Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources:
Adst. "The 1976 Soweto Uprising in South Africa." The Huffington Post.
TheHuffingtonPost.com, 29 Oct. 2015. Web. 08 Jan. 2017. This interview with various
individuals such as William B. Edmonson, Deputy Chief of Mission in Pretoria, provided
context and quotes about the Soweto Riots.
"Amnesty Decisions." Amnesty Decisions. The TRC, n.d. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This website
provided information on the trial of the guards that killed Biko. It is written by the TRC
which is a trustable organization. Information from this site was used to illustrate the
correction of the system and the lack of remorse felt towards the guards twenty years
later.
Bantustan. Digital image. Our Cry for Freedom. Wordpress, Dec. 2012. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This
image was used on the background page in the Bantustan page as a visual aide.
BCM Logo. Digital image. Pan African Alliance. Pan African Alliance, 2011. Web. 8 Jan. 2017.
This image, the fist and star, is the black consciousness movement logo. This image was
used as the favicon for the website, in addition to on the Black Consciousness Movement
page.
Bernstein, Hilda. No. 46- Steve Biko. London: International Defence and Aid Fund, 1978. Print.
This book written shortly after Bikos death, as a description of what happened
concerning the death, why, how and the result of the torture that Biko received. No. 46 Steve Biko was used to find information about Biko's death, specifically the release by
the government to the press claiming that Biko died from a hunger strike.
Biko Dead in Cell. Digital
image. Cooper's Angels. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This moving
photo of biko lying dead in his cell is used to depict the harsh conditions in which Biko
was kept during his imprisonment. It was used as a picture on the page of the website
outlining the death of Biko.
Biko in Casket. Digital image. South African History Online. South African History, 12 Apr.
2016. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image of Biko laying in his casket was used as a visual aide
on the page about Bikos funeral.
Biko, Steve, and Aelred Stubbs. I Write What I Like: A Selection of His Writings. London:
Bowerdean Pub., 1996. Print. This source is a combination of primary and secondary
sources ranging from background on his life to the transcript from when Biko was on trial
for treason. The book also contained a personal memoir from man who once knew the
Biko family well.

Biko, Steve, and Millard W. Arnold. Steve Biko: Black Consciousness in South Africa. New
York: Random House, 1978. Print. This primary source contains the complete transcript
of Steve Biko's trial for treason. It also contains a journal article from when Biko was the
president of SASO and a secondary source from the dean of Pennsylvania University.
The transcript provided insight to the mindset of Steve Biko, his colleagues, and the
others that fought his ideas.
Biko, Steven. I Write What I Like Cover. Digital image. Amazon. Amazon, 2017. Web. 8 Jan.
2017. This image provides context as to the book that many of the quotes surrounding it
on the "BCM" page are coming from.

Biko's Death. Digital image. Cry Freedom. N.p., 13 Nov. 2012. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This photos is
of Stephen Biko after his death. It is used to depict the brutality and harshness the was
enacted upon him while imprisoned before his death. It was the banner picture on the
page of the website outlining Bikos martyrdom.
Biko's Funeral. Digital image. Fine Art America. N.p., 29 Apr. 2014. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This
photo depicts Bikos funeral. It shows the crowds of people coming to commemorate his
life. This photo was used as a banner image on the page of the website outlining Bikos
funeral.
Black Man on Bench. Digital image. The Spectator. The Spectator, 14 Dec. 2013. Web. 9 Jan.
2017. This image, used in the timeline, shows a black using a bench without a backrest
next to an empty bench made for whites. This shows the oppression that blacks
encountered during apartheid.
Boy carrying boy. Digital image. NY Daily News. NY Daily News, 16 June 2010. Web. 8 Jan.
2017. This iconic image was utilized to show the horrors that the Soweto Uprisings
caused.
Chained Up Biko Poster. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This poster displays Biko
chained up to symbolize the oppression of the government. It is also in memory of Biko.
This image is used on the homepage of the website to give visuals of Biko.
Daily Mail Headline Biko. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2012. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This
image, one of the most prolific of the time, was a headline on the Rand Daily Mail
Newspaper when allegations started to spread that Biko was not killed by the hunger
strike. This image was used to give the viewer a glimpse back in time to the headline that
caused the exposure of the corruption of the apartheid regime.
Dead Biko: Head, wrists, ankles. Digital image. Copper's Angels - Cry Freedom. Blogspot, 2011.
Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image of Biko after he was tortured, which eventually lead to his
death, serves as a visual aide to the internet user as it showcases the clearest parts of the
body in which Biko was tortured. This evidence clearly makes the proposition that Biko

died because of a hunger strike false, furthering the argument that Biko took a stand on
the page on his death.
"Decisions." Truth Commission - Special Report - DecisionsTRC. Trust Commission: Special
Report, n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2017. This source was quoted when discussing the five officers
who killed Biko's indictment on the "Government Involvement" tab.
Donald Woods and Steve Biko Together. Digital image. Rebecca Fjelland Davis. Rebecca
Fjelland Davis, 7 Jan. 2015. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image is of Donald Woods in the
forefront, and Biko in the background. This image was used as a visual aid so show the
two together, and was used on the Black Consciousness Movement page.
Freedom Headline. Digital image. Markwhelansliteraryblog. Wordpress, 14 Dec. 2013. Web. 9
Jan. 2017. This image of a headline is used on the timeline, on the event announcing the
end of censorship in South Africa. The headline announces a triumph that furthers the
feelings that one gets when reading about the event.
For Use By White Persons. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2011. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This
sign, found on Wikipedia's apartheid page, was used at the time to denote a space as
solely for white people. It is found on the background tab, in the apartheid section, and
furthers the descriptions of the time that surround it.
Jacobus Johannes Fouche in 1968. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2016. Web. 8 Jan.
2017. This image was used as a visual aid to give a face to the name of the oppressive
leader of the apartheid government who attempted to squash his black opposition.
James Thomas Kruger. Digital image. Freedom Struggles. Wordpress, 4 May 2015. Web. 8 Jan.
2017. This image was used to put a face to the name of Jimmy Kruger, the Minister of
Justice, who was responsible for Biko's death, and the cover-up that ensued.
Johannesburg, Mary Braid. "Twenty Years Late, Biko's Killers Confess." The Independent.
Independent Digital News and Media, 27 Jan. 1997. Web. 09 Jan. 2017. This source was
used for quotes surrounding the indictment of the officers who killed Biko. This source is
from the Independent, a news source in the United Kingdom.
Kentridge, Sydney W. "Stephen Biko's Death on a Prison Floor." New York Times
(1923-Current File): 29. Dec 07 1977. ProQuest. Web. 27 Oct. 2016 . In this primary
source article, the author, Kentridge describes the conditions and the trial of Biko after he
was arrested. This article was published in the New York Times. It goes through the
rights of Biko, and how they were abused, in a stepwise manner.
Mandela Election. Digital image. TPM News. TPM News, n.d. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This image,
found in a collection of many of Mandela's most iconic, was used for the timeline,
specifically the moment he got elected as President of South Africa.

Mandela presenting Biko Statue. Digital image. Enca. Enca, 2012. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This image
demonstrates the legacy that Biko has, as he is presented with a statue by Mandela, which
rests in front of city hall. This image is used in the timeline.
Mourners at Funeral. Digital image. Mail & Guardian. Mail & Guardian, 31 July 2015. Web. 9
Jan. 2017. This image depicts mourners surrounding a proud man holding up an image of
Biko. This image was used on the funeral marker on the timeline.
Mulder, Jesse D. Digital image. ENCA. N.p., 12 Sept. 2014. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image is of
Stephen Bikos grave stone in a field of grass, which was used on the martyrdom page
on the website.
Newspaper of Soweto Uprisings. Digital image. Hatful of History. Wordpress, 2013. Web. 8 Jan.
2017. This image was used to show the effect and reporting styles that the Soweto Riots
caused. This image was placed on the Soweto Riots Page, to give another perspective into
the uprisings history.
NUSAS Poster. Digital image. Exist and Resist: South Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. This image was
used in order to show promotions that NUSAS presented. This poster in particular,
emphasizes the beliefs of NUSAS of culture and learning.
"Obituary: Stephen Biko." Ufahamu 8 (1977): 5-6. Web. 1 Nov. 2016. This obituary from the
Ufahamu's eighth volume reflects the life and legacy of Stephen Biko. It reveals insight to
how others in South Africa thought on him. This obituary provided insights into the
significance and impact that Biko had in the lives of many, and is prominently displayed
on the Funeral tab of the website.
SASO On the Attack. Digital image. JSTOR. JSTOR/Aluka, 2012. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This
source was used as an example of the recruitment tools that SASO used to spread their
message of acceptance and black consciousness.
SASO Newsletter. Digital image. Tumblr. Tumblr, 8 June 2014. Web. This image of the cover of
a SASO newsletter was used as the banner of the SASO Foundation page. This image
demonstrates the impact that SASO had on the world around them, staging sit-ins etc.
SASO Newsletter Cover Conference. Digital image. Why We Are White Refugees. Why We Are
White Refugees, 2016. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This image of the newsletter of SASO, was
used as a supplementary image for the founding of SASO on the timeline.
SASO Poster. Digital image. Frank Talk. Frank Talk, 19 Sept. 2014. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This
poster shows what SASO was doing to advertise their cause and to spread their message.
It was on the page of the website covering the goals of the South African Students
Organization.

SASO Remembering Steve Biko. Digital image. Exist and Resist: South Africa. Google Sites,
2013. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image of members of SASO remembering Steve Biko was
used as the banner for a page on the growth of SASO.
Schadeberg, Jurgen. Biko in Room SASO. Digital image. African History, 14 June 2016. Web. 8
Jan. 2017. This image of Biko at one of the first meetings of SASO was used as a visual
aid so the viewer could imagine themselves in the situation.
Smith, Adrian G. Digital Portrait of Biko. Digital image. Pinterest. Pinterest, n.d. Web. 8 Jan.
2017. This digitally created image portrays Biko in a manner that presents the thought of
taking a stand. It presented on the homepage to display a visual of him.
Soweto Youth Uprising. Digital image. South African History. South African History, 21 July
2016. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This picture of many of the rebels during the Soweto riots was
used in the project as a visual tool so the observer could picture what the riots were like
in reality.
Stephen Biko. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This picture depicts Steve Biko with a
tilted head and is a good visual of him. This photo is used on the homepage of the website
to provide an initial image of Biko.
"Stephen Biko." World History: The Modern Era, ABC-CLIO, 2016, Accessed 17 Oct. 2016.
This interview of Steve Biko provides information on the causes that Steve Biko is
fighting for along with his views of the government of South Africa.
Stephen Biko Smiling. Digital image. Biographies. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This photo
depicts Stephen Biko laughing joyously. This picture is used of the home page of the
website to introduce visuals of him.
Steve Biko. Digital image. Black Past. Black Past, 2007. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image of Biko,
a part of the public domain, was used as a banner. This image was particularly valuable
because it shows Biko when he was most like his true self, talking expressively.
Steve Biko During Interview. Digital image. Jacaranda. JacarandaFM, 12 Sept. 2016. Web. 8
Jan. 2017. This picture of Stephen Biko is from an interview in which he discusses the
Black Consciousness Movement. This photo is displayed on the homepage of the website
to provide a visual of Steve Biko.
Steve Biko Image. Digital image. Africa Media Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This picture
depicts Stephen Biko on the cover of an african magazine. It is presented on the
homepage to introduce visuals of him.
SYND 26 9 77 Funeral of Steven Biko in King William's Town. Youtube. AP Archive, 24 July
2015. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This video depicts the funeral of Steve Biko. It shows the

moving event following his burial and the journey to his grave site. This video was put
into the tab of the website in which his funeral was outlined.
The Biko Statue. Digital image. Steve Biko Foundation. Steve Biko Foundation, 2017. Web. 8
Jan. 2017. This image of a statue of Biko standing strong in front of East London City
Hall was utilized on the "Legacy" tab of the website, as it demonstrates the importance of
Biko in history, as he was granted a prominent bronze statue.
"The Truth about Steven Biko." Boston Globe: A, 12:1. Feb 05 1997. ProQuest. Web. 22 Nov.
2016 . This primary source from the Boston Globe, a noteworthy newspaper based in
Boston, MA, USA, describes the motivations of the killers of Stephen Biko to come
forward and go to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Digital image. The Economist. Getty Images, 17 Feb.
1996. Web. This image was used as a banner on the page for the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission, as it allows the viewer to gain a clearer picture of the room where Biko's
guards were tried.
Watson, Noel. Dogs and security hold back uprisers. Digital image. This Is Africa. This Is
Africa, 6 June 2016. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This image shows the brutal upholding of the
rioters by dogs and guards during the Soweto Riots. This image serves as the banner for
the "Soweto Riots" page.
Woods, Donald. Biko. New York: Paddington, 1978. Print. In this first hand account of Biko's
life by the editor of the newspaper in which Biko had a column set up in, Woods
describes his encounters with Biko. Through his descriptions of Bikos character,
demeanor, and impactfulness, in addition to the events that the two of them shared
together, Woods provides an extremely detailed description of the encounters between
the two.
Secondary Sources:
"Apartheid." World History: The Modern Era, ABC-CLIO, 2016,
Worldhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/309330. Accessed 21 Oct. 2016. The article,
"Apartheid," is a secondary source providing background information on the oppression
during the apartheid Steve Biko was fighting. This article was found on a reliable online
database.
"Apartheid (1948-1994) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed." Apartheid (1948-1994)
| The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed. The Black Past, 2017. Web. 09 Jan. 2017.
This source was used for a quote about the apartheid in the timeline.
Biography.com, Editors. "Steve Biko." The Biography.com Website. A&E Networks Television,
8 July 2014. Web. 22 Nov. 2016. This biography on Biko was used to discover some

background information about Biko and his life as a whole, specifically concerning
details about his arrest.
Biko Google Doodle. Digital image. Google. Google, 18 Dec. 2016. Web. This depiction of
Biko, in front of a house and crowd, as the sun sets, was used in this project as an
example of his legacy, as he was honored on the most visited web page in the world. This
image was used as the banner for the "Legacy" page.
Biko Quote. Digital image. Peace Project. Peace Project, 26 Apr. 2012. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This
quote by Biko was used as a banner, and it is Biko's most famous quote.
Black Consciousness Movement. Digital image. South African History Online. South African
History, 12 May 2016. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This banner on South African History Online
was made a banner on our website too.
Blackwell, Amy. "Soweto Massacre." World History: The Modern Era, ABC-CLIO, 2016,
worldhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/421303. Accessed 22 Nov. 2016. This
secondary source, written by Amy Blackwell, describes the Soweto Massacre. Specific
details used from this source are a general definition, Bikos march background, and
death statistics.
Boaduo, Nana Adu-Pipim. "Remembering the Quotable Steve Bantu Biko: Introspection and
Theoretical Epistemological Analysis of Apartheid Murder." Journal of Pan African
Studies 5.9 (2013): 220+. World History Collection. Web. 27 Oct. 2016. This secondary
source was used primarily as a resource of quotes of various leaders on the Black
Consciousness Movement, such as Desmond Tutu. This journal entry was intitally
published in Vol. 5 No. 9 of the Journal of Pan African Studies, a peer-reviewed journal
by Nana Adu-Pipim Boaduo, a senior lecturer at Walter Sisulu University.
Eide, Marian. "Stephen Biko and the Torture Aesthetic." Ufahamu 38 (2014): n. pag. Web. 1
Nov. 2016. This journal article from the thirty eighth volume of Ufahamu is a secondary
source. "Stephen Biko and the Torture Aesthetic" illustrates the cruel treatment of Biko
under imprisonment leading up to his death. It then delves into Biko's martyrdom and
reactions to his death in art.
Hadfield, Leslie Anne. Liberation and Development: Black Consciousness Community Programs
in South Africa. East Lansing: Michigan State UP, 2016. Print. This source was used for
the timeline, as it was needed for a quote about Black Consciousness.
History.com Staff. "Apartheid." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2010. Web. 09 Jan.
2017. This source was used for the timeline, specifically to give a quote of an overview
of the beginning of Apartheid.
Hill, Shannen. "Iconic Autopsy: Postmortem Portraits of Bantu Stephen Biko." African Arts 38.3
(2005): 14+. Biography in Context. Web. 27 Oct. 2016. The "Iconic autopsy: postmortem

portraits of Bantu Stephen Biko." is a journal article from after the death of Stephen Biko.
It described the effects Biko's death and his autopsy had on the rest of South Africa using
portraits and pictures of his autopsy.
Houser, George M. "Black Consciousness Movement." South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid.
N.p., 1994. Web. 19 Oct. 2016. This secondary source by the founder of the Congress of
Racial Equality includes many interviews from multiple South Africans from after the
end of apartheid in South Africa. Besides that, the source contains background
information that helped form the Thesis and many links to other helpful secondary and
primary sources.
Husbands, Ajani. "Steve Biko Biography." Global Perspectives on Human Language: The South
African Context. Stanford, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2016. This secondary source from a
professor at the school of law at NYU provided basic information on Steve Biko when
the initial research was being done on the topic. In addition, it gave perspective on other
things happening in South Africa at the same time and after the apartheid ended.
Juckes, Tim J. Opposition in South Africa: The Leadership of Z.K. Matthews, Nelson Mandela,
and Stephen Biko. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995. Print. This secondary source was used
for background information on Biko, and the government's interactions with Biko. In
addition, it provided information on Biko's beginnings as a leader, and the goals of the
Black Consciousness Movement.
Mangcu, Xolela. Biko: A Life. London: I.B.Tauris, 2014. Print. This biography, written by
analyst and commentator Mangcu, who is based at the University of Cape Town, gave
information about the origins and tensions faced by Biko as he started the BCM.
McCann, John. Steve Biko. Digital image. Strong, United Opposition Is Good for ANC. Mail &
Guardian, 21 Feb. 2014. Web. 8 Jan. 2017. This illustration of Biko in front of a bridge
was used on the website as the banner of the title page. It shows Biko proud and looking
upward, towards heaven and the future.
Root, Christine. "Media for This Essay." South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid. Michigan State
University, 2008. Web. 08 Jan. 2017. This source was used to find general information
about Biko, particularly his death, which was utilized in the timeline on the website. This
website was written by Root and her colleagues in the African Studies Program at
Michigan State University
Saunders, Christopher. "South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission." History Behind
the Headlines: The Origins of Conflicts Worldwide. Ed. Sonia G. Benson, Nancy
Matuszak, and Meghan Appel O'Meara. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Biography in
Context. Web. 21 Oct. 2016. This secondary source about the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission also provided context into the beginnings and escalation of the blacks vs.
whites conflict during apartheid.

Somerville, Keith. "Row Clouds Biko Anniversary." BBC News. BBC, 12 Sept. 2002. Web. 08
Jan. 2017. This article, written by BBC journalist Keith Somerville, discusses the history
of Biko after the 25th anniversary of his death. It was mainly used for its quote from
Nelson Mandela, which is present on the Legacy page, and for general information about
Biko's life.
"Steve Biko". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 17 Oct. 2016 This secondary source encyclopedia article
served as a springboard for research, as it touches upon the various aspects of Bikos life.
It also provided necessary details into aspects of Bikos life that were not covered in
depth in other sources, mainly the Zimele Trust Fund and the Black Peoples Convention.
Steve Biko Foundation. "Steve Biko Timeline." Steve Biko Foundation. Steve Biko Foundation,
2017. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. This timeline was used as inspiration for the one we created, as
we cross-referenced all the events included on this timeline, to make sure that ours was
thorough.
SOUTH AFRICA: TRUTH AND RECONCILIATION COMMISSION BIKO CASE UPDATE.
Associated Press. Youtube, 21 July 2015. Web. This video of which an excerpt is visible
on the website is used in order to both show the processes and key moments in the trial of
Biko's guards, who were previously free before the government was reorganized, and the
enthusiasm and the passion that people, especially the black community, feel for Biko.
"South African Student Organisation (SASO)." South African History Online. South African
History Online, 30 Mar. 2011. Web. 08 Jan. 2017. This source was used to explore
information written about the founding of the organization SASO. South African History
Online is an online encyclopedia specializing in South African History.
Tessendorf, K. C. Along the Road to Soweto: A Racial History of South Africa. New York:
Atheneum, 1989. Print. This source was used to summarize the Black Consciousness
Movement, specifically the reasoning behind the radical expansion of the movement.
This source is a brief African History, specifically of the Soweto. The author, Tessendorf,
is a celebrated writer and researcher.
The, Learning Network. "Sept. 12, 1977 | Anti-Apartheid Leader Steve Biko Dies in Police
Custody." The New York Times. The New York Times, 12 Sept. 2011. Web. 22 Nov.
2016. This educational resource found online was used to provide a more in-depth
analysis of the ideological differences of Biko and Mandela, which were used to form
ideas in the conclusion, which is found on the Legacy page.
Verwey, E. J., and Nelly E. Sonderling. New Dictionary of South African Biography. Pretoria:
HSRC, 1995. Print. This collection of South African leaders' biographies served as a
summary of many of the aspects of Biko's life, primarily his personal life and education.

Wilson, Lindy. Steve Biko. Athens, OH: Ohio UP, 2012. Google Scholar. Google. Web. 22 Nov.
2016. This secondary source was used to clarify information about Bikos early years,
specifically his birth. The biography also reinforced ideas about Black Consciousness
stated better in other sources.