COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Not a highly structured method of teaching. Rather a broad assembly of

ideas from a range of sources which have come to be accepted as 'good
practice' by many contemporary teachers.
Origins of Approach
In 1960's and 70's foreign language learning was widely extended with the
establishment of comprehensive schools. Led to the teaching of a foreign
language to virtually all children. Created pressure for a change in teaching
methods and curriculi to suit the needs of non-traditional groups of learners.
Recognition of inadequacy of traditional grammar/translation methods and
also of 'structural' methods with emphasis on meaningless pattern drills and
repetition.
New syllabuses took into account needs of different pupils. Traditional
academic syllabuses had assumed learner's goal was in-depth mastery of
target language. But for less academic pupil a more immediate 'pay-off' was
necessary, in terms of usefulness for practical purposes.
Communicative Method
1 Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognises that
all communication has a social purpose - learner has something to say
or find out.
2 Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions (e.g. seeking
information/ apologising/ expressing likes and dislikes, etc) and notions
(e.g. apologising for being late / asking where the nearest post office is).
3 New syllabuses based on communicative method offered some
communicative ability from early stage.
Graded Objectives in Modern Languages - movement which flourished in
1970's and 80's - raised pupils' motivation through short-term objectives and
through teaching language appropriate to a range of relevant topics and
situations (e.g. shopping/ hobbies/ exchanges).
4 Hitherto languages were taught in a vacuum - language for the sake
of language / passing exams - rather than language for true communication.
Professor Dodson distinguishes between language as a 'medium' level
communication and as a 'message' level communication, ex.
1) Young lady teacher is teaching Yr 7 pupils to say how old they are ( 'tu
as quel age?'. ). They are merely practising the pattern in the foreign

language, for the sole purpose of mastering the construction - teacher

actually knows the age of the class - pupils also know that the teacher knows
their age. According to professor Carl J Dodson, they are all performing at
'medium' level, ie. practising how to say it in the language but with no
added purpose.
2) Suddenly, a curious member of the class raises his hand and asks the
young lady teacher 'tu as quel age?'. This is language being used at a totally
different and higher level, ie 'message' level ( pupil doesn't know the
teacher's age, but actually uses the construction practised at the 'medium'
level for a specific purpose, namely that of finding out the teacher's age!
One has to practise language at 'medium' level first in order to be able to
exercise it at 'message' level. The problem is that a great number of teachers
never used to go beyond 'medium' level and use the language for true
purposes of sending and receiving 'messages'. They were teaching pupils
'about' the language, about its patterns and rules, rather than using it
actively for real purposes!
Prior to National Curriculum, teaching was left almost totally at 'medium'
level. Very little scope to test true communicative ability or to use the
language spontaneously.
5 Classroom activities maximise opportunities for learners to use target
language in a communicative way for meaningful activities. Emphasis on
meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than
form (correctness of language and language structure) - as in first language
acquisition.
6 Use of target language as normal medium for classroom management
and instruction - reflects naturalistic language acquisition.
7 Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because
dictated by pupils' needs and interests.
8 Accent is on functional/ usable language. Learners should be able to go
to foreign country, prepared for reality they encounter there. Need to be able
to cope / survive in a variety of everyday situations.
9 Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations
and provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative roleplays/ simulations/ surveys/ projects/ playlets - all produce spontaneity and
improvisation - not just repetition and drills.

10 More emphasis on active modes of learning, including pairwork and

group-work - often not exploited enough by teachers fearful of noisy class.
11 Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the
classroom. Contact time with language is all-important - paves way for more
fluid command of the language / facility and ease of expression. Not just
hearing teacher, but having personal contact themselves with language,
practising sounds themselves, permutating sentence patterns and getting
chance to make mistakes and learn from doing so.
12 Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their
best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make
errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive.
Correction should be discreet / noted by teacher - let them talk and express
themselves - form of language becomes secondary.
13 Communicative approach is not just limited to oral skills. Reading
and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils' confidence in all
four skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways (reading/
summarising/ translating/ discussion/ debates) - makes language more fluid
and pupils' manipulation of language more fluent.
14 Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional
ways alongside more innovative approaches. Recognised that
communication depends on grammar. Disregard of grammatical form will
virtually guarantee breakdown in communication.
15 Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners,
but extensive experience of target language helps everyone. Pupils need to
hear plenty said about the topic in the foreign language at regular and
recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it.
(Not mere passive acquisition of certain lexical items).
16 Communicative approach seeks to personalise and localise language
and adapt it to interests of pupils. Meaningful language is always more
easily retained by learners.
17 Use of idiomatic/ everyday language (even slang words 'bof bof' /
'i'sais pas'). This is kind of language used in communication between people
- not a 'medium'/ grammatical/ exam-orientated/ formal language!

18 Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already familiar
in their own language - motivates pupils arouses their interest and leads to
more active participation.
19 Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate to pupils' own lives /
must be fresh and real (cf. Whitmarsh texts developing language but not
communicative language!) Changing texts and materials regularly keeps
teacher on toes and pupils interested.
20 Language need not be laboriously monotonous and 'medium'
orientated. Can be structured but also spontaneous and incidental.
Language is never static. Life isn't like that - we are caught unawares,
unprepared, 'pounced upon!' Pupils need to practise improvising/ ad-libbing/
talking off the cuff, in an unrehearsed but natural manner.
21 Spontaneous and improvised practice helps to make minds more
flexible and inspire confidence in coping with unforeseen, unanticipated
situations. Need to 'go off at tangents' / use different registers / develop
alternative ways of saying things.
22 Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More
interesting and motivating. In Foreign language classroom authentic texts
serve as partial substitute for community of native speaker. Newspaper and
magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos,
news bulletins, discussion programmes - all can be exploited in variety of
ways.
23 Important not to be restricted to textbook, Never feel that text-book
must be used from cover to cover. Only a tool / starting-point. With a little
inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered
more communicative. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his
own command of language and his professional expertise as to what
linguistic items, idioms, phrases, words, need to be drilled / exploited/
extended.
24 Use of visual stimuli - OHP/ flashcards, etc - important to provoke
practical communicative language. (3 stages presentation / assimilation/
reproducing language in creative and spontaneous way).

Communicative language teaching

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Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second

and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate
goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as communicative approach to the
teaching of foreign languages or simply the Communicative Approach.

Contents
[hide]

1 Relationship with other methods and approaches

o 1.1 The Audio-Lingual Method
o 1.2 The Notional Functional Syllabus
o 1.3 Learning by teaching (LdL)
2 Overview of CLT
3 Classroom activities used in CLT
4 Critiques of CLT
5 See also

6 References

[edit] Relationship with other methods and

approaches
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM),
and as an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based
language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in
popularity.

[edit] The Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign
language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It
is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation
central elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on
repetition needed a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition
of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard
pronunciation.
In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and
presented through short dialogs. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of
conversations (for example, in the language lab ) and focused on accurately
mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.
Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately
did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language.
Noam Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic
behaviour characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and
patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for

new ways to present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional
functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and
foreign languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text
books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods point to
their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most notably
pronunciation.

[edit] The Notional Functional Syllabus

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning
curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional
syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often
been done with the ALM, but in terms of notions and functions. In this model, a
notion is a particular context in which people communicate, and a function is a
specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the notion or
context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices
or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require
numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and
hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the
deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to
effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.

[edit] Learning by teaching (LdL)

Main article: Learning by teaching
Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The
students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. An important target is developing
websensibility.

[edit] Overview of CLT

As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis
on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great
emphasis on learning language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on
helping learners create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly
grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation. This means that
successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners
have developed their communicative competence, which can loosely be defined as
their ability to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a
language with adequate proficiency to communicate.
CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a
teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most
often defined as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of
these lists is David Nunans (1991) five features of CLT:
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target
language.

2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but
also on the Learning Management process.
4. An enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities
outside the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very
interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between
the language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under
this broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their
communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and
beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair
and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluencybased activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in
which students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of
grammar and pronunciation focused activities.

[edit] Classroom activities used in CLT

Example Activities

Role Play
Interviews
Information Gap
Games
Language Exchanges
Surveys
Pair Work
Learning by teaching

However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach will
restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take
occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for
instance.

[edit] Critiques of CLT

One of the most famous attacks on Communicative Language teaching was offered by
Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal on 1985[1] Henry
Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax[2]) have critiqued CLT for paying
insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take place, though
CLT has also been defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[3]).
The Communicative Approach often seems to be interpreted as: if the teacher
understands the student we have good communication. What can happen though is
that a teacher who is from the same region, understands the students when they make

errors resulting from first language influence. One problem with this is that native
speakers of the target language can have great difficulty understanding them. This
observation may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative
approach. The adapted communicative approach should be a simulation where the
teacher pretends to understand only that what any regular speaker of the target
language would, and should react accordingly.[4]

[edit] See also

Task-based language learning

Learning by teaching (LdL)
Language education
Teaching English as a Foreign Language
English as an additional language

[edit] References
1. ^ Swan, Michael (1985) in the English Language Teaching Journal 39(1):2-12,
and 1985 39(2):76-87
2. ^ Bax, S (2003) The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching ELT
J 2003 57: 278-287
3. ^ Harmer, J. (2003) Popular culture, methods, and context ELT J 2003 57:
288-294
4. ^ Hattum, Ton van (2006), The Communicative Approach Rethought

Brown, H. Douglas (1994) Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach

to Language Pedagogy. Prentince Hall.

Brown, H. Douglas (1994) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.

Prentice Hall.

Krashen; Stephen D. (1987) Principles and Practice in Second Language

Acquisition Prentice-Hall

Krashen; Stephen D. (1988) Second Language Acquisition and Second

Language Learning Prentice-Hall
Gower, Roger; Walters, Steve; Phillips, Diane (1995) Teaching Practice
Macmillan
Szesztay, Margit; Ryan, Christopher (1994) Selected Readings in ELT
Methodology and Classroom Studies Centre for English Teacher Training at
Etvs Lornd University From:
http:www.btk.elte.hu/cett/DOWNEX/Jed2.doc
Willis, Dave and Jane (2007) Doing Task-based Teaching OUP

The Communicative Approach in

English as a Foreign Language
Teaching
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Summary
Where does communicative language teaching come from?
What is communicative language teaching?
What are some examples of communicative exercises?
How do the roles of the teacher and student change in Communicative
language teaching?
6. Bibliography
SUMMARY.
This article refers to the way teachers can focus the teaching of the foreign language
in the classroom in such a way that students can communicate in a conscious way,
taking into account their real experiences. Here, the origin of the Communicative
Approach as a combination of different methods is clearly explained, as such as the
role of the teacher and the students in a communicative English as a Second Language
class. The article also gives some examples of communicative activities that can be
developed in a class from the communicative point of view.
This digest will take a look at the communicative approach to the teaching of foreign
languages. It is intended as an introduction to the communicative approach for
teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom
for their students to engage in real-life communication in the target language.
Questions to be dealt with include what the communicative approach is, where it
came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they play in
other teaching approaches. Examples of exercises that can be used with a
communicative approach are described, and sources of appropriate materials are
provided.
WHERE DOES COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING COME
FROM?
Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next.
The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and
linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation
methods of foreign language instruction.
They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did
not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or
expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language
studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in
the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged
in real communication with one another became quite popular.

In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the
elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying
philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names,
including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction,
and communicative language teaching.
WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?
Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate
communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in
real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on
repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to
the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and
responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to
learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful
topics.
Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in
explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and
has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use
(function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before
and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is
speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns,
1984, p. 5).
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE EXERCISES?
In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out
cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an
exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wieheissen Sie?"
Reply: "Icheisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language
and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce
themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German
to a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each
holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic
exchange of information.
Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a
recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first
time at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the
differences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher
will explain some of the grammar points and structures used.
The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign
language teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn
Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics. The exercise, called
"Eavesdropping," is aimed at advanced students.

"Instructions to students" Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be

prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was
said.
1. Who was talking?
2. About how old were they?
3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?
4. What were they talking about?
5. What did they say?
6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?
The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report
information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class
discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and
viewpoints.
Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their
choice, at an appropriately challenging level.
Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In
"Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must
listen to an authentic text.
"Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic or
message.
"Directions." Have students listen to the following announcement to decide what the
speaker is promoting.
"Passage" "Situacion ideal...Servicio de transporte al Aeropuerto
Internacional...Cuarenta y dos habitaciones de lujo, con aire acondicionado...Elegante
restaurante...de fama internacional."
(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students
to circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of the
following multiple-choice options:

a taxi service
b. a hotel
c. an airport
d. a restaurant
(Source: Adapted from Ontario Assessment Instrument Pool, 1980, Item No.
13019)

Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes

his lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English
children having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and
enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible
when they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the
question of whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross &
Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to say that the communicative approach "puts great
emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others. [This
is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to the
teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes.
That the teacher be a patient listener is the basic requirement" (p. 98).
The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than
speaker brings up several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.
HOW DO THE ROLES OF THE TEACHER AND STUDENT CHANGE IN
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?
Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening
more--becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the
teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A
classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students
do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a
communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.
Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain
confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible
managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BC. [1982]. "In search of a language teaching framework: An adaptation of a

communicative approach to functional practice." (EDRS No. ED 239 507, 26 pages)
Das, B. K. (Ed.) (1984). "Communicative language teaching." Selected papers from
the RELC seminar (Singapore). "Anthology Series 14." (EDRS No. ED 266 661, 234
pages)
Littlewood, W. T. (1983). "Communicative approach to language teaching
methodology (CLCS Occasional Paper No. 7)." Dublin: Dublin University, Trinity
College, Centre for Language and Communication Studies. (EDRS No. ED 235 690,
23 pages)
Pattison, P. (1987). "The communicative approach and classroom realities." (EDRS
No. ED 288 407, 17 pages)

Riley, P. (1982). "Topics in communicative methodology: Including a preliminary and

selective bibliography on the communicative approach." (EDRS No. ED 231 213, 31
pages)
Savignon, S. J., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1983). "Communicative language teaching:
Where are we going? Studies in Language Learning," 4(2). (EDRS No. ED 278 226,
210 pages)
Sheils, J. (1986). "Implications of the communicative approach for the role of the
teacher." (EDRS No. ED 268 831, 7 pages)
Swain, M., & Canale, M. (1982). "The role of grammar in a communicative approach
to second language teaching and testing." (EDRS No. ED 221 026, 8 pages) (not
available separately; available from EDRS as part of ED 221 023, 138 pages)
Willems, G., & Riley, P. (Eds.). (1984). "Communicative foreign language teaching
and the training of foreign language teachers." (EDRS No. ED 273 102, 219 pages)
Readers may also wish to consult the following journal articles for additional
information on communicative language teaching.
Clark, J. L. (1987). Classroom assessment in a communicative approach. "British
Journal of Language Teaching," 25(1), 9-19.
Dolle, D., & Willems, G. M. (1984). The communicative approach to foreign
language teaching: The teacher's case. "European Journal of Teacher Education," 7(2),
145-54.
Morrow, K., & Schocker, M. (1987). Using texts in a communicative approach. "ELT
Journal," 41(4), 248-56.
Oxford, R. L., et al. (1989). Language learning strategies, the communicative
approach, and their classroom implications. "Foreign Language Annals," 22(1), 29-39.
Pica, T. P. (1988). Communicative language teaching: An aid to second language
acquisition? Some insights from classroom research. "English Quarterly," 21(2), 7080.
Rosenthal, A. S., & Sloane, R. A. (1987). A communicative approach to foreign
language instruction: The UMBC project. "Foreign Language Annals," 20(3), 245-53.
Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (1). "ELT Journal,"
39(1), 2-12.
Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (2). "ELT Journal,"
39(2), 76-87.
Terrell, T. D. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach.
"Modern Language Journal," 75(1), 52-63.

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Berns, M. S. (1984). Functional approaches to language and language teaching:
Another look. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), "Initiatives in communicative
language teaching. A book of readings" (pp. 3-21). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. (1984). Beyond notions and functions: Language
teaching or the art of letting go. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), "Initiatives in
communicative language teaching. A book of readings" (pp. 89-107). Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). "Techniques and principles in language teaching."
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Littlewood, W. (1981). "Language teaching. An introduction." Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Savignon, S., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1984). "Initiatives in communicative language
teaching." Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Lic. Evelio Elas Orellana Orellana