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The Role of Spirituality and Faith in Determining the Academic Performance

and Achievement of Grades 7-10 Male and Female Students of Future
Generation Philippine International

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in Research Methodology

Axalan, Louise Ysabelle L.

Grade 9 - Curie

Ma'am Jemaima Hangalay

II.

Review of Related Literature

2. 1. Review of Related Literature

Gender, age, faculty, schooling, father or guardian, social economic status, and
residential area of students are just some of the various factors that can influence a students
academic performance and achievement. Studies concerning students achievements that have
been conducted determine and evaluate the factors influencing a students academic
performance at scholarly execution. The findings of their studies include student's effort and
previous schooling as well as family income and self- motivation of others that have effects
on scholarly achievements. It is generally assumed that the students who showed better or
higher performance in the starting classes of their studies also perform better in the future
academic years at degree level.
Although religious benefits are often optically discerned in the context of afterlife,
individuals can still be affected and influenced by religious beliefs and religious communities
in this present life. Indeed, researchers demonstrate a strong positive correlation between
religion and academic achievement (Glaeser and Sacerdote, 2001; Glaser, Laibson, and
Sacerdote, 2002; Brown and Gary, 1991; Channer, 1995; Jeynes, 2003). Even when
controlling for socioeconomic status, race and gender, religiously committed children
perform better on most academic measures than their less religious counterparts. (Jeynes,
2003)
Similarly, Regnerus (2000) asserts that participation in church activities heightened
educational expectations and achievements. He found that more intensely religious students
scored higher in standardized tests in mathematics and reading. Findings from Roysters
(1991) study emphasized the importance of students religious convictions in their
educational success.
2.1.1 The Challenge of Religiosity Instruments

Stott (1983) stated, The problems in measuring religiosity are numerous and resist
easy solution and even defining religiosity is a formidable task. There has been undeniable
dissonance between social scientists on defining religiosity (Knowles, 2001). Johnstone
(1997) opted to define religiosity as the intensity and consistency with which we practice our
religion. Cornwall and Cunningham (1989) purported at least three components to religious
behavior: knowing (cognition), feeling (affect), and doing (behavior). As for McGuire (1992),
the intensity of commitment to an institutionally identifiable belief system, expressed by
attitudes and behaviors is delineated as religiosity.
The fact that religious terminology can vary significantly has caused uniform
assessment across religious groups to pose a problem with religious studies (Simel, 1996).
The limitation of measures of religiosity looked at observable behaviors has also become a
problem. Using only observable behavior to determine religiosity makes it difficult for some
people to fit into researchers set categories.
For example, a person can accept the truthfulness of the Bible, but never attend a
church or even read the Bible very often. On the contrary, one can also attend a church but
would not hold any particular belief dimension (Albrecht, 1989). Observing behavior as a
measure of religiosity would be seriously compromised for these individuals because their
behaviors may not fit into the typical, often cubicle definition of religious behavior. Not all
people are religious in the same way (Johnstone, 1997).

Common dimensions used in most typologies developed by foundational researchers

of religiosity include the following:

1. Private religious behavior: A self-report of a students covert religious behaviors done in

non-structured times and places.
2. Public religious behavior: A self-report measurement of a students overt religious
behaviors which are institutional and/or outward.
3. Religious beliefs: Points of religious doctrine taught by their associated church in which
individuals believe or in which they place their faith.
4. Spiritual experiences: The feeling component of religion.
It is evident from these common measures that there are many ways of looking at an
individual's type and level of religiosity along a wide range of clusters and variables. For the
purpose of this study, religiosity will be used as a term that embodies ones spiritual ardor,
beliefs, experiences, motivation, commitment, and behavior.
2.1.2 Religiosity and Faith
Religion plays a prominent role in the social fabric of nations and cultures around the
world (Bahr & Forste, 1998). Some of the early founders of the study of religion include
Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx. A substantial record of research has come forth
dealing with subjects such as the nature of religious belief systems, the process of religious
conversion, and dimensions of religiosity (Thomas & Henry, 1988). These developments
have ushered in what Demereth and Roof (1976) called the most exciting decades since at
least the early 1900s in terms of the quantity and quality of research and theory on the social
science of religion.
Studies of religiosity have uncovered correlations between religiosity and other
variables. Religious adolescents are more likely to avoid risky behaviors (Lippman,
Michelsen, & Roehlekepartain, 2004) and to engage in positive activities (Bridges & Moore,

2002). Smith and Faris (2002) indicate that adolescents who see themselves as religious are
less likely to take risks or enjoy danger, engage in violent behaviors, or get in trouble with the
police. These adolescents are also less likely to skip school and to be suspended, expelled, or
sent to detention.
Regnerus, Smith, and Fritsch (2003) found that religious youth are more likely than
their nonreligious peers to engage in healthy behaviors such as exercising regularly and
wearing a seatbelt, and they have better eating and sleeping habits. Religious teens also have
lower rates of drug and alcohol abuse (McIntosh, Fitch, Wilson, & Nyburg, 1981; McIntosh
& Spilka, 1990; National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University,
2001). Udry (1988) found that religious youth had decreased levels of sexual activity.
In regards to the effect of religiosity on the family, positive correlations have been
made with family stability (Pearce & Axinn, 1998), lower divorce levels (Booth, Branaman,
& Sica, 1995), greater parental involvement in family life (Wilcox, 2002), and 15 decreased
domestic violence (Ellison, Bartkowski, & Anderson, 1997). Other positive correlations with
religiosity include avoidance of suicide (Donahue & Benson, 1995), the development of
social competence (Thomas & Carver, 1990), longer life expectancy (Hummer, Rogers, Nam,
& Ellison, 1999), a greater ability to handle stress and traumatic loss (Balk, 1983; Palmer &
Nobel, 1986; Seligman, 1991), and higher levels of self-esteem and more optimistic attitudes
about life (Smith, 2001). Conversely, studies have also shown negative correlations
associated with religiosity.
Shermer (2003) found that religiosity is negatively correlated with educational
attainment, parental conflict, interest in science, political liberalism, openness to experience,
and openness to change. The purpose of this section of the literature review was to establish

religiosity as a practical variable for research. Religiosity has a number of positive and
negative correlations with many other variables.
2.1.3 Religiosity and Education
Encouraging studies have been and are being conducted that have tried to see if there
is a link between religion and education. Studies that have focused on nonspecific
denominational samples have shown generally positive correlations between those two
categories. According to an analysis of data covering 1976-2005, the Child Trends Data Bank
(2006) reported that students who plan to complete four years of college are more likely than
students who do not plan to attend or finish college to report that religion plays a very
important role in their lives. Dai (1996) looked at data accumulated in 1989 from the
Monitoring the Future Study of 13,500 high school seniors. He used analysis of variance to
compare students who self-reported different levels of attendance at religious services. He
found that religious involvement was related to strong aspirations for higher education.
Using a one-dimensional measurement for measuring religiosity (church attendance)
emphasizes only the behavioral aspect of religious commitment, rather than a true holistic
view of a persons religious makeup. Trusty and Watts (1999) studied a national sample of
13,000 U.S. high school seniors who were surveyed in 1988 and then again four years later in
1992. Seniors who reported that religion was important were compared to those who felt it
was not. Those seniors who reported that religion was important had a better attitude towards
school, fewer problems with attendance, spent more time on homework, and did better
academically.
Using this same study, Muller and Ellison (2001) found that personal religious
involvement remained modestly associated with desired behaviors in school. Jeynes (1999)
analyzed data from the same large sample. After controlling for social class, gender, and type

of school, he found that religious work ethic fostered higher academic achievement and that
religious youth were employed in significantly less risky behavior that jeopardizes academic
performance.
Using a national sample of 13,500 high school students, Regnerus and Elder (2003)
also found that youth who are actively involved in a church keep from engaging in risky
behavior that negatively affects schooling. Astin and Astin (2004) reported that students who
read sacred texts and other 20 religious materials, attend church, and who engage in religious
singing have higher-than expected grades. They also found that students with high religiosity
had more satisfaction with their college experience, stronger self-esteem, lower psychological
distress, and higher self-rated physical health.
Loury (2004) found a relationship between church activity as a teenager and
educational attainment in later life. Longitudinal data collected from a sample of youth in
1979 and then 14 years later found that respondents who were active in their church as
teenagers had obtained more education than had those who were not. Loury concluded that
both family and religious influences contribute to performance in school.
Poulson (1998) has indicated that individuals who have a high level of faith are less
likely to engage in risky behavior than individuals who have a low level of faith. Students
who engage in risky behavior often do not have the same level of academic achievement as
students who don't engage in risky behavior. Darran Sherkat also argued that most studies of
the effects of religion on college success focus on personal religiosity or on religious
participation, and these indicators are likely to produce positive effects.
Not all studies have shown positive correlations between religion and education.
According to Albrecht (1989), The data are overwhelming in their consistency in pointing to
a negative effect of education on religiosity (p. 100). Hadaway and Roof (1988) purported

that religious beliefs cannot stand in the face of challenges produced by higher education. In
their view, the higher the level of education, the greater plausibility of the person abandoning
religious beliefs and practices.
Johnson (1997) examined data from the General Social Survey (1988-1993) and
found each year of schooling after graduating from high school decreased belief in God
among young people in the study. Astin and Astin (2002-2005) conducted a national study of
college students over a 3-year period and noted that the percentage of freshmen who attended
religious services before entering college (52%) dropped to 29% by their junior year.
In two separate studies, the Princeton Religious Research Center (1982, 1989)
confirmed these findings by showing a significant negative relationship between religiosity
and educational level. The higher the level of education attained, the lower the religious zeal.
The purpose of this section of the literature review was to illustrate how religious beliefs and
practices impact educational pursuit and perception.
When nonspecific denominational samples were used, there were typically positive
correlations found between religion and education. However, when various denominations
were compared to each other, a number of negative correlations were found among
conservative and fundamental religions. A major critique of doing comparison studies among
various religious denominations is in using a comprehensive measurement of religiosity
(Cardwell, 1980). All denominations do not view and define religious terms, doctrines, and
behaviors the same way. The best way to measure a groups religiosity is by using the
meanings of that group being studied.
2.1.4 Religion and Academic Performance and Achievement

Several studies have shown that religious students do better on critical indicators of
academic success (Mooney 2005). Typically, studies finding a positive impact of religious
factors on school success measure religiosity with an indicator of religious participation.
Religious participation cuts across denominational lines. Religious participation and personal
religiosity can help lower rates of substance abuse, and limit activities that undermine college
careers (Regnerus 2000).
Students who participate in religious groups have made a choice about social
commitments. Being active in religion precludes other types of social ties, ones which might
cut against the prescriptions and proscriptions of religious traditions and negative behaviors.
and connections to positive social groups promote conformity.
In the academic setting, conformity means going to class and completing assignments.
Alcohol and substance abuse are among the most important factors predicting negative
educational outcomes. Most religious groups oppose alcohol use, or at least militate against
drunkenness. Hence, students who choose to join religious groups are going to be less likely
to abuse alcohol and other drugs which will produce a high benefit on their academic
performance and achievement. (Regnerus 2000).
Depression, loneliness, and anxiety are strongly associated with poor academic
performance. Depressed students skip classes, return home, or begin abusing alcohol or
drugs. Religious activities provide basis for social support outside of the home, thus
combating the loneliness and isolation which can lead to mental health problems (Ellison
1999).

2.1.5 Effect of Religiosity on Academic Performance and Achievement

A.) Values and Norms

Internalized values and norms have a significant impact on math and reading scores,
both directly and indirectly, through the effect that values have on other school-related
activities such as homework, watching television, and reading. Just as secular personal
morality has a positive impact on school attendance, so do religious values, which are
among the variables that influence behaviors outside of school (such as watching television
less, doing homework more, reading, and working for pay). All of these, in turn, affect highschool students achievement.
B.) Locus of Control
Values also help form an internal locus of control. Locus of control is the presence
of established habits of discipline and balance in matters of work and initiative. Sandra
Hanson, Professor of Sociology at Catholic University of America, and Alan Ginsburg,
Director of the Policy and Program Studies Service within the U.S. Department of Education,
explain that [a] high internal locus of control refers to the belief that ones action and efforts,
rather than fate or luck shape the result of ones efforts. This belief, in turn, is linked to the
effort that students put forth and the importance they assign to working hard.30 Religious
practice increases adolescents sense of an internal locus of control.
In a panel study of Iowa families, Glen Elder, Professor of Sociology and Psychology
at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Rand Conger, Professor of
Psychology, Human Growth, and Family Studies at the University of California Davis,
conclude that [r]egular participation in church services and programs strengthened selfconcepts of academic achievement, work habits, and discipline.

Mark Regnerus also found that, in addition to fostering stronger social bonds with
family and community, a higher level of involvement in church activities is associated with
a level of social control and motivation toward education that leads to better math and
reading skills. Another study concludes that adolescents religious involvement is positively
associated with a sense of control over their lives.
C.) Expectations
Teens who are devoutly religious have higher educational expectations for
themselves. Among Vietnamese immigrants, frequent religious attendance correlates to
adolescents placing a greater importance on attending college, earning good grades, and
avoiding substance abuse. The presence of those with religious beliefs has similar effects.
Youth in schools where the majority are Jewish are 14 percent more likely to plan to attend
college than counterparts in schools where Jewish students are a minority. This influence
toward education is not diminished and indeed is even slightly increased when the normal
controls for intelligence, mothers aspiration, occupation, and income are taken into account.
A study on Catholic identity showed outcomes similar to the result of the Jewish study, with
regard to expectations for increased educational achievement.
D.) Skills and Habits
Certain habits correlate with good school performance, such as attending school
regularly and spending more time on homework. Religious practice helps form these habits,
as an analysis of inner-city children who escape poverty illustrates: Church-going invariably
raises the amount of time a youth spends on productive activity [working, searching for work,
traveling to work, school-going, housework, and reading]. Another study showed that
regular participation in church services and programs strengthens work habits and selfdiscipline.

Religious attendance also appears to boost social skills: Elder and Conger report from
the Iowa longitudinal study that religiously-involved eighth grade students have greater social
skills in the twelfth grade. These studies all agree that religious practice (and all that comes
with it) delivers highly valued habits and skills that enhance social life, study, and earnings.
E.) Behavior
Religious attendance has a profound effect on children with behavioral risks. One
study analyzed the characteristics of those who escape poverty and found that church
attendance powerfully reduces socially deviant activity. Another showed that while religious
practice has a positive protective influence across all income levels, it proves particularly
effective in engendering educational resilience among at-risk youths. Even among low-risk,
middle-class adolescents, religious attendance has a significant effect on minimizing
behavioral risks. One study found that adolescents who attended
2.2 Review of Related Studies
Several studies have shown that religiously involved students spend more time on
their homework, work harder in school, and achieve more as a result. Religious attendance, a
key indicator of the role of religion in a persons life, is strongly associated with academic
performance. Analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health found that
increased religious attendance correlates with higher grades. In one study, students who
attended religious activities weekly or more frequently were found to have a GPA 14.4
percent higher than students who never attended.
According to this study, frequent religious attendance also correlates with lower
dropout rates and greater school attachment. Looking specifically at math and reading scores,
students who frequently attend religious services scored 2.32 points higher on tests in these

subjects than their less religiously-involved peers. The authors dissertation found a very
strong correlation as illustrated in the chart below (see Figure 1 below).
Another study of undergraduates at a small secular liberal arts college found a similar
association between an increase in religious practice and an increase in academic standing
among college-age students. More than 75 percent of students who become more religious
during

their

college

years achieve above-average

college performance.

Frequent
religious

attendance

also

tends to increase students

total years of schooling. Students who attend church weekly while growing up have
significantly more years of total schooling by their early thirties than peers who do not attend
church at all.
The benefits that students receive from weekly religious attendance are equivalent to
the benefits that come from a mother that has three years of extra education and a father that
has four years of extra education.
Parents religious attendance is also a significant indicator: one study found that
Dutch students who held a strong Christian worldview and whose families attended

religious services scored higher academically than those who did not report religious
involvement. Social life that includes or is built around church functions (religious
socialization) and childrens involvement in church activities are strong predictors of
academic achievement as well.
Children in Pentecostal families who have greater religious socialization also have
increased levels of educational attainment, despite being at a lower socioeconomic level than
peers in other denominations and having a generally lower educational attainment compared
to the rest of the population. Furthermore, those who become more religiously involved
during their high school years increase their academic ranking. A study of Iowa families
discovers that youth who in eighth grade are religiously involved will have higher academic
competence in the twelfth grade.