}"T IUL'I(
OfPARTM
OF AGRICUUl
fORfST SCRV
us:-
E-27
Reproduced from
best available copy
------------------.
. - ~ ..
. --' ._.
-~.
;"
E-28
~.
----_._--
to
tr1
I
!ro/'
11
EXlsnHG
GROUND
'y~--l
/1 r IS='S~~~~~
/1l\$$$!~~~~~
r'
,,.~'$:J.~~~~~~~
Figure 3.7.-A timber:faced GRS waU withfuter material at bottom and back.
,"
LENGTH OF
,...,...----GEOFABRIC - - -.....""11
REINFORCEMENT
-L-
Modular Block,
GeosyntheticReinforced Walls
Construction
Procedure
The typical construction sequence of modular block. geosyntheticreinforced walls, as illustrated in figure 3.8. can be described as
follows:
Step 1. Level wall site. cut a shallow trench along the planned location
of the wall base, and pour and level an unreinforced concrete pad with
a minimum thickness of 3-1/2 to 4 inches.
Step 2. Lay the first course of modular blocks side by side on the
concrete pad, check the alignment and level the blocks, and insert pins
(if used) into the top of the blocks. Place crushed stone or sand into
the hollow cores of the modular blocks and space between the blocks.
Clean the surface by sweeping away the debris.
Step 3. Place backfill behind the modular blocks and compact to the
top of the block elevation. If the backfill is not a free-draining material,
a free-draining gravel 1 foot wide should be placed immediately behind
the blocks.
Step 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for subsequent courses of modular
blocks until a reinforcement layer is to be placed as per the design.
install geosynthetic reinforcement across the blocks, and soil fill at the
specified elevation (see figure 3.9).
Step 5. Repeat step 2 for the next course of blocks, pull taut and
anchor the reinforcement. and backfill behind the blocks and compact.
Step 6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the planned height is reached. The
last course of blocks are usually capped according to the
manufacturer's recommendation.
E-30
Step 1
t==:::::l...-
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
D.-.
..
----~-
_.
_ii.. . . . . . .
~
I--
. . ...
,.:. . .
..
."
",
....,:--.. :- ---.----,-...,..,...,.
>..... ..' '. ...:. '.. ..--......
,......
Step 6
E-31
u.
.. -
.:.'
.::/
t:..-,..
_-=--
1:-"
L- - - .
--"
--
-",,,,,---'
.......
l.
E-32
C'
::z
<1
l:
-.J
-{
III1
E-33
~
'.l.~
"~I
3
'.l..
\.I') <f'"
"2
~
~
ill t;- ~
'c:~
~~
,po
tt1
I
FRONT ELEVATION
ISOMETRIC
FABRIC PLACED
BETWEEN EVERY
OTHER ROW OF TIRES.
ATIACHMENT TO TIRES
IS NOT NORMAllY RE~JUIRED.
TIRE FACING -
~-
;t:
10FT
.. -
or T99)
FIN DRAIN
(95%
COMPACTED
BACKfill
REINf ORCEMENT
CROSS SECTION
t-.S! :=~ ~
,.1 .
Construction
Guidelines
~
-y-
PERMAPOST
PIlODUCTS COMPANY
{
.r
-,
~
.
~.m~-:,,~.
.~~'.
,,-
'
."'1
E-36
'~"
I
i
~,
~!,
---I
~I
~~
i
-I
,
~
;1
!
I
J.L
---------_._--
E-37
Used Tire
Retaining Wall
Specification
Description
819C.Ol
This work shall consist of constructing retaining walls with used tires,
reinforcement with geofabric or geogrid and backfIlling with specified
select materials.
Materials
819C.02
Used Tires Tires shall be standard passenger car tires structurally
intact with the steel bead reinforcing totally covered.
Reinforcement Reinforcement shall be fIlter fabriC or geogrid meeting
the strength requirements SHOWN ON THE DRAWINGS.
Backfill Material Backfill material shall be taken from sources
SHOWN ON DRAWINGS, and with amount passing the no. 200 sieve
less than 25 percent. When the amount passing the no. 200 sieve
exceeds 15 percent, the angle of internal friction shall be at least
30 degrees. Small pockets of material may need to be rejected when
they show visually that they may not meet this criteria. These
reqUirements may be waived when direction to do so is SHOWN ON
THE DRAWINGS.
Requirements
819C.03 General
The foundation for the structure shall be smooth for the length and
width equal to or exceeding the length and width of the structure AS
SHOWN ON THE DRAWINGS. Prior to wall construction, the
foundation shall be compacted by two complete passes with a
mechanical compactor, unless constructed on rock.
E-38
Backfill placement shall follow the erection of each lift of tires. The
moisture content of the solid shall be suitable for compaction prior to
placement in the backfill. Backfill material shall be placed in a loose
layer in and around 2-3 inches above each lift of tires. The maximum
lift thickness allowable above the tires after compaction shall be 1/2 to
2 inches, unless otherwise SHOWN ON THE DRAWINGS. The
maximum lift thickness between reinforcement shall be 15 inches after
compaction, unless otherwise SHOWN ON THE DRAWINGS. The void
inside the tire wall need not be filled.
The tire rim hole shall be filled and compacted by walking on and
~healing in" the backfill material as it is placed. before placing the
backfill behind the tires. On batters steeper than 6 in 1, place a rock
over the hole in the tire between the lower tires to prevent backfill
material from falling out.
.
Each layer of backfill shall be compacted by three complete passes with
a vibratory compactor, "whacker", or other approved method made for
the compaction of soil embankments. To prevent displacement of the
last lift of tires, the outside one horizontal foot of backfill against the
tires may need to be compacted by a hand tamper, or other light
compaction equipment. prior to compacting the rest of the backfill.
Backfill shall be continued in this manner until 1 foot above the top of
the wall; the rest of the fill above the wall shall be wheel-rolled by at
least two complete passes, or meet embankment requirements.
whichever provides the greater density.
Method of
Measurement
819C.08
E-39
Basis of Payment
819C.09
Payment will be made. for all units inspected and accepted. at the unit
price SHOWN ON THE SCHEDULE OF ITEMS.
Payment will be made under:
Pay Item
Pay Unit
E-40
'
r',
"
"f
-,
---
Choice of Type
Type of retaining walls suitable for comparatively
low :,eights arc:
L The simple vertical face gravity wall.
Fig. I (a) and l(b).
2_ The backward leamn~ gravity wall,
Fig. 2(a). 2(b). 3(a) and 3(b).
3_ The cantilever reinforced wall.
Fig 4(a) and 4(b).
The choice of type depends on a number of
faclors peculiar to tr.e location that affect the cost.
efficieacy and suitability of the different types. The
relali"e cost or m~teria;s and labor in a given locality
nlJY detecmir.e the selection of a gra vit)' or reinfocced type. The reinforced type has a slightly lower
toe nressure which mav make it desirable where soil
bea~ing val lies are low: The gravity wall has. however, greater resistance to sliding because of its
greater weight. The backward leaning wall is
economical as to materials. but reduces the usable
surface back of the wall. Retaining walls built at
proper':)' lines or where their bases are fixed by physica: conJitions <.nd where a maximum of usable sur
face area back of them is desired. should' have a
I'ertical face. The appearance of a backward leaning and vertical face may also inRuence the choice
of type.
Detail. 01 Construction
A footing offset of 6 inches at the base is sufficient to support fonns for the stem. and allows a
ciose approac!1 of the face of the wall to the property line.
Resistance to horizontal movement of the retaining wall by sliding is obtained by frictional resist:lnce
between base and foundation. Often a lug or offset
under the base slab is provided to assist in resisting
the tendency to slide. The same effect is achieved by
requiring that the base slab be well below the gt'ound
surface. This requirement applies particularly to walls
E-41
oe aoout 220 lb. d.mp s.nd .nd 425 lb. gr.vel per
s.ck uf cemem. Toe water ro be .dded for e.ch s.ck
uf cement IS .bout 4.7 g.l. This .1I0ws 5 per cem oy
weight of free mOisture in the s.nd.
From these data it is found that one cu. yd. of
concrete requi! es 5.3 sacks of cement, 1165 lb. of
dam? s.nd, and 2250 lb. of gr. vel.
T:,e quantities of materia:s required to build
any tY'pe 0: "all are easily ceterr.1ined. For example, a gravity type retaining wall witb leve: fill
i Fig. 1 (a;; acco,ding to the table requires O.i6
ctc. yd, ccncrete per linear foot for a w.lI of h =
8 ft. The materials necessary are 40 sacks cemen:, 885 Ib damp sand, and lila i!:>, of gravel
for each foot of wall.
Retaining waJ:s are usually-exposed to public view
and for best appearance require care in form can
struction. Forms sr,ould be substantial so that bulg
ing does not occur, and sheathing of uni form quality
shou:d be driven l:p tight so th.t ieakage is prevented.
~:et!lods of producing ornamentation and the can
struction at" forms .re descnbed in Form! for .1r<hi:-'hny types of surface textures .re .v.il.ble for
concrete walls, Boardm.rked surfaces show the lines
of rough or dressed lumber in the forms, Wood strips
.s Inserts may be pl.ced in the forms to cre.te a wide
v.riety of p.tterns .nd designs. Form plywood .nd
thin plywood liners .re .vail.ble in v.riety of tex
tures-smooth, stri.ted, .nd s.ndbl.sted, M.teri.ls
.nd methods for producing v.rious w.U textures .re
descnbed In T,x~"rtf Proa'u.ua' h Varlou.J Form Li,,
t~J, BtJ.shharr.mt":''11g oj COner!:! Surf(J~(;1 Sa1Iablanlng
of Ccr.C~(!t Surfacn, and Ex;>lor.. ng Coior tJlId T~xlurt.
\'ertica! contr.ction ! oints should be placed in the
w.lI at 20- ro 30-f" Interv.ls to prevent the occur
rence of unslginly cracks due to temperature ch.nge
and shrinkage. A tongue .nd groove key ma~ be provldec ro aid ,n m.lntalmr.g a!lgnment of adj.cem
sectIons, It IS .dvlsable ro cover contracno~ jOints
WIth a Strip of membrane waterprooiing on the back
of the wall ro prevenr seep.ge through the JOint.
The backfiliIr.g should oe placed in such manner
as not to produce impacts, ., from large stones roll
ing down a slope against or droppir.g on the wall,
nor ur.due variations of pressure against it. It is
good practice to bring- up the filiIng material alor.g
the wal: at a rate .5 nearly um hrm as practic.blc.
irflm
'
:'" J'
\"'~lH'i.llIOJl.
OlJ
(J!"-
Clay
Sand and Clay ~lixed
Alluvium and Silt
!-:lard Clav and Firm ComlJrcssec Sand
Fine Sand
.
Sane, Compacred and Cemen:ed
E-42
per!~
2.000
4.eoo
:: ()Q
8 ,or,)
9.e,))
~ocm
ft.)
ro.
In.
( 1,-111
2-0
/0
2-'
O. I
12
29
0.2'
3'Z
/2
O.J B
Vol. Concr, t~
CJI.ud.D4r t
m.)
0./1
16
J-7
12
0.47
/4
4-0
IZ
0.57
ZO
4-;
I..
0.73
IC
22
4-/0
16
O.~'
(a)
SURCHARGE
(An inclinafion varlfing from 10"1020" - from / horizonlal' rerfica/ 10 / horizonla/-J vertical.)
'1
b
It.- in.
(,n.)
10
2-2
0.1 ;
I-
12.
2,'
0.20
/1-
3-0
"
/6
1-..
12
041
18
J./O
12
0.4'1
20
J-J
/I.
0 ... 2
'I
22
~-8
/I.
0.73
10
21
s-c
I ..
0.0 B
SLlrfflC~
(b)
E-43
Vel. Concr~i~
(".ui. Mr If,
",
0.27
rl
6~ r"'(dC~
tr
r I I TJ-I--=ti- s Bm
t-+-t--,-+-tti
v..
~"TI 4-I TI t lU
v, - 8.rs
~t~tTtt-ttllit~S'
!:J;::;t:.t.f"J"=-r
,~
T-j"-j-:-i
_V-~arS
..J..1...i..l-ffi
-+t-t
/8-8a rs
~J-.
""'-=f ..
+-rl-I- '-Ii
Sur'a~~..., ':~~i-~ar?i
~.!~
l..._L-j_-L_~"-i-'
~I
:1
,1
8m
Bars
ELEVATION
(a)
h
11'01(............
(m)
CulJdJli'f"h
fI
If'/.
a",.
2-~
10
(,
).~
/0
3 -/0
10
O.JI
4-6
12
0.41
i 5-6
IZ
0.4'
B
9
/0
50
/2
vL"~
0.12
s_'''<;
!.
0.27
7'
i O.ff
I"~
l-'
/1'
'
II
5'0'
l'
10:~"
5'4'
rill
11'8' :
,'Z-
r'
It'
L~nQfI':
IZ'
7'
9'
1-.
1"
J"
i"',,,,,j,r,.,,,.",A,
.5- 8.r.r
~ttirS'
J~cll'J9
.s'J~
I ~'r
9'8'
9'
,! .,
V,-B..rsIV1&lrJ
II ""I
7"-
n'
.~
1"
8 -
L~"9thr
8fflr.s
..r
S.
.vvm~,~
2'"
)'0'
Sp.GC'f"~ 'l!J/H"
j'%1!
f'
f'
i"
10
12'
4 'Z'
IZ
IJ
9'
4:8"
IS
f'
f'
/I'
5:2'
16
1'~'
,.
12"
45
.. e
Z'
i Z
I
,-.
1",;
I1
lUI
10 C
/6 9
IZ-
IZ'
22. J
~
f1
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ir-;
1.fj
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~:f-:
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fl.
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'fWut!wfll
5
6
J-6
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10
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10
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r
i
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s-o
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~o
t2
U.47
7-0
IJi
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7-9
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0.71
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1"9
I
r-
1IU1
I I
'
I.
r-l+-t t7ll~tt+l4III
, I T H-11
I
I
S/AlClnQ
V, - ~arr
H
ill
Tl-IT-iJ
.
fft! t, J""-1"""t.'::l1J
:~ ~
v- S ..rs
fiu
l-h
~ I
f~-8ars.1
h
t i -i'-1-I.'11.1~L..C-5-8ars
-r- -r-
H '++-H1-I
I
+-r ~-I,-8arr
V- 8a rr.
:-lil--S- &rs1
-*-
r-r ,- t"'i Ii
~_+--I-...J_~..J
I
I l....l I
"
Surr..~~"l
{)u ~dD"ilir
-----~---_.
,V
euvATION
(b)
LU'9 11tr
Bilrs
10'
10-
'~4"
7:4'
VI SJrr
II I
l-Till,:B.-- S-em
S- 8arr
8 - 8i1rs
51
!PtlCIlIa
L~"Q'h
I"
i
i"
7'
i'
7'
" S'
7' 4'
17
10'
10'
7'
~'4'
9"
~~~.
6'0'
7'
/I!O'
6'8'
9'
9-
/1:2'
"10'
1"
"
E-44
r-
f,u
Num~r
J"
J'r
1'10'
/I
~'
IJ
5'8'
/5
ff
rr"
Z-
7.7
IZ
/ j.l
IZ'
f"
12"
24.4
/'.
12
rmf~u.~
ib.pu;!
J;J4C 11'IQ
-! " I
12'
,.~
31.1
40
VERTICAL
WA LL S
VDI. (oncr~/P
6
(II in) CIJ uti p~r ff
rr,)
.a '",
0.20
2-7
0.27
J-O
C.3 7
J-4
O. 4 C
J
I
:0
.~
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4
0
{;
0.
J-~
Il
4-J
o. {; 0
O. i {;
I, I ..
(a)
h
(fn
.,
c
.,
I - - - - - "~ - - - - - r
.~
!;
( b)
E-45
tJ
10 ......
f/."",
Vol C'"'JCIVf,
Cu. ud. /'Ju ft)
2-'
0.2 Z
]-0
O.J Z
3-6
0.44
4-2
0.' 0
4-/0
0.71l
5-(,
0.'1 'i
'1
'. ----,-+
b
I
10
1.2 S
(,-]
7-0
/.52
,
I
h
I.
3
d
,
I
b
I' -m
Vel.
Cu
(cncr"t"
"
(,
2-0
0./ 5
(,
2'~
0.22
(,
2-~
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",
3-0
0.19
3-4
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I"-I
,-f,
r
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j -,
0."
0,6 I
0.74
0.88
(a)
f'
-n,
I?
(ft
iJ,r
0.18
"
I "
0.25
3-0
0,34
3-
04'
3-9
0.55
4-2
067
'.,
0,80
5-0
"
7
E-46
CDn{"r~r,
U-I'lff
~.
(b)
Vol.
"'.
2-
b
,"1ft
10
0, q f
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
& CONSIDERATIONS
GENERAL
1111 891Umed Ih8' th. d lgn 0' 1& CAISLOClCd rel81nlng w8~1 will b. undertaken only by a
QUalined clvll/struclural engineer. AUenlion mUlt be given to eolll data provided by a
QUllllfled loll!l/Ioundetlon engineer: equlve/ent lIuld preuures. coeHlc/enl
'riel/on.
,lIow,bl. beerlng pr."ur"s. palSlv' .011 ,es/,'enee. as wen as Idenllfleallon 01 any
unulull loll condilionl, or local 'Ictora known to'ihi designing engineer.
0'
DEFINITION
A CRlstacK '''' relelnlng wall Is I composite slruclure 'arming a Ikelelal box which In lurn Is
'lIIed wllh 'ree draining or IUllabie onsUe n1lnmal under I drained condilion. Thll composite
slruclure, a!l e whole. IclllS a gravity telalnlng wallihal rlllstithe prellurea l.er1ed by
the backnll behind Ihe wall through 'rlcllon It Ihe base of the wall. and by pal.lvi prelBur.
developed el the iranI 'ece of the wall. Thelendency toward overturning II, In turn, te.lsted
by Ihe weigh I 01 the wall Itself. The unlit are held togelher bV frlcllon at Ihelr lunctlon rind
'rlcllon In Ihe lilt Generelly, engineering IIlefllure perlllning 'to gravity Will. Ie applicable.
__
12" MODULE -
FALSE HEADER \.
"\.
~ Z...
,,/,,/
.-
c...jD~~
:Y""\
ANGLE; CF SURCHARGE
~-e----.l~~ru--
, ~n..J~~
L.Co v CoL.
GRANlA..AR BAO<F1LL
~GLE
E-47
..
r-or ellh"r kllown or estlmAled earth ",rassures, the grAvlly wall Is proportioned 80 as 10
p,ovldf' ACCp.I1IAhle mlt1lmUm BAlely tltRt1t1Atds A{tAln~1 overlurnlng. sliding and loundallot1
bp.Atlno 'AII,,, p.. 1 he 11'51 requlreslhallhe resull"nl of ell lorces pass wllhln Ihe middle Ihltd'ol
lhe base, Ihereby Insutlng Ihal Ihe heel 01 Ihe wallis always under comptesslon.
1 hR sh'll1dmd cntSLOCl("' deslgl1 provides lor A bAiler (R1141e of wall 10 hmllOntAJ) 01 1:4;
thu!'! lot eAch 1001 In helghllhe WAil will bRller.~ck I'm,nlnche9. The degree of bailer for a
given helglll 01 WAil ha9 A dramAllc effecl on Ihe feclors 01 sefety against overlurnlng and
sliding. 1 he liP-I ellec! 01 the bailer Is Iwofold:
A. 1 hR ~"ect of the betlv~ eBtlh tlres8ure Is reduced
b. 1 he lever fum of Ihe waH welcl~':';'1 I~, ... I')e 01 the well Is decreased
cnt8LOCI( '"_ telAlnhl~ walls may "Iso be erecl9t1 Oil A bAiler of 1:6. This Is Ihe standard
prActlc" lollowed 1t1 mosl stale and counly cOl1sltucllon melluels orlenled 10 highway
Appllcallol1~.
._. - -
I lEADER
~41-6" HEADERS
~-
11
,.........4'-6 I l("fJ[n
/SlntlUE~\
t~
~~
""1 . . . . .. - -
111-011
-------;:EF;::F~,E=::C~Tr~~':
r14.
E-48
.RELNNED BACKFlL1.
DENSITY (r) ..
INTERNAL FRICnON ANGLE (.) ..
StT-B"CK
REQUiREMENT
Jf~
DENSIlY (y) ..
SLOPE
~,~~~.
IF"
NOT LEVEL
C;J
DATE
Soils Engineer
FIRM
PHONE NO.
ADDRESS
FAX NO.
SIGNATURE :
'ITACT
E-49
~L-
--=-_~
~~L_---------=---~:':""::':~:':':':':"":':':::":"'--:-7
__=_=~=__: ~: :__:. :::,_~_ : ": :'::::~:-::_::::::-:.::::. . ,=_.:--'
._---~1299 156th Ave. N.E. #L150 Bellevue, \'\'A 98007
(206) 747-0956 1-800-877-0956 Fax (206) 747-5892
CRIBWALL ESTIMATING
E-50
TECHNICAL REVIEW
ESTIMATING
PARTICULARS IMPORTANT
TO WALL AND SITE
Criblock Retaining Walls, Inc. is a full-service earth
retention specialist uniquely qualified to stru'
Iy design, engineer, and build the Criblock s.
Concrete Cribwalls are both a cost effedive and
aesthetically pleasing alternative to standard eastin-place retaining walls. If you would like more
information about Cribwalls, or need an estimated
cost for your project, contact our office for
assistance.
E-51
E-52
TECHNICAL REVIEW .
SLOT-CUT CRIBWALLS
DIAGRAM "A"
AND
ARE OPEN
IS OPEN
AND
BEING OPEN
NOTES
25'OCT SLO-S' ARE SHOWN ABOvE ACTUAL LENGTH CAN
VA~Y
C~
SHALLOwER.
E-53
'I-'- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~'----.,.,--,--..-.-._. -----------.
...... &#.5*
1~"1!!!II4.M.U.lT.I.PLiiE.,.DE.P.T.H.C.R.IB.WiiliiA.Ll.S. ..
Precast concrete cribwalls are one of the most
versatile retaining wall systems available. Criblpck
cribwalls have been used effectively for manv
earth retention needs. Cribwalls are' commonl~
used to expand and maximize the building pads
for commercial and residential projects; as ramp
"'~lIs at highway intersections; to widen roadways;
for drainage and flood control projects. Cribcan be engineered for walls up to 60 feet
hlgn. Because the criblock walls are an interlocking. crib system they are readily adaptable to
almost any situation. Multiple depth cribwalls are
commonly used for higher walls and for walls in
__
E-54
TECHNICAL REVIEW
MULTIPLE CRIBWALLS
The design flexability afforded the modular, interlocking crib system enable it to be used for walls of
all heights in almost any application requiring a
retaining wall. Criblock Retaining Walls, Inc. is
uniquely qualified to design, engineer, and build
the Criblock earth retention system. Please contact
our office if we may be of service to you.
CROSS SECTION
TYPICAL MULTIPLE DEPTH WALL
E-55
~
~CiKi--------------'I
c~
Retaining Walls Northwest, Inc.
~,
,.,..__
LI_C#_RE_T_'A_J_-I"_"'_:_Jj_50_1
CRIBWALL LANDSCAPING
Perhaps one of the most unique feature advantages of the Criblock system is the aesthetic
value of being able to landscape the face of the
cribwall. The open cells that compose the face
of the wall readily lend themselves to various
hndscaping con'cepts. Because the wall is
;cally built on a batter of 4:1 (vertical:
Izontal) the sloped face of the wall retains
the recompacted soils at a slope condusive to
supporting plant life. The battered face of the
v-.all.also simplifies the irrigation design should
irrigation be called for.
'5*'*5
The Enclave cribwall shown above is an excellent example of the feasibility of landscaping
cribwalls even in adverse climates such as Colorado. After only one growing season. the wall
already supports healthy and coloriul plant life.
The Enclave cribwall was planted with five
different varieties of Ivy and seeded with Honeysuckle. The irrigation system (visable in the
background of the photol is a simple fine-mist
spray system readily available in all parts of the
country. These fine-mist sprayers not only conserve water but also reduce the risk of over
E-56
TECHNICAL REVIEW
-~
_ _,
'
LAND~C;~,~ING
For further information on landscaping Criblock retaining walls please contact our office, or
consult a qualified landscape Architect.
E-57
..H.IG.H.W.A.Y..A.P.P..L.IC"A.T.IO.N.S...
Crib lock retaining walls are possibly the most versatiie wall systems available today. One important
application of the Criblock system is the use of
cribwalls in Federal and State highway projects.
Cribwalls have been successfully used for numerous
earth retentior' needs such as:
'.
__
E-58
TECHNICAL REVIEW
HIGHWAV
d ..
E-59
80
IT\
I
!
1/2K H2
V
/',,'
"\\'
H
I
I
>J.;
\j(
... 60
960
....,....
....
::JE:
110
6110
""....
...:
...
...'" ...
= "~
:>
1/2K VH2
1/
~I~*
H/3
, .'
\j;
H
J
J
'!I
OJ::
...
OJ::
... 20
320
\0
160
160
2,560
I ~o
2.2~0
120
1,920
100
1,600
80
1,280
60
960
110
6110
20
320
....=......:....
co
'"...
= ......
Ill:
'"
--""'"
::
......
....
OJ::
::JE:
-z....
....OJ::
"-
"-
oC
>
"-
'""-
.'1'\
I
1.280
Ill:
oC
-"""""'iT'
H/3
'"...
co
~~{1/2KHH2
I
>
~O
"-
E-60
--...'"
1,700
PCF
TICY
130
1.6
120
1.5
110
!i
1.7
I /
100
1.3
1,500
I-
zl..:l
L.U
::s:
I-
I, ~OO
1.300
1,200
~ 1,100
99
1.2
1.1
1.0
70
0.9
,
I
60
O.B
900
BOO
A'
BO
1,000
0.7
700
0.6
600
0.5
50
500
Vi
30
1.0
3.0
2.0
2.~
2,7
2.5
2,2
2.7
!
,i
/'
i
I
I
I
2.0
!
:
i
I
I
)
,
,
,i
!
!
i
I
I
\
2.5
EXANPLE
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.7
UNIT WEiGHT IN a) PCF
tI) TICY
c) Kg/CM
SOLUTION
PROCEED VERTICALLY FRON S.G.: 2.7
TO INTERSECTION OF DIAGONAL LINE.
THEN PROCEED HORIZONTALLY TO
INTERSECTION OF VERTICAL LINE AND
FIND:
aL UN IT WEIGHT
liB PCF
tI) UNIT WEIGHT
1.59 T/CY
c) UNIT WEIGHT
I,B90 I!:g/CM
E-61
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
GIVEN
FIND
1.5
,;
I
,
,
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
OF CONNON MATERIALS
BASALT
BR It;K
CONCRETE (BROKEN)
GRAN ITE
LI NESTOHE
SANDSTONE
TRAP ROCK
1---~/1
1.'4
1,600
V!
3.0
I GAB I ON
WALLS
CI:lSE I . e = O'
oj FRONT FACE ON 1:6 BATTER
,IT
~:
':JL
oE-- 8 --?i
\'{"'/,
No OF
COURSES
9'-10',5'-0'
oE---- 8 ------?>
3' 3"
I,
9'-
13'- (16'-1116'
16' -5"' j S - t
19'-S'19'-IO'118'
3' -3'
3'-3"
9'-10" 6'-r
I.. I
- -
T,
..
L..,-...J...-L-........-,-J
r-=:: '
" e
I
--------
Ii S"
AND 5.
REIo4ARKS
,
I
'5
I,
-----
'~8--.."..
___!
loi 5"3"1'2'
I, COURSES
No OF
~:
~ L
R_E_IoIA_R_~_S
16'-1 11"-3';lf
'3
caSE II S = 3341
LOCATION OF RESULTANT OF
I~"
3' f
i
"'- '----L._l...-.....J
I
!
H
8 r-X-+
HoOFES ~
I
!COURS
I
L
r:h2
REWUKS
19'-8"'9'-10'
H
6'-7" 5'-0'"
19'-10", 6'-7"
13'- I'
8'-3"
16' -5'
9~10
E-62
,
,
----
&S
REI4ARKS
I
1
1
,5
:
~
Appendix F
Specification for Tied Back Retaining
Walls
Description
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing tied back retaining
walls at designated locations in accordance with these specifications,
and in reasonable conformity with Lhe lines. grades. and dimensions
shown on the drawings.
Materials
Miscellaneous Metal
Bolts. Bolts, nuts, and washer material shall conform to ASTM
A-325 for high strength bolts fo~ structural steel joints, including
suitable nuts and plain, hardened washers.
Dowels. Reinforcing bar used for doweling shall conform to
requirements of AASHTO M-31 and be a grade 40. unless
otherwise designated in the plans.
Forgings. Forgings shall conform to the reqUirements of ASTM
A-237 for class A alloy steel forgings.
Miscellaneous Metals. Miscellaneous structural steel and
connections reqUired shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M-183.
Construction
(1) Rough excavation for the site of the wall shall be made to
(2) When the indicated wall height exceeds 8 feet or the fractured
rock is encountered. an additional horizontal tieback shall be
installed at the bottom of the wall, as shown on the drawings.
(3) The top connection to the pile shall be made as shown on the
drawings.
(4) The anchorage for the top tieback shall consist of a drilled-in
rock bolt, as shown. An alternate design will be used for
common material if encountered, or as directed by the
engineer.
Insta1l1ng Lagging
(1) The bottom course of timber lagging shall be trimmed to bear
F-3
Description
This work shall consist of fUrnishing and installing anchored sheet pile
retaining walls at designated locations in accordance with these
specifications, and in reasonable conformity with the lines. grades, and
dimensions shown on the drawings.
Materials
Construction
F-5
Method of
Measurement
F-6
Basis of Payment
The accepted quantities will be paid for at the contract unit pIice
shown in the schedule of items.
Pay unit
Pay item
650 (01) Structural excavation
Cubic yard
Linear foot
F-7
Each
Description and
Scope
Definitions
Variables
Alternate
Retaining Wall
Systems
Submittals
F-lO
F-ll
Unit
Weight
(lbs/fP)
120
120
Materials
Meehan ically
Stabilized Earth
(MSE) Retaining
Walls
F-12
System 2
System 3
Percentages
100
20-100
0-60
0-15
4"
1/4"
No. 40
No. 200
Test procedures
ASTM G 57
AASHTOT267
Limits
100 PPM (max.)
200 PPM (max.)
Test procedures
ASTM D 512 or ASTM D 4327
ASTM D 516 or ASTM D 4327
F-16
Rock Gabions
(1)
Cast-In-Place
Concrete
Retaining Walls
Construction
MSE Retaining
Walls
(1)
F-17
Rock Gabions
(1)
F-19
F-20
Cast-In-Place
Concrete
Retaining Walls
Measurement for
Excavation
MSE Retaining
Walls
The pay quantity for MSE retaining walls will be measured on the
square foot basis (to the nearest square foot) of the actual surface area
of the walls plus footings.
The pay quantity for coping will be measured on the linear foot basis
(to the nearest linear foot) from end to end of coping.
Metal bin walls will be accepted for payment on a lump sum basis. No
measurement of quantities will be made.
No separate measurement will be made for specified backfill used in
constructing the walls because this work is considered incidental to the
wall construction.
F-21
Rock Gabions
Rock gabions will be measured on the cubic yard basis by using the
neat line dimensions of the baskets. as indicated on the plans.
No separate measurement will be made for riprap geotextile for
gabions.
Cast-In-Place
Concrete
Retaining Walls
Payment
General. The accepted quantities will be paid for at the contract price
per unit of measurement for each of the following pay items:
Pay item
(a) MSE retaining walls
(b)
_ _ coping
(c)
Metal bin wall
(d)
Rock gabions
Unit of measurement
Square foot
Linear foot
Lump sum
Cubic yard
If retaining walls in items (a) or (c) are constructed at more than one
location. each retaining wall will be paid for separately and will be
identified by adding the description MStation __," with the retaining
wall location station inserted in the blank.
Item (a) includes all MSE retaining wall. options in the section on
mechanically stabilized earth (MSE).
In item (b) the type of coping will be inserted in the blank, with a
separate item for each type. Reinforcing steel and concrete used in this
work is considered incidental with no separate or additional payment
being made.
Item (c) includes furnishing and placing stone embankment material
both inside and around the outer sides of the bin wall.
Item (d) includes furnishing and placing the gabion baskets, stone fill
material. and anchorages. if required. Riprap geotextile used for
gabions will be considered incidental with no separate or additional
payment being made.
Payment will be payment in full for all work specified including all
materials, eqUipment. tools. labor, and incidentals necessary to
complete the work.
If shown. excavation for retaining walls will be paid for according to
section 00510. oLlAerwise excavation will be considered incidental with
no separate or additional payment being made.
F-22
Shotcrete Slope
Stabilization
Definitions,
Standards, and
Requirements
Materials
Prepackaged
Product
02510.10
02010.10
02040
02690.20
02050.10
02690.10
02080.20
02410.70
02020
02510.40
F-23
Washington Department of
Transportation
Specifications=>=Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Wall (Preapproved)
General
Requirements
Description
Quality Assurance
F-25
Submittals
(1) The contractor, or the supplier as his agent, shall furnish the
engineer a certificate of compliance stating that the mechanically
stabilized earth wall materials comply with the applicable sections
of these specifications.
(2) A copy of all test results perfonned by the contractor or his
supplier. which are necessary to assure compliance with the
specifications, shall also be fUrnished to the engineer.
(3) Before fabrication, the contractor shall submit a field construction
manual to the engineer for approval for the mechanically stabilized
earth walls. This submittal shall be made at least 90 days prior to
the beginning of wall construction and shall include a field
construction manual prepared by the wall manufacturer.
(4) Design calculations and shop drawings: The contractor, or the
supplier as his agent, shall submit detailed design calculations and
shop drawings to the engineer for approval at least 90 days prior to
the start of wall construction. The submittal shall include detailed
design calculations and all details, dimensions, quantities and
cross-sections necessary to construct the wall. The calculations
shall include a detailed explanation of any symbols and computer
programs used in the wall design.
The design calculations shall be based on the following
specifications:
(a) The factor of safety for overturning and sliding are 2.0
and 1.5. respectively.
(b) The angle of internal friction of the soil and the maximum
Wall
3,5,6,10,11, 14,16
4
8
14,16
17
Allowable
Toe Pressure
4.0 ksf
5.0 ksf
14.0 ksf
6.0 ksf
4.0 ksf
Soil Angle Of
Internal Friction
36 degrees
36 degrees
36 degrees
36 degrees
36 degrees
of the wall.
- All horizontal and vertical curve data affecting wall
construction.
- A listing of the summary of quantities provided on the
elevation sheet of each wall for all items including
incidental items.
- A cross-section showi..ng the limits of construction in-fm
sections, limits. and extent of select granular backfill
material placed above oI1ginal ground.
- Limits and extent of reinforced soil volume.
All details including reinforcLTlg bar-bending details. Barbending details shall be in accordance with ACI standards.
All details for foundations. leveling pads, steps in the footings or leveling pads, and aEowable and actual maximum
bearing pressures.
All modules and facing elements shall be detailed. The
details shall show aU dimensions necessary to construct
F-27
Materials
Concrete facing panels for reinforced earth, VSL, and HOOker walls
(1) Materials
F-28
Casting
(a) Tie attachment devices shall be set in place to the dimensions
and tolerances shown in the plans prior to casting.
(4) Curing
(a) The panels shall be cured for a sufficient length of time so that
Finish
(a) The concrete surface for the front face shall have the finish
shown in the plans. and for the rear face. an tmformed finish.
(b) The rear face of the panel shall be roughly screeded to
(a) The date of manufacture. the production lot number and the
piece-mark, shall be clearly marked on the rear face of each
panel.
(9) Handling. storage and shipping
(a) All panels shall be handled. stored. and shipped properly to
eliminate the danger of chipping, cracks, fractures. and
excessive bending stresses.
(b) Panels in storage shall be supported on finn blocking located
Reinforcing mesh
(1) The reinforcing mesh shall be shop-fabricated from cold-drawn
steel wire according to the minimum requirements of AASHTO
M 32 and shall be welded into fmished mesh fabric according to
AASHTO M 55.
(2) Reinforcing mesh shall be hot dip-galvanized according to MIll.
Damage to the galvanizing from forming the buttonheads shall be
repaired with state formula A-9-73 galVanizing repair paint per
section 9-08.2.
Tie strips
(1)
F-30
(2) Vertical joint fIller between panels. when specilled in the plans.
shall be flexible. open cell polyester foam strips. grade UU-34.
2- by 2-inch. recommended by the Reinforced Earth Company.
(3) Filter fabric joint cover for both horizontal and vertical joints. when
specified in the plans, shall be a previous woven polypropylene
fIlter fabriC recommended by the Reinforced Earth Company.
Adhesive used to attach the fabric material to the rear of the panel
shall be as recommended by the Reinforced Earth Company.
F-31
Back1111
mat~rla1
which are soft and poor in durability. The material shall have
magnesium sulfate soundness lass of less than 30 percent after
four cycles.
(3) The material shall meet the following corrosive requirements:
F-32
Property
Peak
Tensile
Strength
Test method 1
WSDOT test
Method
No. 925
Tensar UX1400
Tensar UX1500
3,700lb/ft
5.800lb/ft
(machine
direction)
(machine
direction)
80 percent
80 percent
(lb/ft)
Junction
Integrity
(rib
strength
percent)
GRI
Test method
GG2-87
All geogrid facing units shall be constructed to the dimension and shape as detailed in
the plans and shall meet all the materials. manufacturing, and physIcal requirements
of ASTM C 90. except for the following:
ThIs test method involves: six specimens from each laboratory sample that shall be
tested. Each specimen shall be 8 inches wide with a gage length between grips of 10
inches. Each specimen shall be tested at a constant rate of extension of 10 percent
per minute, at a temperature of 20 C, 2 C.
F-33
Construction
Requirements
Wall excavation
Excavation shall be according to the requirements of section 2-09 and
in close confonnity to the limits and construction stages shown in the
plans.
Foundation preparation
(1) The foundation for the structure shall be graded level for a
width equal to or exceeding the length of reinforcing as shown
in the approved shop plans.
(2) Prior to wall construction, the foundation, if not in rock, shall
be compacted as directed by the engineer.
(3) Any foundation soils found to be unsuitable shall be removed
and replaced, as provided for under section 2-09.3(I)C.
(4) At each panel foundation level, an unreinforced concrete
leveling pad shall be prOVided as shown in the plans. The
leveling pad shall be cured a minimum of 12 hours before
placement of wall panels.
Wall erection
(1) The panels shall be placed vertically with the aid of a light
crane. For erection, panels are handled with a lifting device set
into the upper edge of the panels.
(2) Panels should be placed in successive horizo::ltal hfts in the
sequence shown in the plans as backfill placement proceeds.
(3) External bracing is reqUired for the initial lift.
(4) As backfill material is placed behind the panels, the panels
shall be maintained in a vertical position with temporary
wooden wedges placed in the joint at the junction of the two
adjacent panels on the external side of the wall.
(5) Reinforcing shall be placed nonnal to the face of the wall,
unless otherwise shown in the plans or directed by the
engineer. Prior to reinforcing placement, backfill shall be
compacted.
Backfill placement
(1) Backfill placement shall closely follow the erection of each
course of panels. Backftll shall be placed in such a manner as
F-34
(b)
(c)
(b)
(c)
(6) At the end of each day's operation. the contractor shall shape
the last level of backfill to permit runoff of rainwater away from
the wall face. In addition. the contractor shall not allow
surface runoff from adjacent areas to enter the wall
construction site.
F-35
Measurement
F-38
Description
Submittals
Materials
F-40
GeotextUe property
Water permeability
Test method
GeotextUe l property
requirements
0.005 em/sec minimum
AOS
Grab tensile
strength. minimum
in machine and
x-machine direction
Burst strength
Puncture resistance
Tear strength.
minimum in machine
and x-machine
direction
Ultraviolet (UV)
radiation stability
(strength retained
percentage)
Seam breaking
strength3
1All
.84 mm maximum
(#20 sieve)
200 lb minimum
80 lb minimum
60 lb minimum
70% minimum
160 lb minimum
geotextile properties are minimum average roll values (Le., the average test results for any sampled roll in a lot
~VSDOT test methods 916.917,919, and 924 conform to ASTM geotextile test procedures. except for geotextile
sampling and specimen conditioning. Copies of all WSDOT geotextile test methods are available at the WSDOT
Headquarters Materials Laboratory in Tumwater.
3Applies only to seams perpendicular to the wall face.
F-41
$$1$$
Vertical
reinforcement
layer spacing
Distance
from top
of wall
$$
$$
$$
$$
Note: These geotextile strengths are minimum average roll values (I.e.,
the average test results for any sampled roll in a lot shall meet or
exceed the minimum values shown in the table).
I
WSDOT test method 917: method for wide width tensile strength. This strength
requirement only applies in the geotextile direction perpendicular to the wall face.
WSDOT test method 917 confonns to ASTM 0 4595. except for geotextile sampling
and specimen conditioning. Copies of all WSDOT geotextile test methods are available
at the WSDOT Headquarters Materials Laboratory in Tumwater.
F-42
Water for mixing and curing shall be clean and free of substances
which may be harmful to concrete or steel. Water shall also be free of
elements which would cause staining.
Reinforcement shall be as shown in the plans and shall comply with
the requirements of section 9-07.
(2)
F-44
Property
or chemical
Test method
Resistivity
pH
AASHTO T288-911
AASHTO T289-911
Chlorides
sulfates
AASHTO T291-911
AASHTO T290-911
Allowable
quantity
Greater than 3,000 ohm/em
Polypropylene/ polyethylene: 5-10
Polyester: 5-8
Less than 100 mg/kg
Less than 200 mg/kg
Geotextile
Approval and
Acceptance
Tumwater. Mter the sample and required information for each geotextile type have arrived at the Materials Laboratory. a maximum of
14 calendar days will be required for this testing. Source approval will
be based on conformance to the applicable values from tables 1 and 2.
Each sample shall have minimum dimensions of 1.5 yards by the full
roll width of the geotextile. A minimum of 6 square yards of geotextile
shall be submitted to the engineer for testing. The geotextile machine
direction shall be marked clearly on each sample submitted for testing.
The machine direction is defmed as the direction perpendicular to the
axis of the geotextile roll.
The geotextile samples shall be cut from the geotextile roll with scissors, a sharp knife, or with another instrument that produces a smooth
geotextile edge and would not cause geotextile ripping or tearing. The
samples shall not be ta.l<.en from the outer wrap of the geotextile nor the
inner wrap of the core.
Acceptance of samples. Samples will be randomly taken by the engineer at the job site to confinn that the geotextile meets the property
values specified.
Approval will be based on the testLl1g of samples from each lot. For the
purposes of this specification a "lot" shall be defined as all geotextile
rolls within the consignment (i.e., all rolls sent to the project site)
which were produced by the same manufacturer and have the same
product name. Mter the samples and manufacturer's certificate of
compliance have arrived at the Headquarters Materials Laboratory in
Tumwater, a maximum of 14 calendar days will be required for this
testing. If the results of the testing show that a geotextile lot, as
defmed, does not meet the properties required in tables 1 and 2, the
sampled roll or rolls will be rejected. Two additional rolls from the lot
previously tested will then be selected at random by the engineer for
sampling and retesting. If the retesting shows that either or both rolls
do not meet the required properties, the entire lot will be rejected. All
geotextile with defects, deterioration, or damage, as determined by the
engineer, will also be rejected. All rejected geotextile shall be replaced
at no cost to the State.
Acceptance w'Jl be based on the manufacturer's certificate of compliance without sampling if the geotextile samples previously tested for
the purpose of source approval came from the same geotextile lot as
defmed which is proposed for use at the project site, provided that the
number of samples submitted and tested meet the requirements of
WSDOT test method 914 "Practice for Sampling of Geotextiles for
Testing."
The contractor shall provide a manufacturer's certificate of compliance
to the engineer, whether or not samples are submitted for testing. The
certificate includes the following information about each geotextile roll
to be used: the manufacturer's name and current address, the full
F-46
Construction
Requirements
F-47
F-48
F-49
Placement of
Shotcrete Wall
Facing
Alternate A: Mter the surface has taken its initial set (crumbling
slightly when cut). the surface shall be broom-fmished to secure a
uniform surface texture.
Alternate B: Place the shotcrete a fraction beyond the alignment
wires and forms. Allow it to stiffen to the point where the surface
will not pull or crack when screened with a rod or trowel. Excess
material shall then be trimmed, sliced, or scraped to the true
lines and grade. Alignment wires shall then be removed. The
surface shall receive a steel trowel finish, leaving a smooth
uniform texture and color. Once the shotcrete has cured. a
pigmented sealer shall be applied to the shotcrete face according
F-51
to the special provisions. The shotcrete surface shall be completed to within a tolerance of l /4 inch of true line and grade.
F-52
General
Materials
Wire reinforcement and cap mesh. Wire mesh for facing shall be
formed by a 90-degree bend of the soil wire reinforcement mesh and
shall have a prebent tie to connect to the soil reinforcing mesh above.
The reinforcing mesh shall be shop-fabricated of cold-drawn steel wire
conforming to the minimum requirements of ASTM A-82 and shall be
welded into the finished mesh fabric according to ASTM A-185. Fabric
for the welded wire wall shall be per project specifications, either brite
basic (nongalvanizedJ, commercial galVanized (0.4 oz/SFJ, or hot dip
galVanized (2.0 oz.jSF. ASTM A-123). Any damage done to the mesh
galvanization prior to installation shall be repaired in an acceptable
manner.
Backing materials
Backing mats: Where required, as shown on the plans, steel backing
mat shall be WI. 7 x WI. 7 (minimum) welded wire fabric meeting ASTM
A-185and galvanized according to either (aJ, (bJ, or (c) in the previous
paragraph.
Backfill not conforming to this specification shall not be used without a
written consent of the engineer.
The contractor shall furnish the engineer with a certificate of compliance certifying that the select granular backfill material complies
with this section of the specifications. A copy of all test results
performed by the contractor, which are necessary to assure compliance
with the specifications, shall be furnished to the engineer.
The frequency of sampling of select granular backfill necessary to
assure gradation shall be directed by the engineer.
F-53
Construction
Requirements
Wall Excavation
Unclassified excavation shall be according to the requirements of
general specifications and in reasonably close conformity with the
limits and construction stages shown on the plans.
Foundation
The foundation for the structure shall be graded level for a width equal
to or exceeding the length of the reinforcement mat, or as shown on the
plans. Prior to the wall construction, the foundation, if not in rock,
shall be compacted, as directed by the engineer. Any foundation soils
found to be unsuitable shall be removed and replaced, as directed by
the engineer.
Wall Erection
Wire mesh reinforcement mats, and applicable facing materials, shall
be placed in successive horizontal lifts in the sequence shown on the
plans as backfill placement proceeds. Vertical tolerance (plumbness)
and horizontal alignment tolerance shall not exceed 2 inches when
measured at the junction of the wire facing the soil reinforcement along
a lO-foot straight edge.
The overall vertical tolerance of the wall (top and bottom) shall not
exceed 1 inch per 10 feet of wall height, unless the wall design requires
a battered facing. For battered faCing structures, the overall tolerance
from the theoretical battered locations shall not exceed 1 inch per
10 feet of battered wall height.
The quantity to be paid for shall be measured on the basis of wall face
area shown on the plans.
Measurement and payment for excavacon and backfill performed
dUring welded wire wall construction will be according to the applicable
sections of the contract specifications.
Wall Erection
The unit of measurement for wall erection will be the square foot of
wall surface area complete and in place. The quantity to be paid for
will be the actual quantity erected in place at the site. Payment shall
include compensation for all labor and materials required to prepare
the wall foundation. Place the reinforcement mats and position the
backing mats and screens as shown on the plans.
This information is proprietary to Hilfiker Retaining Walls and shall not
be reproduced without written permission. Hilfiker Retaining Walls,
P.O. Box 2012, Eureka. CA 95502-2012, telephone 707-443-5093.
F-54
4,068,482
4,117,686
4,051,570
4,266.890
4.260,296
F-55
4,329,089
4,324,508
4,343,572
4,391,557
4,505,621
Other
Patents
Pending
Tensar
Specifications
Material
Specifications
for Tenswal
System
General
F-57
GGl-87
GG2-87
Stand~ds
C 33-90
C 140-90
C 150-89
C 331-89
C 595-89
C 618-91
C 989-91
F-58
Materials
Deflnitlons
(1) Structural geogrid: A Tensar structural geogrid formed by a
regular network of integrally connected tensile elements with
apertures of sufficient size to allow interlocking with
surrounding soil, rock, or earth, and function prtmarily as
reinforcement.
(2) Modular concrete facing units: hollow and solid modular
concrete wall units, machine-made from Portland cement,
water, and mineral aggregates with or without the inclusion of
other materials.
(3) Unit fill: Granular soil which is within and immediately
behind the modular concrete facing units.
(4) Reinforced backfill: Compacted soil which is within the
reinforced soil volume as outlined on the plans.
Structural geogrids
(1) The geogrids shall be a regular grid structure of select high
density polyethylene or polypropylene resin produced by the
Tensar Corporation.
(2) The minimum allowable junction strength of the geogrid. as
per G.R.I.-GG2. shall be equal to or greater than 80 percent of
the ultimate strength of the geogrtd, as per G.R.I.-GG 1.
(3) The geogrid connection to the modular concrete facing units
shall be capable of carrying 100 percent of the maximum
design tensile load of the geogrtd at no more than 3/4 inch
total defonnation.
(4) The maximum design tensile load of the geogrid shall be less
than or equal to 50 percent of the tested ultimate strength of
the connection between the geogrid and the modular concrete
facing unit.
(5) The manufacturer shall provide certification of the ultimate
strength and junction strength as per GG2 of the specified
product (with accompanying test results if requested by the
engineer).
F-59
F-60
Physical requirements
(a) Concrete wall units shall have a minimum compressive
strength after 28 days of 3.000 psi. The concrete units
shall have the required freeze/thaw protection with a
maximum absorption rate of 6 pounds per cubic foot in
southern climates. and 8 pounds per cubic foot in
northern climates.
(3)
Manufacture tolerance
(a) Modular unit dimensions shall not differ more than
1/8 inch (3.2 mm) from the manufacturer's published
dimension.
(4)
F-61
(6) Rejection
Structural Geogrid
(a) The contractor shall check the geogrid upon delivery to
ensure that the proper material has been received.
(b) Geogrids shall be stored above -20F (-29C).
F-62
(2)
Unit fill: Fill for units shall consist of well-graded 3/4 inch
minus crushed stone or granular fJlI with the gradation
listed below.
Sieve size
2 inches
3/4 inch
No.4
No. 40
No. 200
Percent passing
unit fill
100
100
0-60
0-50
0-5
Sieve size
2 inches
3/4 inch
No.4
No. 40
No. 200
Percent passing
reinforced backfill
100-75
100-75
100-20
0-60
0-40
The maximum aggregate size shall be limited to 3/4 inch. unless field
tests have been or will be performed to evaluate the potential strength
reductions to the geogrid due to damage dUring construction. The
plasticity index (PI) is less than or equal to 20 and a liquid limit is less
than or equal to 30.
(a) Material shall be site-excavated material where the
requirements previously mentioned can be met. Where
additional fJlI is required. or site-excavated soils are not
suitable. the contractor shall submit a sample to the
engineer, who will determine if it is acceptable.
Execution
Construction
(1)
F-63
Subgrade preparation
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(2)
Units shall be placed side by side for the full length of the
wall. Proper alignment may be achieved with the aid of a
string line or offset from the baseline.
(3)
(4)
All excess material shall be swept from the top of units prtor
to installing the next course. Each course shall be
completely filled plior to proceeding to the next course.
(5)
Geogrld installation
(1)
(2)
F-64
(3)
(4)
geogrid.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
F-65
o us GOV['U,'/C:rn
P~I'I1ING ()FFI~E
I~~~ --
52"
(1)
(2)
(3)
5 0 8 16 1" 3 9
F-66