Histology- microscopic study of

normal tissue
Biopsy- removal of tissues for
diagnostic purposes

- acting as barrier (skin)

- permitting
A. Covering Epithelia

Autopsy- examination of organ of a

dead body
to determine cause
of death

- Blood vessel are absent

Embryonic tissue- a fertilized egg

divides and form smaller cells

- some epithelia are specialized for the

reception of stimuli

after morphogenetic
movements, these cells
becomes arranged in 3 germ
layers:
1. ECTODERM- inner layer
- forms linings of digestive tract
and derivatives
2. ENDODERM- middle layer
- Forms tissues such as muscle,
bone, blood vessel
3. MESODERM- outer
- Forms skin and neuro ectoderm
Tissues- group of cell of common
origin and common function
4 Categories of tissues:
1. Epithelial tissue- derived from
all 3 germ layer
2. Connective- mesoderm
3. Muscle- mesoderm
4. Nervous- ectoderm
Pathology- study of abnormal tissue
Epithelial Tissue
a. Covering epithelia
b. Glandular
General Functions
- protecting underlying structures
(epithelium lining the mouth)

- exposed to physical injury and

infections

CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Accordingly to cellular
arrangement
a. Simple- one-cell thick
b. Pseudostratified- appear
to be more than one-cell
thick but actually cells rest
on common basement
membrane.
c. Stratified- many layers of
cells
II- CELL SHAPE
A. Squamous- flattened cells
(naving stones)
B. Cuboidal- cube like
(isodiametric)
C. Columnar-cells that are taller
than they are wide
D. Transitional- cells that change
their shape when the epithelium
is stretched (ex. Gall bladder)
Simple
1.
2.
-

Squamous
Bowmans capsule
Endothelium of blood vessels
Loop of henle
Alveoli of lungs
Cuboidal
Walls of thyroid follicles
A duct of glands

3. Columnar
- Gall bladder (non-ciliated)
- Uterine tube (ciliated)
(propulsion of mucus/ egg cells)
Stratified
1. Squamous
- ( Keratinized ) ex. Epidermis of
the skin
- ( Non- Keratinized ) ex. Vagina,
Esophagus, Cervix
2. Cuboidal
- Ex. Sweat gland duct
3. Columnar
- Ex. Male urethra
4. Transitional
- Ex. Urinary tract
Pseudostratified
1. Columnar
- ( Non- Ciliated ) ex. female
reproductive tract
- ( Ciliated ) ex. Trachea
Glandular
1. Exocrine- glands with ducts
a. Tubular- stomach, uterus
b. Acinar/Alveolar- pancreas,
salivary gland
c. Tubule-acinar- prostrate
2. Endocrine
- Ductless
- Excrete hormones (blood)
- Highly vascular and discharge
their secretion into blood vessel
Method of Secretion
1. Merocrine
- No loss of cytoplasm
- Secretion accumulate below the
free surface of the cell through
which it is released
- Ex. Goblet cells, sweat glands
2. Apocrine

With cytoplasmic loss

Secretion accumulate below the
free surface but can only
released by breaking away of
the distal port of the epithelium
- Ex. Mammary glands in milk
secretion
3. Holocrine
- Complete breakdown of
secretory cells
- Ex. Sebaceous glands
Connective tissue
-

Cells that are usually widely

separated by a large amount of
intercellular substances
Blood, blood forming tissues,
bone and cartilage are member
of the group

Characteristics
-

mesenchyme as their common

tissue of origin ( mesenchyme
derived from mesoderm)
- varying degrees of vascularity
- non-living extracellular matrix,
consisting of ground substance
and fibers
- cells are not as abundant nor as
tighly packed together as in
epithelium
I.
General CT
- Loose
- Dense
II.
Special CT
- Cartilage- hematopoietic
Hyaline- coastal cartilage,
trachea
Fibrous- interverlebral discs
Elastic- external ear
- Bone
- Blood
- Lymph node
III.

Loose CT
Common examples include:

Mucoid tissue
Dermis
Capsules of organ
Tendons
Stroma of cornea

Increased tendency for bone

break
Rate of blood cells synthesis
declines in the elderly
Injuries dont heal as rapidly

Bone

Cancellous/ Spongy
Epiphysis or end of long bone
Compact
Diaphysis or shaft is chiefly
compact bone

Hematopoietic
Myeloid- BM
Lymphoid- Spleen
Muscle tissues
1. Smooth (involuntary)
- Found in intestinal tract and
blood vessels
2. Striated (voluntary)
- Found in skeletal muscles
3. Cardiac ( striated but
involuntary)
- Heart <3
Tissues and Aging
Cells divided more slowly
Collagen fiber become irregular
in structure, through they may
increase in number ( tendons
and ligaments become more
flexible and more fragile)
Elastic fiber fragments, bind to
calcium ions and become less
elastic
- Arterial walls and elastic
ligaments becomes less elastic
Changes in collagen in elastin
result in:
- Artheroscierosis and reduced
blood supply to tissue
- Wrinkling of the skin

Inflammation
From the latin word
inflammore (to set a fire)
Protective response of the
tissue of the body to irritation or
injury

 It is composed of a serious of
physiologic and morphologic
changes in blood vessels, blood
components and surrounding CT
for the purposes of protecting
the body against injury

5 cardinal signs of
Inflammation

1. Rubor
- Redness
- Due to arteriolar and capillary
dilation with increase rate of
blood flow towards the site of
injury
2. Tumor
- Swelling
- Due to increased capillary
permeability
- Causing extravasation of blood
fluid
3. Calor
- Heat
- Due to transfer of internal heat
to the surface or site of injury,
brought about by increased
blood content
4. Dolor
- Pain
- Due to pressure upon the
sensory nerve by the exudate /
tumor
- Depends on the pain threshold
5. Function laesa
- Loss of function
- Diminished function
- Destruction of functioning units
of the tissue

Classification

1. According to duration (TIME)

Acute inflammation
- Usually but not necessary of
sudden on set
- Vascular and exudative
- Predominantly PMNS

2.

When the fails to subside within

several weeks
= chronic inflammation
Subchronic
Weeks
Represents an intergrade
between acute and chronic
Chronic
Persistence of the injury agent
for weeks/ years
Vascular and fibroblastic
Predominantly, mononuclears
(macrophases, lynphocytes,
plasma cells) but PMNs may be
also present
According to character of
exudates
Serous Inflammation
Extensive outpouring of a
watery low-protein fluid
Derived from serum or
secretions from the serosal
mesothelial cells (pentoneal,
pleural or pericardinal cavities)
Characteristics of certain forms
of pulmonary tuberculosis
Fibrinous
Exudation of large amounts of
fibrinogen and precipitation of
masses of fibrins
Found in diphtheria, rheumatic
pericarditis and in early stages
of pneumonia
Catarrhal
Affects mucous surfaces
With hyper secretion of the
mucosa
Degenerative changes in the
epithelium
Hemmorhagic
Admixture of blood and other
elements of the exudates
Maybe found in bacterial
infections and other injury
Suppurative/ Purulent
Production of large amount of
pus or purulent exudates

Pus- thick, creamy fluid

composed of large number of
living and necrotic PMNs and
necrotic tissue Deloris

CHANGES IN CELLULAR
GROWTH PATTERN
ADAPTATION, INJURY, DEATH OF
CELLS
Pathology
The study of disease
Etiology/ Cause
Infection, genetic, etc. And
often multifactoral
Panthogenesis
- Progression of the disease
(molecular and morphologic
changes)
Clinical manifestation
- Signs and symptoms

CELLULAR ADAPTATION
Hypertrophy
- No new cells; just bigger
- Increase in cells size with
subsequent increase in organ
size
Causes
1. Increased functional
demand
2. Hormonal stimulation
(growth hormone)
(Can be physiologic or
pathologic)
Hyperplasia
- Increased number of cells in an
organ which may then increase
organ size
- Physiologic or pathologic
Physiologic
Hyperplasia
1. Hormonal
hyperplasia

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Female breast at puberty and in

pregnancy
2. Compensatory
Liver regeneration after portial
resection
Pathologic Hyperplasia
1. Excess hormone
Endometrial hyperplasia due to
estrogens
Hyperplasia is NOT a neoplastic
process, but it may be fertile
soil for malignancy.
Atypical hyperplasia
In the endometrium carries an
increased risk for development
of endometrial adenocarcinoma.
Atrophy
Decrease in the size of a cell or
organ by loss of cell substance
(both size and number)
Physiologic
Normal development
Notocord
Thyroglossal duct
Uterus following childbirth
Causes of Pathologic
Decrease workload
Loss of inhervaton
Decreased blood supply
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Pressure

ANTROPHY results from both:

-

Decreased protein synthesis

Increased protein degradation

Protein degradation is irregular and

atrophy
a. Lysosomes with hydrolytic
enzymes
b. Ubiquitiri- proteasome pathway
HYPOPLASIA incomplete
development of an organ so that it
fails to reach adult size

 Metaplasia
- Reversible change in which 1
adult cell type is replaced by
another adult cell type
- Caused by:
- Chronic irritation (cigarette
smoke; calculi in ducts)
- Vitamin A deficiency
Cervix
- Squamous epithelium of the
endocervix replaces columnar
( dysplasia and squamous CA
may develop)
Barret esophagus
(lumps)
- Gastric reflux results in
columnar epithelium replacing
squamous epithelium in the
esophagus (dysplasia and
adenocarcinoma may occur)
Hyperplasia and Metaplasia are not
pre malignant changes, nowever they
are fertile fields for dysplasia
Dysplasia- atypical proliferative
changes due to chronic irritation of
inflammation.
-

STAGES OF THE ALLULAR

RESPONCE TO STRESS AND
INJURIES STIMULI
HOMEOSTAS

ADAPTATIO
N

CELLULAR CHANGES
SECONDARY TO INJURY

REVERSIBLE
Cellular swelling
Detached ribosomes
Chromatyri clumping
IRREVERSIBLE
Lysosomes rupture
Dense bodies in motochordna
Cell membrane rupture
Karyolysis, karyorohexis,
pyknosis
Permanent- not capable of
regeneration

Pre-malignant change

STRES

1. The cellular response to

injurious stimuli depends on
the type of injury, its
duration and its seventy.
2. The consequences of cell
injury depend on the type,
state and adaptability of
injured cell.
3. Cell injury results from
different biochemical
mechanisms action on
several essential cellular
components.

REVERSIBLE INJURY (MILD,

TRANSIENT)

INJURIES
STIMULUS

CELL INJURY

SEVER
E

IRREVERSIB
LE

INABILITY TO
NECROSI
S

CELL INJURY PRINCIPLES

CELL
DEATH

APOPTOS
IS

MYOCARDINAL INFARCTION
MARKERS
Cardiac specific enzymes and
proteins appear in serum within
2 hours post
Infarction- morphologic (light
microscopic) change in 4-12 hours

..
.-..
--....

the consequences of cell injury

depend on the

-.--

CELL PROLIFERATION VANES

---

Labile cells
- Continuously dividing
(epithelium, bone marrow)
Stable cells
- Quiescent (in 60 stages;
hepatocytes, smooth muscles,
lymphocytes)
Permanent cells
- Non dividing (neurons, skeletal
and cardiac muscles)

..-...
--.