Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J.

Pantazopoulou

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBER REINFORCED

CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES WITH HIGH AMOUNTS OF FLY
ASH AS CEMENT REPLACEMENT
*,
*
ANTROULA V. GEORGIOU AND STAVROULA J. PANTAZOPOULOU
*

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

University of Cyprus
75, Kallipoleos Street, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
e-mail: ageorg44@ucy.ac.cy

Department of Civil Engineering

York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
email: stavroula.pantazopoulou@gmail.com

Key words: Fly Ash, Strain Hardening, Fibers

Abstract. Fiber reinforced cementitious composites (FRCC) made with hybrid Polyvinyl
Alcohol Fibers and high amounts of fly ash (FA), show favorable mechanical properties in
terms of large tensile strain capacity and ductility, and offer advantageous prospects for
innovative products in construction [1]. The amount of cement replacement by FA in the
composite in the order of 60%, reaching 34% by weight of total mixed materials is
contributing towards the reduction of CO2 emissions from cement production, recycling a
material (fly ash) that would otherwise be disposed in the field. By eliminating the use of
coarse aggregate exploitation of natural resources is decreased even further. Addition of fibers
increases the toughness and ductility in structural components offering a novel opportunity for
reduced amounts of transverse reinforcement, enhancing the durability of the structural
member and limiting damage in strong earthquakes. Due to the high strength and very high
tensile strain capacity it offers new opportunities particularly in the precast concrete industry.
Experimental test results on the composite with and without the use of short discontinuous
fibers (made of polyvinyl alcohol PVA) under uniaxial compression, extension and four point
bending loads illustrated the beneficial structural behavior of this class of sustainable
materials, owing to the addition of fibers which controls cracking and deterioration, and to the
fine packing of particles achieved through the very large fly-ash content and the absence of
coarse aggregate, which render the porosity very low, favorably contributing towards the
reduction of permeability.
1

INTRODUCTION

This years COP21 United Nations Conference on climate change has issued a resolution
to limit the rate of global warming through a global reduction of emissions responsible. The
production of Portland cement is accountable for 5% of global CO2 emissions, owing to the
extreme heat required for cement production: a ton of cement requires 4.7 million BTU of
energy, equivalent to about 180kg of coal, and generates nearly a ton of CO2. Cements
production is growing by 2.5% annually, and is expected to rise from 2.55 billion tons in 2006
to 3.7-4.4 billion tons by 2050 with the equivalent amount of CO2 emitted in the environment

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

[2]. Additionally to the emissions, cement and concrete production is responsible for the
excessive consumption of lime, clay and burning energy required in the process, also for the
use of water and gradated crushed aggregate materials. According with the 1987 UN
definition, sustainable development is meeting the present needs without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their needs. With the increasing development of the
build environment throughout the globe and the trends of people in the developing world to
adopt to a consumer-driven lifestyle, the question of concretes sustainability gains new
perspective. Recycling of aggregates is pursued as one alternative at the cost of yet more
energy and resources in order to process materials to a re-usable state. One of the most
promising attempts for sustainable development for concrete is the use of fly ash (FA), a
byproduct of the energy industry that otherwise ends up in wastelands creating lots of
environmental problems.
1.1 Cement Emissions
CO2 emissions are generated both from the heating of limestone in cement-production but
also from the fossil fuels burned to create that heat. This process known as calcination,
accounts for 50% of CO2 emissions for cement production. The remaining 40% comprises
indirect emissions from burning of fossil fuels. Additionally the electricity used to power
additional plant machinery, and the final transportation of cement, represents another source
of indirect emissions and account for 5-10% of the industrys emissions. One of the most
promising techniques to reduce emissions from the calcination process is the use of blended
cement made by replacement of some of the limestone-based clinker with other materials,
primarily FA [3].
Fly ash has been incorporated into the modern codes as a cement replacement that is
limited to a maximum of 20%. This was based on concerns raised in early experimental
studies where coarser FA with high amounts of carbon content had been used. Originally, FA
had been used in massive concrete structures such as dams as a means to reduce thermal
cracking and therefore increase water-tightness. The beneficial results of FA are owing to the
particle size (40% under 10 microns - greater early age strengths), and to the lower reactivity
that can reduce the water content in the mix (20% reduction of water with 50% FA) resulting
in a denser microstructure (with or without the use of aggregates); these benefits come at the
expense of plastic shrinkage cracking, an issue that ought to be addressed by developing new
formulas of composites.
1.2 Relevance of the present research to sustainable design
Structural engineers may meet the requirements of sustainable structural design either by
using technologies that address the ecological and natural resources aspect, and/or by the
design of durable and resilient structures with longer service life. Neglecting the connection
between the advent in material technologies, structural design, and the objectives of
sustainable design leads to structures with a shorter service-life, resource-intensive requiring
more extensive maintenance [4].
This research concerns a material engineered to balance all sustainability objectives that
consider the energy embodied within a structure. Increased sustainability was achieved
through partial replacement of Portland Cement (PC) with FA, elimination of coarse

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

aggregate (max. aggregate size < 300m) and through addition of fibers to increase energy
absorption under mechanical load. This is characterized as high-performance fiber-reinforced
cementitious composite (HPFRCC) designed to resist large tensile and shear forces while
remaining compatible with ordinary concrete in almost all other respects such as compressive
strength and durability [1].
Previous research regarding the use of FA has documented the many beneficial aspects of
its use in concrete such as low permeability and high durability ([5], [6]). Also it was shown
for high-strength concrete that replacement levels of PC at a content by weight of 35% are
effective in controlling generation of heat of hydration [7]. Indeed it was shown [8] that
HVFAC (High Volume FA Composites with more than 50% of cement replacement) exhibits
lower shrinkage, creep and water permeability, and higher modulus of elasticity as compared
to conventional concrete (CC). But based on a review of the existing literature, there is a lack
of evidence regarding the structural performance of this class of materials containing
unconventionally high fractions of cement replacement, i.e. their behavior in reinforced
concrete structural members. Without this background, there is no quantitative basis for safely
implementing ECC in structural design. Ongoing studies at the University of Cyprus are
intended to study this particular issue. In this context, a series of tests are undertaken to
characterize the structural performance of members under tension, compression, flexure and
shear of a mix of 60% replacement of cement with FA, without the use of coarse aggregate,
with and without the use of fibers. The experimental program, test results, and analyses for
this study are presented in the following sections.
1.3 Backround of the State of the Art and Standards
Fly Ash is defined by ASTM [9] as the finely divided residue that results from the
combustion of ground or powdered coal and that is transported by flue gasses. The Standard
of the ACI classifies FA into three categories: class N, F, and C based on their chemical
compositions [10]. FA as cement replacement in normal concrete has been a long standing
standardized practice used extensively in construction as a replacement or supplementary
material in amounts of 1525% of cement [11]. Recently, higher amounts have been
considered - for example, FA was used at about 3075% mass replacement of hydraulic
cement to reduce heat generation in construction of the Thames Barrage in the United
Kingdom and the Upper Stillwater Dam in the United States [10]. However, specification for
the use of FA in the production of SHCC (Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites) has
not yet been incorporated in Modern Codes, consistently with the fact that this application is
rather recent and therefore not fully supported with the critical mass of data and evidence
regarding the structural performance of the resulting members. In response to this emerging
needs, studies such as the one presented herein are intended to provide the essential lacking
evidence that can support the development of design rules for general practical use.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Materials
The target of the research was to examine the mechanical properties of a self-consolidating
cementitious mix, that has a high percentage of FA replacement and can maintain its

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

rheological properties with the addition of fibers. The mix design selected was ECC-M45 [12]
suitable also for large scale casting. The materials and quantities were adjusted to the local
available options. Thus, the cement used was Portland Composite Cement En 197-1 Cem Ii /
A-M (L-S) 42.5 R. This type of Blended Cement is produced using pure calcite limestone and
is more impermeable and dense as compared to OPC, with a higher degree of workability and
reduced plastic shrinkage. The compressive strength of this particular cement is at 28 days
equivalent to that of 42.5 R OPC and superior at 2 and 7 days. Silica sand (>95% Si) used had
a maximum grain size of 300m.
The FA was of type F and was imported. This class of FA has pozzolanic properties (a
pozzolan is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself, possesses little or
no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water,
react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties [9]. Class F FA is typically a byproduct of combustion of
anthracite or bituminous coal for the production of electricity, but may also be obtained from
burning sub-bituminous coal and lignite. Class F FA has been used in other studies as cement
replacement at fractions ranging from 20-30% of the mass of cementitious material but in this
research the amount of FA used was 120% by weight of the amount of cement (that is, one
part of hydraulic material in the final mixture comprised 45% cement and 55% fly-ash). In the
present investigation 12mm long, 39m diameter PVA fibers were used. The nominal tensile
strength was 1600MPa, Youngs Modulus was 40GPa and the density was 1300kg/m3. The
fibers used were specially coated. It has been shown in previous studies by the authors that
the coating on PVA fibers increases the dispersion of the hydrophilic fibers and the final
ductility of composites by changing the interface bond properties between the fibers and the
matrix [13]. Mix details for the two types of composites with and without the use of fibers are
listed in Table 1. The water and superplasticizer were adjusted according to the decrease of
workability in the case of SHCC induced by the fibers in the mix. Mixing procedure for the
mix with fibers (SHCC) is as follows: a) All dry materials are first added in the drum (cement,
fly-ash, sand) and stirred until adequately mixed, b) then 90% of the mixed water and
plasticizer are slowly added to the mix, c) after the mix reaches a self-consolidating fluidity
the fibers are added to the mix together with the remaining water and plasticizer.
Table 1: Mixture proportions

Mix
SHCC
HVFA

Cement
1.00
1.00

Fly Ash
1.20
1.20

Sand
0.80
0.80

Water
0.60
0.55

Super Plasticizer
0.017
0.012

Fibers
2% (per volume)
-

2.1 Specimen Design

Tests were carried out on a series of specimens to determine the mechanical properties of
the mix with (SHCC) and without the use of fibers (HVFA). The tests comprised of direct
tension, uniaxial compression and prism specimens under four point bending. Three identical
specimens were tested for each type of test and mix design.

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

Displacement controlled direct tensile tests were carried out on dog bone specimens. The
testing setup and mounting of specimens used specially designed hardware for this purpose.
Displacement rate was 0.0025mm/s and the gauge length of the measuring device was
100mm, with the specimen cross section at the critical location being 25mmx50mm. Also
uniaxial compression tests were performed on cylinder specimens to define the stress-strain
law (c c) under compression. Cylinder specimens 100mm in diameter and 200mm in
height, having an aspect ratio of 2 in order to eliminate the local end effects, were tested under
displacement control conditions. A closed-loop, servo controlled compressive testing machine
was used. A loading rate ranging from 10 m/s to 30 m/s was applied following the
recommendations of Concrete library of JSCE (1984). Axial deformations were measured
using two linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs) mounted on opposite sides of the
specimen with a gage length equal to 140mm. An additional LVDT measured the deformation
over the entire length of the specimen, through the displacement of the platens.
Circumferential elongation was measured using a circumferential extensometer (chain),
placed at the middle of the height of the coupon. An electronic data acquisition system was
used to record deformations and the corresponding loads.
Additionally to the tested dog-bone direct tensile tests and cylinders under compression,
tests on beams under four point bending were carried out. The distance between the load
points for the four point bending beams was 100mm with a cross section of 100x100mm. The
beams were supported on end rollers at a distance of 100mm from the intermediate loads.
Beams extended 25 mm over the supports. Beams were tested under displacement control at a
displacement rate of 1.5m/s. Five LVDTs were used to record the vertical deflection at the
supports, at the load points and at the middle of the beams.
3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Direct tensile properties

The initiation of cracks in concrete is governed by its tensile properties, therefore it is one of
the most important parameters needed to be determined prior to any analysis of a concrete
member. Even though its rather difficult to perform uniaxial tension tests on normal cement
composites, in the case of fiber cementitious composites this becomes more possible. In the
case of the HVFA mix the three samples that were casted for uniaxial tension, cracked during
their de-molding. The SHCC mix on the other hand demonstrated strain hardening response in
uniaxial tension as illustrated in Fig. 1(a). Strain was calculated as the elongation measured by
the equipment mounted on the specimens' two opposite sides (Fig. 1 (b)) and divided by the
gage length of 100mm. During the formation of multiple cracks, stress capacity of the cross
section increased. First cracking stress fty and corresponding first cracking strain ty depend
primarily on the matrix composition and fault distribution in the cross section. Past the yield
point multiple cracks form and fibers bridging the cracks elongate from the stress they
transfer but simultaneously they also pull-out from the matrix at the crack locations.
Formation of cracks saturates the full length within the measuring range and even spreads
outside that, on the wider cross sections of the specimen. Beyond a limiting strain value
which depends on the competition of interfacial bond and the tensile strength and stiffness of
the fibers, new cracks cease to form and crack localization is evident (this point defines the
maximum tensile stress ftmax and respective strain tmax); as bond strength increases with age

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

due to ongoing hydration, there is a growing tendency with age, of the occurrence of
increasing crack-widths and local fracturing of fibers witnessed by a marked reduction in the
available strain ductility tmax.
3.5

b)

c)

stress ft (MPa)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

a)

0.01 strain 0.015

0.005

Figure 1: (a) Stress-strain diagrams, (b) testing setup and (c) multiple cracking of direct tension test on SHCC

3.2 Uniaxial Compression

60

50

stress f c (Pa)

40
30
20

10
0

0.02

0.01

-0.01

strain

-0.02

Figure 2: (a) Stress - axial/lateral strain diagrams under compression of HVFA and SHCC mixes, (b) failure
cracks for HVFA (c) failure cracks for SHCC

Figure 2 (a) compares the stress - axial strain - lateral strain diagrams obtained from
compression tests conducted on specimens of the mix with the fibers (SHCC) and of the same
matrix without the fibers (HVFA). The compressive strength of the latter reaches 58MPa as
maximum from the three tested samples and 50.37MPa as the mean average, but with the
addition of fibers the strength decreases to a maximum obtained value of 52MPa and
45.08MPa as average. An increase by more than 30% in the axial deformation that
corresponds to peak load as compared to the corresponding values for plain mixes occurred in
the case of the matrix with the fibers (average strain at peak stress from -0.0032 for the HVFA
to -0.0041 for the SHCC), as well as a stable descending branch. Lateral deformation is
responsible for the rate of descend of the post peak branch. Fibers mobilized in the lateral
direction can bridge cracks, transferring load and limiting lateral expansion of the cylinder

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

under compression. This is evidenced by the restricted growth of post-peak lateral strain of
the mix with fibers as compared to the plain concrete specimens. The stress-strain curves
suggest that past the peak load, concrete with fibers behaves as if internally confined. The
intensity of confinement is directly related to the materials' stress-strain behavior under
tension.
3.3 Flexural Test Four point bending
The four point bending test is preferably used for determining the material properties in
tension since the central portion of the tested beam is under a uniform stress state with regards
to the three point bending test where maximum stresses are concentrated only under the
central load. This is more representative of the actual stress capacity as for brittle materials
the flaws that could be located at any point and not directly under the central load, are related
to crack initiation and tensile strength of the composite. The Load-Deflection diagrams
obtained from the four point bending tests (Fig. 3) shows the increase in fracture energy due
to the addition of fibers. Yield and ultimate moments at midspan are calculated from the
applied total loads P according with M4pb=Pa/2, where a=100mm. The mix without the fibers
(HVFA) collapses suddenly past the yield load as the crack rapidly penetrates through the
height of the cross section. In this type of test, collapse could occur at any point within the
constant moment region where moments attain their maximum value, at some weak cross
section, due to internal flaws and microcracking. The properties obtained through the 4-point
test for this type of mix differ from the ones obtained from a normal concrete mix of the same
compressive strength, owing to the absence of coarse aggregates that would give higher
stiffness, and due to the denser microstructure obtained via the use of FA. In the case of the
fiber reinforced composite (SHCC) multiple cracking is observed after the first crack, as if the
section had been reinforced. The cracking extends outside the constant moment region
indicating the strain hardening behavior of the material. The yield moment which
corresponds to first cracking is used to determine the flexural cracking strength of the
composites as it marks the end of the elastic branch. At the extreme tension fiber flexural
stress is estimated from: ft,fl=M/(bh2/6). The load reached by the HVFA mix is 11.1 kN
(My=Mu=0.65kNm) while the yield load for SHCC is 24.37kN (My=1.22kNm) and ultimate
total load is almost double, at 40.25kN (Mu=2.01kNm). Estimation of the flexural stress from
the flexural moment is valid only for the linear part of behavior where the neutral axis is at
specimens mid-height and the stress distribution may be assumed linear to the maximum
(yield) strength at the top and bottom surfaces; thus calculation is exact up to yielding (the
term corresponds to the end of the ascending branch of the load-displacement response). After
yielding, for the SHCC mix fibers bridge the full depth of the tension region of the cross
section up till the maximum stress, so the full cross section is participating in the transfer of
load. In this context, the equation is no longer exact, but it is used to convert the load to a
nominal stress value of the various specimens for comparison purposes. Therefore
ft,fl=3.35MPa for the HVFA mix, whereas fty,fl=7.32MPa and ftu,fl=12.06MPa for the SHCC
flexural strength at the yield point and at the ultimate. The direct tensile strength may be
estimated from this measured flexural tensile strength value using Eq. 1 as suggested by the
Model Code [15]. Equation (1) is used to calculate the first cracking stress (ft,cr) of the
material in direct tension; hb is the cross sectional depth of the flexural specimen. Cracking

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

strain (t,cr) is obtained from the ratio of cracking stress ft,cr divided by the elastic modulus (E).
The coefficient Afl relating flexural to tensile strength is 0.6 and the direct tensile strength is
2MPa for the HVFA and 4.39MPa at yield and 7.24MPa at maximum for the SHCC mix.

Load (N)

f t ,cr A fl f t , fl ,

where, A fl

45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

a fl hb0.7
1 a fl hb0.7

0.6,

a fl 0.06

(1)

HVFA
SHCC

2
Deflection (mm)

Figure 3: (a) Total Applied Load-deflection under point loads under 4-point bending of HVFA and SHCC
mixes, (b) failure cracks for HVFA (c) failure cracks for SHCC

3.4 Material Properties

Average compressive strength from the experimental results is 50.37MPa for HVFA and
45.08MPa for the SHCC mix. Mean deviation is determined as 8MPa [15] and the
characteristic values for the mixes is 42.37MPa and 37.08MPa respectively. Tensile strength
can be determined from the compressive characteristic values [15] as per Equation 2. Based
on Eq. 2 the tensile strength of the HVFA mix is 3.65MPa and for the SHCC is 3.36MPa.
for C<50 then fctm=0.3(fck)2/3

(2)

Compared to the values attained from the four point bending test and Eq. 1, the tensile
strengths of the HVFA and SHCC concretes as estimated from compressive strength deviate
by +83% (ft,cr=2MPa from 4-point bending) and -30% (ft,cr=4.39MPa from 4-point bending),
respectively. This difference could affect the estimation of the capacity of a structural member
if the wrong tensile strength is adopted. The assumed relationship between tensile to flexural
and tensile to compressive strength of the material is obtained from equations calibrated with
normal-weight concrete [15]. Based on the results listed above it seems that this calibration is
no longer valid when mixes with high amounts of FA, lack of coarse aggregate, low water
content with or without the use of fibers, such as those studied herein, are considered. The
tensile strength of the structural members material controls both the SLS and the ULS design
criteria of a structure, being used to determine numerous detailing parameters, e.g. thickness
of the reinforcement cover, bond strength and development length requirements, and the shear
strength. Thus, extending Modern Codes to include SHCC materials rides on the ability to
adequately estimate their mechanical properties in direct and indirect tension. Tensile

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

properties estimated indirectly from the compressive or the flexural strength (Section 3.2 and
3.3) are much higher than the average yield tensile strength (=2.5MPa) and ultimate tensile
strength (=2.8MPa) obtained from direct tension experiments (Section 3.1).
4

FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

The four point bending tests of the two mixes are modeled in Abaqus with the Concrete
Damage Plasticity model. Modulus of Elasticity is taken equal to 20GPa for both mixes based
on the uniaxial compression experimental results (based on the load and deformation values at
40% of the ultimate load). Poissons ratio is 0.3 and the density of the material is 2000kg/m 3.
The supports of the specimen are a sliding and a rotational pin. Load is applied as vertical
displacement. The dilation angle is chosen to be 50o based on the lateral deformation
measurements of the uniaxial compression test. The volume/or size of the mesh is verified
based on the fracture energy consumed in the cracks. A relation between the mesh size (lc)
and the materials tensile strain properties (1, u) (Eq. 3) should be adopted during simulation
to eliminate mesh size effects on the results. Figure 4 (a) shows the correlation between
different mesh sizes and the correctly defined 1 and u values as determined by the Model
Code. With this procedure there is only a difference by 5.31% between the peak load results
of the same model with different mesh sizes.
1=cr+ w1/lc

and

u=cr+ wu/lc

(3)

(b)

Figure 4: (a) Load-Deflection Curves of 3D FE analysis of HVFA mix with different mesh size and tensile
strength, (b) comparison of experimental results with FE analysis

The results from the FE simulation presented in Figure 4 (a) (greyscale) are calculated with
a tensile strength of 3.65MPa as determined by the Model Code (Eqn. 2), based on the
characteristic compressive strength. In the case of the HVFA mix this tensile strength value
gave 50% higher total load value as compared with the experimental result (in the FE
simulation ultimate load is 15kN, whereas in the experiment it is 11kN). This suggests that
Eqn. 2 which was calibrated for normal concrete does not apply in the case of the mixes
studied herein and tensile strength is in the order of 0.16(fck)2/3 - almost half the value
prescribed by the Model Code [15] for normal concrete. When the tensile strength of the
HVFA composite incorporated in the FE analysis is taken equal to 2MPa, as calculated from
the four point bending test, the ultimate load from the analysis reaches up to 12kN, a value
very close to the experimental results average. In Figure 4(b) the experimental results from

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

the four point bending tests are compared to the Load-Deflection curves obtained from FE
modeling with the two different tensile strengths, i.e., 2 and 3.65MPa estimated from the fourpoint bending and uniaxial compression tests, respectively. From this Figure it may also be
concluded that the flexural stiffness of the experimental results is almost half the value
obtained from the FE analysis. This is due to the Damage Plasticity Model used in the F.E.
simulation that considers that elastic stiffness is the same both for the compressive and the
tensile properties of the material, something unrealistic since the tensile and compressive
properties in a mix consisting of multiple materials are not actually the same.

Figure 5: Stress and strain results of FE modeling of the HVFA (mix without fibers) at the beginning of crack
localization and at the last step of the analysis
Table 3: Tensile properties of HVFA mix for FE simulation

A
B

Mesh
size
10
10

fct

w1= GF / fctm

wu= 5 GF/fctm

w1/lc

wu/lc

2.0
3.65

0.0739
0.0405

0.3695
0.2025

0.00739
0.00405

0.03695
0.02025

1=cr+
w1/lc
0.00757
0.00423

u=cr+
wu/lc
0.0371
0.0204

In the case of FE modeling of the SHCC specimens, the tensile stress-strain curve used was
that obtained from the uniaxial tension test. When these properties (fty=2.8MPa, ty=0.00014,
ftu=3.1MPa, tu=0.008015) were used in the simulation, the resulting Load-Deflection curve
gave a good approximation of the yield-point, but it could not simulate the full range of the
strain hardening behavior up to the experimental ultimate load. The dimensions of the
specimens cross section for the uniaxial test, the percentage and flaws distribution in the
small cross section (25mmx50mm) as compared to the dimensions of the beams under four
point bending (100mmx100mm) and the limitations of the gripping mechanism transferring
stresses through the uniaxial tension test give false ultimate stress and strain values for the
composite and this is obvious when using those parameters in numerical simulation. In order
to find the proper material properties in tension, an inverse analysis of the four point bending
tests was used based on the theoretical proposal made in [16] for three point bending tests.
The inverse analysis gave the following tensile properties for the SHCC: fty=3.564MPa,

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

ty=0.00054, ftu=5.26MPa, tu=0.01. In Figure 6 the Load-Deflection curves of the experiment

is compared to the FE analysis with tensile properties based on the direct tensile test results
(DT) and the inverse analysis (INV). The FE simulation with tensile properties from the
inverse analysis shows good agreement with the experimental curves.

Figure 6: Load-Deflection curves of FE modeling of the SHCC (mix with fibers) and experimental results
and strain and stress distribution at maximum load of INV FE analysis

12 CONCLUSIONS
-

One of the most important products that may be used for a more ecological design of
structures is fly ash; however, in order to better fulfill the overall sustainability design
cement replacement by fly ash is accompanied with the addition of synthetic dispersed
fibers so as to enhance the longevity of the structure as well as its resilience, deformation
capacity, durability and overall resistance of the resulting structure to natural disasters
such as earthquakes by optimizing the use of materials.
The resulting materials may be considered as functionally graded in the sense that the CO2
footprint is substantially reduced while desirable structural properties such as ductility and
resilience are achieved without an inordinate amount of confining steelreinforcement;
this is another synergistic effect towards improved sustainability objectives.
In this study, the experimentally determined properties in uniaxial tension and
compression of two mix designs with high volume cement replacement with fly ash, with
and without the use of fibers, were used to simulate analytically, the behavior of those
composites in flexure, by comparing FE modeling analysis results to the experimental
load-deflection curves of small beams in flexure.
Cement replacement by up to 60% with FA may yield composites that attain compressive
strengths up 58MPa, while the addition of fibers in the same mix lowered the strength by
as much as 6MPa. However, the addition of fibers increased by 30% the axial deformation
associated with peak load, restrained lateral expansion at peak load and controlled the
compression failure giving a stable postpeak descending branch.
Tensile, flexural and compressive strength of a material as proposed by Model Code [15]
are connected with equations calibrated with normal concrete. In the case of mixes with
high amounts of FA, lack of coarse aggregate, low water content with or without the use
of fibers it is shown that these calibrated empirical expressions do not apply. As tensile
strength is a very important analysis parameter, procedures for its proper determination

Antroula V. Georgiou and Stavroula J. Pantazopoulou

must be incorporated into Modern Codes for these types of materials.

Results obtained from direct tensile tests may underestimate the ultimate strength and
strain capacity of the composite when this is placed in a 3-D state of stress. Flaws and size
effects (in terms of possible voids during compaction for the estimation of stress from the
specimens area, and the gauge length used in estimation of average strain from crack
widths) may result in lower values than what may be supported in the presence of a more
complex stress state. An inverse analysis of flexural tests is needed in order for the
experimental results to coincide with the FE analysis.

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