Things to note

Two degrees of freedom implies two natural

frequencies
Each mass oscillates at with these two
frequencies present in the response and
beats could result

215323: Aircraft Vibration

Lecture for Week12-13

Frequencies are not those of two component

systems
k1
k2
1 =

m1

= 1.63 , 2 = 2

m2

= 1.732

The above is not the most efficient way to

calculate frequencies as the following
describes
1

Some matrix and vector

reminders

Eigenvalues and Natural

Frequencies

a b
1 d b
1

=
A=
A

ad cb c a
c d
xT x = x12 + x22

Can connect the vibration problem with the

algebraic eigenvalue problem developed
in math
This will give us some powerful
computational skills
And some powerful theory
All the codes have eigen-solvers so these
painful calculations can be automated

0
m
M = 1
xT Mx = m1 x12 + m2 x22

0 m2
M > 0 xT Mx > 0 for every value of x except 0

Then M is said to be positive definite

3

Some matrix results to help us use

available computational tools:
A matrix M is defined to be symmetric if

If the matrix L is diagonal, it

defines the matrix square root
The matrix square root is the matrix M 1/2 such that

M = MT

M 1/2 M 1/2 = M
If M is diagonal, then the matrix square root is just the root
of the diagonal elements:

A symmetric matrix M is positive definite if

xT Mx > 0 for all nonzero vectors x

m1
L = M 1/2 =
0

A symmetric positive definite matrix M can

be factored
M = LLT

m2

(4.35)

Here L is upper triangular, called a Cholesky matrix

5

A change of coordinates is introduced

to capitalize on existing mathematics
For a symmetric, positive definite matrix M:

m
M = 1
0

1 m1
0
12
=
,
M
0

1
m2

0
1m
, M 1 = 1

m2
0
1

Let x(t ) = M 2 q(t ) and multiply by M

12

12

12

12

or

~
&&(t ) + Kq(t ) = 0
q

How the vibration problem relates to

the real symmetric eigenvalue problem
~
&&(t ) + Kq(t ) = 0
Assume Let q(t ) = ve jt in q
~
2 ve jt + Kve jt = 0, v 0 or
~
~
2
K
=

K
=4
3v
v
v
v2
v0
1424
3
1
4

1
m2

12

&&(t ) + M
M
MM
KM
142
43 q
1
42
43 q(t ) = 0
~
I identity

K normalized

~
1
1
where K = M 2 KM 2

vibration problem

k
~
K is called the mass normalized stiffness and its similar to the scalar
m
used extensively in single degree of freedom analysis. The key here is that
~
K is a SYMMETRIC matrix allowing the use of many properties and

real symmetric
eigenvalue problem

~
Note that the matrix K contains the same type of information
as does n2 in the single degree of freedom case.

computational tools.
7

Important Properties of the n x n

Real Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem

Square Matrix Review

There are n eigenvalues and they are all

real valued
There are n eigenvectors and they are all
real valued
The set of eigenvectors are orthogonal
The set of eigenvectors are linearly
independent
The matrix is similar to a diagonal matrix

Let aik be the ikth element of A then A is

symmetric if aik = aki denoted AT=A
A is positive definite if xTAx > 0 for all
nonzero x (also implies each i > 0)
The stiffness matrix is usually symmetric and
positive semi definite (could have a zero
eigenvalue)
The mass matrix is positive definite and
symmetric (and so far, its diagonal)

10

Normalizing any vector can be

done by dividing it by its norm:

Normal and orthogonal

vectors
x1
y1
n

M
T

,
y
=
,
inner
product
is
x
y
=
x=M
xi yi


i =1
xn
yn
x orthogonal to y if xT y = 0

x is normal if xT x = 1

if a the set of vectores is is both orthogonal and normal it

is called an orthonormal set

has norm of 1

x x

To see this compute

x
xT x

xT

xT x

xT x

xT x
=1
xT x

The norm of x is x = xT x
11

12

~
( K I ) v1 = 0

Example:

3 1 v11 0
1 3 v = 0

12

1 3 0 27 3 1 3 0
~
12
12
K = M KM =

0 1 3 3 0 1
~ 3 1
so K =
which is symmetric.

1
3

1
v11 v12 = 0 v1 =
1

3 1
~
= 2 6 + 8 = 0
det( K I ) = det

1 3
which has roots : 1 = 2 = 12 and 2 = 4 = 22

v1 = 2 (1 + 1) = 1 =
v1 =

1
2

1
1

1
2

The first normalized eigenvector

13

Likewise the second normalized eigenvector is

computed and shown to be orthogonal to the
first, so that the set is orthonormal

1 1
1
T
v2 =
v
=
(1 1) = 0
,
v
1 2

2
2 1
1
v1T v1 = (1 + 1) = 1
2
1
v T2 v 2 = (1 + (1)(1)) = 1
2
v i are orthonormal

14

Modes u and Eigenvectors v

are different but related:
u1 v1 and u 2 v 2
x = M 1/2 q u = M 1/2 v
Note
3 0 1 3 1
M u1 =
= 1 = v1
0
1

1
1/2

15

16

This orthonormal set of vectors is

used to form an Orthogonal Matrix
P = [v1 v 2 ] called a matrix of eigenvectors (normalized)
v v1
PT P =
v v1

v v 2 1 0
=
=I
v v 2 0 1
P is called an orthogonal matrix
~
~
~
P T KP = P T Kv1 Kv 2 = P T [1 v1 2 v 2 ]
T
1
T
2

T
1
T
2

Example: compute P and show

that it is an orthogonal matrix
From the previous example:
P = [v1

v2 ] =

PT P =

1 1
2 2

1 1 + 1
2 1 1

1 v1T v1 2 v1T v 2 1 0
= T
= diag (12 , 22 ) =
=

T
1 v 2 v1 2 v 2 v 2 0 2
P is also called a modal matrix

1 1
1 1

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

1 1 1 2 0
=
=I
1 + 1 2 0 2
1
2

17

Example: Compute the square of the

frequencies by matrix manipulation

Example:

1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1
~
P T KP =

2 1 1 1 3 2 1 1
1 1 1 2 4
=
2 1 1 2 4

m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 4 kg, k1 = k3 = 10 N/m and k2 =2 N/m

The equations of motion:

m1 &x&1 (t ) + (k1 + k 2 ) x1 (t ) k 2 x2 (t ) = 0
m2 &x&2 (t ) + (k 2 + k3 ) x2 (t ) k 2 x1 (t ) = 0

12 0
1 4 0 2 0
==
=
=
2
2 0 8 0 4
0 2

In matrix form these become:

1 = 2 rad/s and 2 = 2 rad/s

m1
0

In general :
~
= P T KP = diag (i ) = diag (i2 )

18

19

0
k + k
&x&(t ) + 1 2

m2
k2

k2
x(t ) = 0
k 2 + k3
20

Next substitute numerical

values and compute P and

Next compute the eigenvectors

m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 4 kg, k1 = k3 = 10 N/m and k2 =2 N/m

1 0
12
M =
, K =

0 4
2
12
~
1
1
K = M 2 KM 2 =
1

2
12
1
3

For = 1 ,
1 v11
12 2.8902
~
=0
( K 1 I ) v1 =
1
3 2.8902 v12

9.1089v11 = v12
Normalizing v1 yields :
1 = v1 = v112 + v122 = v112 + (9.1089) 2 v112

12 1
~
det( K I ) = det
= 2 15 + 35 = 0

3
1

v11 = 0.1091 and v12 = 0.9940

0.9940
0.1091
v1 =
v
=
,
likewise
2
0.1091

0.9940

which has roots : 1 = 2.8902 = 12 and 2 = 12.1098 = 22

21

Next check the value of P to see

if it behaves as its suppose to:
P = [v1

22

A note on eigenvectors
In the previous section, we could have chosed v 2 to be
0.9940
-0.9940
v2 =
instead of v 2 =

0.1091
0.1091
because one can always multiple an eigenvector by a constant

0.1091 0.9940
v2 ] =

0.9940 0.1091

0
0.1091 0.9940 12 1 0.1091 0.9940 2.8402
~
P KP =
1 3 0.9940 0.1091 = 0
=
0
.
9940
0
.
1091

12
.
1098

and if the constant is -1 the result is still a normalized vector.

0.1091 0.9940 0.1091 0.9940 1 0

PT P =

=
=I
0.9940 0.1091 0.9940 0.1091 0 1

Does this make any difference?

No! Try it in the previous example

Yes!
23

24

All of the previous examples can and

should be solved by hand to learn the
methods
However, they can also be solved on
calculators with matrix functions and
with the codes listed in the last section
In fact, for more than two DOF one must
use a code to solve for the natural
frequencies and mode shapes.

There are 3 approaches to computing

mode shapes and frequencies
(i) 2 Mu = Ku (ii) 2 u = M 1 Ku

(iii) 2 v = M 2 KM 2 v

(i) Is the Generalized Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem

easy for hand computations, inefficient for computers
(ii) Is the Asymmetric Eigenvalue Problem
very expensive computationally
(iii) Is the Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem
the cheapest computationally

Next we examine 3 other formulations for

solving for modal data
25

Matlab commands

26

More commands
To compute the matrix square root use
sqrtm(A)
To compute the Cholesky factor: L= chol(M)
To compute the norm: norm(x)
To compute the determinant det(A)
To enter a matrix:
K=[27 -3;-3 3];M =[9 0;0 1];
To multiply: K*inv(chol(M))

To compute the inverse of the square

matrix A: inv(A) or use A\eye(n)where n
is the size of the matrix
[P,D]=eig(A) computes the eigenvalues
and normalized eigenvectors (watch the
order). Stores them in the eigenvector
matrix P and the diagonal matrix D
(D=)
27

28

An alternate approach to
normalizing mode shapes
From equation

(M

+ K u = 0,

Coordinate Coupling
u0

Now scale the mode shapes by computing such that

1
( i ui )T M ( i ui ) = 1 i = T
ui ui

From a matrix representation of MDOF EoM for a dynamic system:

M&x& + Cx& + Kx = f
e.g., a 2-DOF EoM:

m11
m
21

m12 &x&1 (t ) c11 c12 x&1 (t ) k11

+
+
m22 &x&2 (t ) c21 c22 x& 2 (t ) k 21

k12 x1 (t ) f1
=
k 22 x2 (t ) f 2

w i = i ui is called mass normalized and it satisfies:

Static coupling: there exists off-diagonal terms in the stiffness matrix

i2 Mw i + Kw i = 0 i2 = wTi Kw i , i = 1, 2

Dynamic coupling: there exists off-diagonal terms in the mass matrix

29

Example 5.3.1: 2DOF car model

30

Example 5.3.1
Case (b): Choose coordinate x at a point C (distance e from the cg)

m me &x&(t ) k1 + k 2
me J &&(t ) + 0
C

Case (a): Choose coordinate x at the center of mass

0
x(t ) 0
=
k1l32 + k 2l42 (t ) 0

Case (c): Choose coordinate x at end of the bar

m 0 &x&(t ) k1 + k 2
0 J && +
cg (t )
k 2l2 k1l1

k 2l2 k1l1 x(t ) 0

=
k1l12 + k 2l22 (t ) 0

m
ml
1
31

ml1 &x&(t ) k1 + k 2
+
J1 &&(t ) k 2l

k 2l x(t ) 0
=
k 2l 2 (t ) 0
32

Example 5.3.2: Determine the modes of a

Example 5.3.2:

2DOF car model in case (a) of Example 5.3.1

Given W=mg=3220 lb, l1=4.5 ft, l2=5.5 ft, l=10 ft, Jc=W(r^2)/g where r=4ft

m 0 &x&(t ) k1 + k 2
0 J &&(t ) + k l k l
c
2 2 11

M&x& + Kx = 0

Nodes: the (projected) point at which the system has zero displacement

k 2l2 k1l1 x(t ) 0

=
k1l12 + k 2l22 (t ) 0

1 = 6.90 rad/s

Recall : Generalized Eigenvalue Problem , 2 M + K u = 0

k1 + k 2 2 m
(k1l1 k 2l2 ) x 0
=

2
2
2
(k1l1 k 2l2 ) k1l1 + k 2l2 J c 0

14.6
x
1 = 6.90 rad/s , = 14.6ft/rad u1 =

= 9.06 rad/s , x = 1.09ft/rad u = 1.09

2
1
2

33

Physical coordinates are not always the easiest to work in

Eigenvectors provide a convenient transformation to modal
coordinates
Modal coordinates (a.k.a. principal coordinates or normal
coordinates) are linear combination of physical coordinates
For example, we have physical coordinates x and want to
transform to some other coordinates u

u1 = x1 + 3x 2
u2 = x1 3x 2

34

Decoupling Dynamic Equations

Modal Analysis

2 = 9.06 rad/s

From
M&x&(t ) + Kx(t ) = F (t )
Using a matrix of mode shapes P
for coordinate transformation x(t ) = P y (t )
EoM : P T MP &y&(t ) + P T KP y (t ) = P F (t )
will then be decouple according to orthogonality

u1 1 3 x1
=

u2 1 3 x2

properties of mode shapes

35

36

Example 6.8.1: a two-story building

Review of the Eigen Problem

EoM :
2 0 &x&1 (t ) 3 1 x1 (t ) 0
m
+ k
=

0 1 &x&2 (t ) 1 1 x2 (t ) F
0.5
1
0.5 1
u1 = , u 2 = P =
1
1
1
1
Decouple the equation though coordinate transformation: x(t ) = P y (t )

where x(t ) is a vector and M and K are matrices.

Using i.c.' s x(0) = x 0 and x& (0) = x& 0 , rewrite the

P T MP &y&(t ) + P T KP y (t ) = P F (t )

(coord. trans. #1)

37

Eigenproblem Review (cont.)

Premultiply the equation by M

12

or

38

Eigenvectors = Mode Shapes?

to get

2
2
&
&
M
M
q
(
t
)
+
M
KM
1
424
3
142
43 q(t ) = 0
~
1

M 2 x(t ) = q(t ) x(t ) = M 2 q(t )

The responses can the be found using SDOF methods and transform back
to the original coordinate, x(t).

1
2

EoM : M 2 M 2 &x&(t ) + Kx(t ) = 0 and let

y
EoM in new coodinate system y = 1 :
y2
1.5 0 &y&1 (t ) 0.75 0 y1 (t ) F
=
m
+ k

6 y2 (t ) F
0 3 &y&2 (t ) 0

12

Start with the EoM :

M&x&(t ) + Kx(t ) = 0

~
&&(t ) + Kq(t ) = 0
q

Now we have a symmetric, real matrix

Mode shapes are solutions to M 2 u = Ku

in physical coordinates. Eigenvetors are
characteristics of matrices. The two are
related by a simple transformation,
but they are not synonymous.

Guarantees real eigenvalues and distinct,

mutually orthogonal eigenvectors
39

40

Eigenvectors vs. Mode Shapes

The eigenvectors of the symmetric PD matrix K
are orthonormal, i.e., P T P = I. Are the mode shapes
1

orthonormal? Using the transformation x = M 2 q,

1

the modes shapes U = M 2 P P = M 2U. Now,

1
2

12

Now we have decoupled the EOM, i.e., we

have n independent 2nd-order systems in
modal coordinates r(t)

12

Similarly, U KU = P 1
M42
KM
4
3P =
K
T

If P orthonormal (unitary), P T P = I P T = P 1
~
Thus, P T KP = = diagonal matrices of eigenvalues.
~
&&(t ) + Kq(t ) = 0. Make the additional coordinate
Back to q
transformation q(t ) = Pr (t ) and premultiply by P T :
~
P T P&r&(t ) + P T KPr (t ) = I&r&(t ) + r (t ) = 0

1
2

P T P = U T M M U = U T MU = I. Thus, the mode

shapes are orthogonal only w.r.t. the mass matrix.
T

The Matrix of eigenvectors can be

used to decouple the equations of
motion

41

42

This transformation takes the problem from couple

equations in the physical coordinate system in to
decoupled equations in the modal coordinates

Writing out equation, yields

1 0 &r&1 (t ) 12 0 r1 (t ) 0
= 0
0 1 &r& (t ) +
2
r
t
(
)

2

2 2
2
&r& (t ) + 1 r1 (t ) = 0
1
&r&2 (t ) + 22 r2 (t ) = 0

x1
k1

(1)2

x2

k2

m1

m2
(2)2

We must also transform the initial conditions

1
r& (0) r&
r&0 = 1 = 10 = P T q& (0) = P T M 2 x& (0)
r&2 (0) r&20

1
2

x = M Pr
43

r2

Physical Coordinates.
Coupled equations

1
r ( 0) r
r0 = 1 = 10 = P T q(0) = P T M 2 x(0)
r2 (0) r20

r1

Modal Coordinates.
Uncoupled equations
44

Modal Transforms to SDOF

1

T
The modal transformation P M 2
transforms our 2 DOF into 2 SDOF
systems
This allows us to solve the two decoupled
SDOF systems independently using the
methods of chapter 2
Then we can recombine using the inverse
transformation to obtain the solution in
terms of the physical coordinates.

The free response is calculated for

each mode independently using the
formulas from Chapter 2:
ri (t ) =

ri 0

sin i t + ri 0 cos i t ,

i = 1,2

or
ri (t ) = r +
2
i0

r
= sin i t + tan 1 i i 0 ,
r&i 0

r&i 20

2
i

i = 1,2

Note that the above assumes

neither frequency is zero.

45

Once the solution in modal coordinates

is determined (ri) then the response in
Physical Coordinates is computed:

46

Steps in solving via modal

analysis:
1. Calculate M 2
1
1
~
2. Calculate K = M 2 KM 2 , the mass normalized stiffness matrix
1

With n DOFs these

transformations are:

3. Calculate the symmetric eigenvalue problem for K to get i

and v i
4. Normalize v i and form the matrix P = [v1 v 2 ]
1
1
5. Calculate S = M 2 P and S 1 = P T M 2
6. Calculate the modal initial conditions: r (0) = S 1x , r& (0) = S 1x&

x(t ) = S r (t )
n1

where

nn n1

S =M

n n

12

n n

7. Apply the components of r (0) and r& (0) to get the solution in
modal coordinates
8. Multiply r (t ) by S to get the solution in physical coordinates

nn

x(t ) = Sr (t )

(where n = 2 in the previous slides)

47

Note that S is the matrix of mode shapes and P is the matrix of

eigenvectors

48

Example: via MATLAB

Solve the Example using MATLAB as a

calculator

(you can compare it with your hand calculations)

9 0
27 3
0
0
M =
, K=
, x(0) = , x&&(0) =

0 1
3 3
1
0

Follow steps on previous slide

1) Calculate M

1
1
2) Calculate K = M 2K M 2

Minv2 = inv(sqrt(M))
Minv2 =
0.3333
0
0 1.0000

Kt =Minv2*K*Minv2
Kt =
3 -1
-1 3

% 3) Calculate the sym metric eigenvalue problem for K tilde [P,D]

= eig(Kt);
[lambda,I]=sort(diag(D));% just sorts smallestto largest
P=P(:,I);
% reorder eigenvectors to match eigenvalues
lambda =
2
4
P=
-0.7071 -0.7071
-0.7071 0.7071
% 4) Calculate S = M^(-1/2) * P and Sinv = P^T * M^(1/2)
S = Minv2 * P;
Sinv = inv(S);

49

Example (cont.)

% 5) Calculate the modalinitial conditions

r0 = Sinv * x0;
rdot0 = Sinv * v0;

50

Example (cont.)
% Plot results
figure

% 6) Find the free response in modal coordinates

tmax = 10;
numt = 1000;
t = linspace(0,tmax,numt);
[T,W]=meshgrid(t,lambda.^(1/2));

subplot(2,1,1)
plot(t,r(1,:),'-',t,r(2,:),'--')
title('free response in modal coordinates')
xlabel('time (sec)')
legend('r_1','r_2')

% Use a trick
R0 = r0(:,ones(numt,1));
R D OT0 = rdot0(:,ones(numt,1));

subplot(2,1,2)
plot(t,x(1,:),'-',t,x(2,:),'--')
title('free response in physical coordinates')
xlabel('time (sec)')
legend('x_1','x_2')

r = RDOT0./W.*sin(W.*T) + R0.*cos(W.*T);
% 7) Transform back to physical space
x = S*r;

51

52

Modal and Physical Responses

More than 2 Degrees of

Freedom

Free response in modal coordinates

Modal
Coordinates:
Independent
oscillators

4
r1
r2

2
0
-2

1 = 2 1 = 2

-4

T1 = 2 = 4.44 sec,

2 = 4 1 = 2
T2 = sec
Physical
Coordinates:
Coupled
oscillators
Note ICs

sec

4.44 sec

10

Free response in physical coordinates

4

0
-2
-4

5
Time (s)

10
53

mi + ki ( xi xi 1 ) ki +1 ( xi 1 xi ) = 0,

54

the relevant matrices and vectors

are:

A FBD of the system yields the n

equations of motion of the form:

m1
0
M =
M

i = 1,2,3,..., n

Writing all n of these equations and

casting them in matrix form yields:
where:

Extending previous
section to any number
of degrees of freedom

x1
x2

0
m2
M
0

k1 + k 2
0
k
2

K 0

,K =
0
O M

K
L mn
0
L

k2
k 2 + k3

0
k3

k3
K
0

K
K

O
K
K

M
k n 1 + k n
kn

0
0
M

kn
k n

&x&1 (t )
x1 (t )
x (t )
&x& (t )
x(t ) = 2 , &x&(t ) = 2
M
M

xn (t )
&x&n (t )

M&x&(t ) + Kx(t ) = 0
55

56

For such systems as shown previously

the process stays the samejust more
modal equations result:
Process stays the same as section 4.3
r&&1 (t ) + 12r1 (t ) = 0
r&&2 (t ) + 22r2 (t ) = 0
r&&3 (t ) + 32r3 (t ) = 0
M

r&&n (t ) + n2rn (t ) = 0

Just get more modal

equations, one for each
degree of freedom (n is
the number of dof)

The Mode Summation Approach

Based on the idea that any possible time
response is just a linear combination of the
eigenvectors
~
&&(t ) + Kq(t ) = 0
Starting with q
n

i =1

i =1

let q(t ) = q i (t ) = ai e

j i t

+ bi e

j i t

)v

two linearly independent solutions for each term.

n

can also write this as q(t ) = (d i sin(i t + i )v i

i =1

57

Systems with Viscous Damping

58

Viscous Damping in MDOF Systems

Recall the response of damped SDOF:

Two basic choices for including damping

We will extend the prior knowledge

of MDOF systems to included the
effects of viscous damping

Modal Damping

Attribute some amount to each mode based on

experience, i.e., an artful guess or

Estimate damping due to viscoelasticity using

some approximation method

Model the damping mechanism directly (hard and still

an area of research-good for physicists but engineers
need models that are correct enough).

59

60

Modal Damping Method

Modal Damping (cont.)

Decouple system based on M and K, i.e., use the
undamped modes
Attribute some i (zeta) to each mode of the
decoupled system (a guess. Not known
beforehand. Can be tested with gross data like x):

Solve the undamped vibration problem

following

M&x&(t ) + Kx(t ) = 0 I&r&(t ) + r (t ) = 0

here

Here the mode shapes and eigenvectors are

real valued and form orthonormal sets,
even for repeated natural frequencies
1
1
(known because K = M 2KM 2 is symmetric)

&r&i + 2 i i r&i + i2 ri = 0

di = i 1 i2

ri ( t ) = Ai e i i t sin ( di t + i )
t
(Ai sin di t + Bi cos di t)
Alternately: ri (t) = e
i

61

Modal Damping by Mode Summation

Transform Back to Get Physical

Solution
Use modal transform to obtain modal initial
conditions and compute Ai and i:
1

r (0) = S 1x(0) = PT M 2 x(0) = PT M 2 x 0

1 &

r& (0) = S x(0) = P M

2x
& (0) =

P M

2x
&

x(t) = M

q(t) = M

Can also use mode summation approach

Again, modes are from undamped system

The higher the frequency, the smaller the effect (because of the
exponential term). So just few first modes are enough.

q(t ) = d i e iit sin (di t + i )v i

where

i =1

With r(t) known, use the inverse transform to

recover the physical solution:
1

62

Pr(t) = Sr(t)
63

KM

v i = i2 v i , and di = i 1 i2

v Ti q(0)
di v Ti q(0)
1
and i = tan
di =
sin i
v Ti q& (0) + ii v Ti q(0)
64

Example

Compute q(t), Transform back

Consider:

To get the proper initial conditions use:

1

9 0 6 2
0 4&x& + 2 2 x = 0

q(0) = M 2 x(0), and q& (0) = M 2 x& (0)

Use the above to compute q(t) and then:

x(t) = M

1
2

Subject to initial conditions: x 0 = 0

q(t)

the response in physical coordinates.

0
x& 0 =
0

Experiments do not give C. They provide zeta (in modal coordinates)

by the half power method.
Compute the solution assuming modal damping of:

1 = 0.01 and 2 = 0.1

65

Compute the modal

decomposition

Compute the modal solutions:

L =sqrt(M)

3 0 ~
0.667 0.333
, K = L1KL1 =
L=

0 2
0.333 0.500
0.615
0.788
~
, and 2 = 0.947, v 2 =
Kv = v 1 = 0.240, v1 =

0.788
0.615
0.615 0.788
P=

0.788 0.615

Compute the modal initial conditions:

0.205 0.263
1.846
S = L1P =
r0 = S 1x 0 =

0.394 0.308
2.365
r&0 = 0

66

1 = 0.01, 2 = 0.1,
1 = 0.49, d1 = 0.49, 2 = 0.963, d 2 = 0.958
Using the SDOF knowledge yields

r1 (t ) = 4.208e 0.004896t sin(0.49t + 1.561)

r2 (t ) = 3.346e 0.096t sin(0.958t + 1.471)

Then use x(t)=Sr(t)

67

68

Lumped Damping models

0.205 0.263 r1 (t)

x(t) = Sr(t) =

0.394 0.308 r2 (t)

x1 (t ) = 0.863e 0.004896t sin(0.49t + 1.561) 0.88e 0.096t sin(0.958t + 1.471)
x2 (t ) = 1.658e 0.004896t sin(0.49t + 1.561) + 1.029e 0.096t sin(0.958t + 1.471)

So, first separate solutions in the modal coordinates were

found and then the modes were assembled by the use of S.

In some cases (FEM, machine modeling),

the damping matrix is determined directly
from the equations of motion.
Then our analysis must start with:

M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) = 0, subject tox0 and x& 0

The response in the physical coordinates is therefore a

combination of the modal responses just as in the
undamped case.
69

Matrix form of Equations of

Motion:

Generic Example: revisited

If the damping
mechanisms are
known then
Sum forces to find
the equations of
motion
Free Body Diagram:
c1 x1

c2 ( x&2 x&1 )

c2 ( x&2 x&1 )

70

m1 &x&1 = c1 x&1 + c2 ( x&2 x&1 )

k1 x1 + k 2 ( x2 x1 )
m2 &x&2 = c2 ( x&2 x&1 )
k 2 ( x2 x1 )
71

m1 0 &x&1 (t ) c1 + c2 c2 x&1 (t )
0 m &x& (t ) + c
c2 x&2 (t )
2 2
2

k + k k 2 x1 (t ) 0
+ 1 2
=
k 2 x2 (t ) 0
k2
The C and K matrices have the same form.
It follows from the system itself that consisted damping and
stiffness elements in a similar manner.
72

Rayleigh Damping (Proportional Damping)

A Question of matrix decoupling

Can we decouple the system with the same coordinate
transformations as before?

M&x& + Cx& + Kx = 0
1

2
2
I &r& + 1
PT4
M42
CM
P r& + r = 0
443
diagonal ?

It turns out that CM-1K = symmetric is a necessary and

sufficient condition for C to be diagonalizable by the
eigenvectors of the undamped system, i.e., those based
on M,K
best known example is proportionaldamping.
The coefficients are obtained through experiments or just
by guess.

In general, these can not be decoupled since K and C

can not be diagonalized simultaneously
73

Proportional Damping (cont.)

Write the system as:
M&x& + (M + K )x& + Kx = 0
1

&& + (M + K )q& + Kq = 0
q = M 2 x Iq
q = Pr I&r& + (I + )r& + Kr = 0

C = M + K = linear combination of M and K

CM 1 K = (M + K ) M 1 K = K + KM 1 K
both symmetric

Forced Harmonic Vibration

Consider a lumped-parameter 2DOF system subjected to
a harminic force at the lumped mass m1

m1
0

0 &x&1 (t ) k11
+
m2 &x&2 (t ) k 21

k12 x1 (t ) F1
sin t
=
k 22 x2 (t ) 0

The particular solutions of this undamped system can be

in a form of

diagonal !

Thus, the damping ratios of the decoupled

system are:
i

2 i i = + i2 i =
+
2 i
2
75

74

k11 m1 2

k 21

x (t ) X
x(t ) = 1 = 1 sin t sub. in the EoM
x2 (t ) X 2
X 1 F1
k12
X F
= Z ( ) 1 = 1

2
k 22 m2 X 2 0
X2 0

2
X (k m2 ) F1 / Z ( )
1 = 22

k 21 F1 / Z ( )
X2

See Example 5.4.1

76

Modal Analysis of the Forced

Response

Forced Response: the response of

an MDOF system to a forcing term
k1

Recall what we know from SDOF forced response:

c1

x1

x2

k2
c2

m1

F1

x3

k3
c3

m2

F2

F3

m3

x4

k4
c4

m4

F4

0 0 0 F1 (t )
1 0 0 F2 (t )
0 1 0 F3 (t )

0 0 1 F4 (t )
Assume C diagonalizable for now, i.e.,
1
1
1
~
~
~
&&(t ) + C q& (t ) + Kq(t ) = M 2 BF(t ) where C = M 2 CM 2
q
1
0
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) = BF (t ) =
0

77

78

If the system of equations decouple then

the methods of Chapters 2, 3 and 4
can be applied

With the modal equation in hand

the general solution is given

~
Decouple the system with the eigenvectors of K
&r&(t ) + diag (...2 ii ...)r& (t ) + r (t ) = P T M

&r&i (t ) + 2 ii r&i (t ) + i2 ri (t ) = f i (t )
ri (t ) = d i e iit sin(di t + i )

BF (t )

so the i th equation would be :

&r&i + 2 ii r&i + i2 ri = f i

di

ii t

f (t )e
i

ii

sin (di (t ) )d

Which is similar to:

Responses to harmonic, periodic, or general forces as

in Chapters 2, 3 and 4
Note that the modal forcing function is a linear
combination of many physical forces
79

80

The applied force is distributed across the

all of the modes except in a special case.
f (t ) = P T M

Example: A 2-dof system

BF (t ) for the decoupled EQM

An excitation on a single physical DOF may spread

to all modal DOFs (one F generates many fs)
It is actually possible to drive a MDOF system at one
of its natural frequencies and not experience
resonant response (an unusual circumstance)

0
9 0
2.7 0.3
27 3
& ++
x&&+
x&
x=

0 1 &x&

F1 (t)

0.3 0.3
3 3
3 0 1/2 1 3 0
=
M 1/2 =

, M
0 1
0 1

Let F(t) = b f (t), where b is some spatial vector

and f (t) is any fuction of time. What if b happens
to be related to the i th mode shape by b = M u i?

~
1 3 0 2.7 0.3 1 3 0 0.3 0.1
CC%== M 1/2CM 1/2 =

0 1 0.3 0.3 0 1 0.1 0.3

81

Compute the mass normalized

stiffness matrix and its eigen solution
1 3 0 27 3 1 3 0 3 1
K% = M 1/2 KM 1/2 =

0 1 3 3 0 1 1 3
From before:

82

Transform the damping matrix, the

forcing function and write down the
modal equations
1 1 0.2 0
1 1 0.3 0.1
~%
0.707
CP
PPTT C
P= 0.707

1 1 0 0.4
1 1 0.1 0.3
~% 2 0
PPTT K
P=
KP

0 4
0.2357 0.7071 0
f(t) = P T M 1/2 BF(t) =

0.2357 0.7071 F2 (t)

~
= 2
1 1
K%v= v 1
Kv
, P = 0.707

1 1
2 = 4

From the above coefficients the modal equations

become (note that the force is distributed to each mode)
&r&1 (t ) + 0.2r&1 (t ) + 2r1 (t ) = (0.7071)(3) cos 3t = 2.1213 cos 2t
&r&2 (t ) + 0.4r&2 (t ) + 4r2 (t ) = (0.7071)(3) cos 3t = 2.1213 cos 2t
83

84

Compute the modal values using the

single degree of freedom formulas
0.2
= 0.0707
2 2
0.4
2 =
= 0.1000
2(2)

r1 p (t) = 1.040 cos(2t + 0.1974)

d1 = 1 1 = 1.41

x ss (t) = M

1 =

The modal damping

ratios and damped
natural frequencies
are computed using
the usual formulas
and the coefficients
from the terms in the
modal equations:

Use SDOF result for the particular

solution
r2 p (t) = 2.6516 sin(2t)

Now transform back to physical coordinates

2
1

d 2 = 2 1 22 = 1.99

1.040 cos(2t + 0.1974)

P

2.6516 sin(2t)

x1 (t) = 0.2451cos(2t + 0.1974) 0.6249 sin 2t

x2 (t) = 0.7354 cos(2t + 0.1974) + 1.8749 sin 2t

12

Note that the force effects both degrees of freedom even though it is applied to one.
85

The Frequency Response of

each mode is plotted:

The frequency response of each

degree of freedom is plotted

R2()/f2())

10
Amplitude (dB)

A force applied to
mass # 2 F2 will
contribute to both
modal forces!

R1()/f1())

Each mass is
excited by the force
on mass #2

-10

-20

-30

2
3
Frequency ()

Both masses are

effected by both
modes

10
X1()/F2())
X2()/F2())

0
Amplitude (dB)

This graph shows

the amplitude of
each mass due to
an input force on
mass #2.

20

This graph shows

the amplitude of
each mode due to
an input modal
force f1 and f2.

86

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0

87

2
3
Frequency ()

88

Resonance for multiple degree of

freedom systems can occur at each
of the systems natural frequencies
Note that the frequency response of the
previous example shows two peaks

Example: Illustrating the effect

of the input force allocation
Consider:

Special cases:

3
27 3
9 0
x = cos 2t
x&x&&+

0 1 &
1
3 3

Compute the modal equations and discuss resonance.

If in the odd case that b is orthogonal to

one of the mode shapes then
resonance in that mode may not occur
If the modes are strongly coupled the
resonant peaks may combine (see
X1/F2 in the previous slide) and be hard
to notice

Solution:
1 / 3 0
1/2
M 1/2 =
x= M q
0
1

1
0
3
1

1 / 3 0 3
1
&q
&&++
&
q=
cos 2t = cos 2t
0 1 q

1 3
0 1 1
1
89

Transform and compute the

modal equations:

Calculating the natural frequencies and

mode shapes yields:

1 = 2 and 2 = 2 rad/s

q = Pr yields

13
1 3
u1 = , u 2 =

1
1

1 0 &r&&&
2 0 r1
1 1 1 1
1
+
=
0 1 &

cos 2t

&2 0 4 r2
2 1 1 1

r&&
&
2 cos 2t
r&&
1&1 + 2r1 =
&
&
r&&
22 + 4r2 = 0

The mass normalized eigenvectors are:

v1 =

1
2

1 1
1
1 , v 2 =

21

1
P=
2

90

No resonance even though

1 1
1 1

2 = 2 = , the driving frequency

91

92

Solving a system with 3 masses

is best done using a code.

An example with three

masses
k1
c1

x1

c2

m1

F1

0
m2
0

x3

k3
c3

m2

F2

m1=m2=m3=2Kg

m1
M = 0
0

x2

k2

c4

m3

F3

k1=k2=k3= k1=3N/m

0
0
m3

Using Matlab we can calculate the eigenvectors and eigenvalues

and hence the mode shapes and natural frequencies.

k4

k1 + k2
K = k2
0

C=0.02K

k2
k2 + k 3
k3

1/2

0
0
0.707

= 0
0.707
0
0
0
0.707

0.707
0.5
0.5

P = 0.707
0
-0.707
0.5 -0.707
0.5

0.354 0.5 0.354

1 = 0.94 2 = 1.73 3 = 2.26
U = 0.5
0
0.5
1 = 0.0094 2 = 0.017 3 = 0.0226
0.354 0.5 0.354

0
k3
k3 + k4

93

94

A comparison of the Frequency

response between driving mass #1
and driving mass #2

The frequency response of each

mode computed separately:
50
40

20
10
0

40

X1()/F1())
X2()/F1())
X3()/F1())

20
Amplitude (dB)

Amplitude (dB)

30

()/f1())
( )/f ( ))
2 2
( )/f ( ))
3 3
1

-20
-40

-10
-60

-20
-30
0

2
3
Frequency ()

-80
0

95

X1()/F2())
X2()/F2())
X3()/F2())

20

Amplitude (dB)

r
r
r

40

-20

-40

2
3
Frequency()

-60
0

2
3
Frequency()

5
96

Decoupled Forced EOM

12
x1
k1

Flexibility Influence Coefficient

r1

f1

x2
k2

m1

m2

F1

22

Physical Co-ordinates.
Coupled equations

x(t) = M

1/2

P r(t)

r2

f2

Modal Co-ordinates.
Uncoupled equations

x1 a11 a12 K a1n f1

x a
2 = 21 a22 K a2 n f 2 , or X = AF
M M
M O M M


xn an1 an 2 K ann f n
where aij is the flexibility influence coefficients,
defined as the displacement at i due to a unit force
applied at j. with all other forces equal to zero.

97

Example: Determine the flexibility

matrix
k1

x1

m1

x2

k2

m2

k3

Example: Determine the flexibility

matrix

x3

Applying f3 =1, and f1 = f2 =0 we get the third column of the flexibility matrix:

m3

Applying f1 =1, and f3 = f2 =0 we get the first column of the flexibility matrix:

x1 k11
x = 1
2 k1
x3 k11

0 0 1

0 0 0
0 0 0

1
k1

1
k1
1
k1

+
+

1
k2
1
k2

0 0

0 1
0 0

x1 0 0
x = 0 0
2
x3 0 0

0

1
1
k1 + k 2
0
1
1
1

+
+
k1
k2
k 3 1
1
k1

Adding the three results together,

Applying f2 =1, and f1 = f3 =0 we get the second column of the flexibility matrix:

x1 0
x = 0
2
x3 0

98

99

x1 k11
x = 1
2 k1
x3 k11
X = AF

1
k1

1
k1
1
k1

+ k12
+ k12

f1

1
1
k1 + k 2
f2
1
1
1

k1 + k 2 + k3 f 3
1
k1

100

Example 6.1-4: Deflection due to

combine load

Reciprocity Theorem

The known (from MoMs table)

deflections of a continuous can
be use to form a flexibility matrix.
Since the deflection at the free end is the combination of the deflection due to
The transverse force P and the moment M:

x = a11 P + a12 M
x a11
or =
= a21 P + a22 M
a21

a12 P
a22 M

Where the flexibility influence coefficient can be obtain can be found as:

a11 =

l3
l2
l
, a12 = a21 =
, a22 =
EI
3EI
2 EI

For any linear system:

aij = a ji

Example 6.2-1:
The deflection at 2 when
a load is applied at 1
is equal to the deflection
at 1 when the same load
is applies at 2

y2 = a21 P and y1 = a12 P = a21 P

101

Nodes of a Mode Shape

Stiffness Influence Coefficient

Examination of the 2nd mode shapes

(below) shows that the third entry of the
second mode shape is zero!
Zero elements in a mode shape are
called nodes.
A node of a mode means there is no
motion of the mass or (coordinate)
corresponding to that entry at the
frequency associated with that mode.

K k1n x1
K k 2 n x2
, or F = KX
O M M

K k nn xn
where kij is the stiffness influence coefficients,
f1 k11
f k
2 = 21
M M

f n k n1

102

k12
k 22
M
kn 2

defined as the force at i requred to maintain a unit

deflection at j. with the deflection at all other
places equal to zero.
103

104

Nodes of a mode shape

Nodes of a Mode Shape

0.1
0.2887
Node
U2 =

0.2887
All at vibrating at 2

Note that for more than 2 DOF, a mode

shape may have a zero valued entry
This is called a node of a mode.
0.1
0.2887

U2 =

node
0.2887
They make great mounting points in machines

105

Example:
3DOF beam model of an aircraft

Rigid Body Modes

When a dynamic system is not constrained
(unrestrained) and can move as a rigid body, e.g.
an aircraft in flight, a gas turbine rotor, a moving
train, etc.
A rigid body mode is the mode associated with a
zero frequency
Physically if a system (below) is displaced we
would expect it to move off the page whilst the
two masses oscillate back and forth
x

k1
c1

106

x1

m1
107

U1 = 1, 1 = 0
1

1

U 2 = 1 , 2 = 0
1

1
3EI

U 3 = 1 , 3 =
ml 3
1

Note that we have 2 modes with zero

frequency (repeated roots) the
corresponding mode will not be unique
108

Example 6.12.1

Example 6.12.1
M&x& + Kx = 0

x = [1 2 3 ]

J1
M = 0
0

0
J2
0

0
K1

0 , K = K1
0
J 3

K1
K1 + K 2
K2

1 = 0, U1 = 1
1

0
K 2
K 2

1

2 = 2 ,U 2 = 0
1

3 = 3 , U 3 = 2
1

Let K1 = K 2 , J1 = J 2 = J 3 , and = 2 J1 / K1

1 0 0 1 1 0
(M + K )U = 0 1 0 + 1 2 1 U = 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
109

Order the frequencies

It is convention to call the lowest frequency
1 so that 1 < 2 < 3 <
Order the modes (or eigenvectors)
accordingly
It really does not make a difference in
computing the time response
However:
When we measuring frequencies, they appear
lowest to highest
Physically the frequencies respond with the
highest energy in the lowest mode (important in
flutter calculations, run up in rotating machines,
etc.)
111

110