The Lords of Ti kal

PETER

NE\(

ASPECTS OF ANTIQL]ITY

Generai Editor: COLIN RENFRE\(/

Consulting Editor for the Americas: JEREMY A' SABLOFF

D.

The
Ru lers

with r4o illus

PETER D. HARRISON

The Lords of Ti kal

Rulers of an Ancient MaYa CitY

with rqo illustrations,

in color

THAMES AND HUDSON

Foreword

The Maya
THE NIAYA
DRAINA(;E

CHRONOL(

For Alexandra Carroll Madeira Harrison

Tikal

disc

THE, NAI4F

PROJECT:

TIKAL TOI

Villages
Frctntispiece: Itcconstmction from Alt:rr 5 shorvirrli Hrsrtv Clhan I('awil ar-r,l a lorcl
fr6r-r'r Crlrkr-r'rr.rl at thc erhLlnation of Hasarv's lvifc's reutritls (see ill. 8r).

BIRTH, DN

'fIKAL'S LI
TH}.- EB SI:

THETZF,C

Anv copr,,of this book issuetl br- the pulrlishcr rs a papcrback is solcl subjcct to
the conclrti6l that it sl'rall not by 1r'irv of trldc or othcr$'ise bc lcnt, resolcl,
1-rirecl out or othcr\visc circulatccl r,vrthout thc pLrblishcr's prior cottscltt ilt irrr\'
fornr of brncling or covcr othel tl'rar-r th:rt in rvhich it is publishccl lttcl rvithor:t a
sin-rilrr conclitior-r inch-rcling thesc rvorcls bcing irr-rposccl otr a subsccluettt purchaser.

The mov

TIKAL BE(

ACROPOLI
I)RF-CLASS

AT TIKAL
aC)

r999

Tl'rrrnres ltrcl Httdsot'r Ltcl, Lottclorl

First publisl.rcd irr l.rarclcovcr in thc L.lnitecl Statcs of Arncrica in 1999 bv

Thrrmcs ancl Huclson Itrc., 5oo Fifth Avcntre, Ncu' Vrrk, Ncu'Vrrl< rorro
Librer,v of C)or-rgrcss
ISBN o-5oo-o.io94-5

(ietalog C.ard Ntrmbe r

c28-6

r 523

The birtl
THE COIJ
SYSTEN4S

"fHF- SIGN

Change

All Rights Rcscrvccl. No part of this publicetion mal- bc rcprodr-rcccl or translnittccl

i1 rr1\,' fgrrn or b,v anv rrreans, electrottic or mcchatticll, irlcluding photocop\',
rccorcling or any other inforrn:rtion storage ancl rctrieval s)'stcm, rvithor,rl pri,rr
pcrrrission ir-r lvritir-rg frotn the publishcr.

TROUBLF-

Architec
PRI-]C]LAS

AT TII(AI

Printccl :rntl boutrcl in Sirrgapore

CONTENTS

Foreword fron-r the Editors

The Maya and their civilization
THE Mr\YA AREA

tT

-fHE I-.VOLLITION OF NiAYi\ CIVII.IZATION I

THE

DRAINAGF- DiVIDF' oF THE CENTRAL PI.,TEN l ] THE FORES'f ENV]R()NI,{F,NT

CHRONOLO(;IES: OLJIT VIEV 20 (]FIIiONOt-OGIF-S: THEIR VIE\X1 ?2,

zc)

Tikal discovered
Tilt- NAMI.

OF

rll

Tll(AL 29 THE IIISTORY OF l)lSC-OVl'RY

PRO.]EC'f: t]NIVERSITY oF PI-]NNSYL\ANIA

3i

3r 'fHE lll(Al.

PROYF,(-'f() NA(]IONAL TIKAL

]7

TIK,,\I- TOD,\Y 40

Villages around the ridge: the Middle

L

:r lorcl

Preclassic

45

BtRfH, DA\XrN, ANI) TIIF. (lOl.OR RED 4,5 soLIR(ILS OF SETTI.F.NIL.NT '+6
'TIt(Ar-'S L.ATE llEa;lNNlNC;
47 THE r\{lDl)t-E lltE(ILi\SSIC AT Tll(AL 48
THL EB strts 48 cHARACITLRISTIc.S oF THE PI()NI'.ER sF.TTLF.r\IENT .to
THE 'fZEC, (]ERA]V1IC COX,{PLEX 5I

tto
The move into greatness: the Late
I\'

TII(AI-

rta

ACROI'OLIS

chascr,

BECloj\,11-.s

A CITY

tl

Preclassic

5l l-HE L.osr \\'ORL.D

DEATH AS A'WINDO\\T.58

PYII.AN{Il)

C;NR'TiT'TICS

56

THF' NORIH

OF I-HT' L,ATE

I'RECI,ASSIC:'7AN AR'I'FORM AND TI,\IE JVIARI(}"R 6I CHLJI-]N TIMT,S

AT T|(AL 62 cAtlAC TIMF.S AT TIKAI- 61, CIMI TII\'ll-.s AT rlKAl. 64
(r\

The birth of dynasties: the Early Classic emerges

THL, COL]NT OF I(NO\\1N KINC]S

69

ROYAL SI-]TTLT'-NIT'N'|

ANI)

DEFL',NSL'

SYSTI-.MS71THESr\(IRE.DCILANIIOLISECIFTHE.JACiIIARCLA\X1FAMILY76
'fHE SI(;NIFIC]ANCE OF ROYAL TITLF.S AT TII(At- 79 A TLJRNINCI POINT li I

Change arrd challer-rge: the end

smrtted

of the Early Classic

8z

I.ROLJBLEI) TIMES: THE EARLY CLASSI(- DARK AC;ES 92

ll
'ior

Architecture at Tikal
PRI.-CLASSIC]I.HROLI(;IlF-ARI,Y(]LASSICIoTARCHITECTI]RI-ANDSTYI-E
AT

.I-IKAI-

II2

ta7

rr9

The hiatus: war and outside dominance

Return of the clan Jaguar Claw
Hasaw Chan K'awil
THE DL,FF.AT oF CALAK\,lUL
AI.TAR
IO

j rll

r3o

the genius of

r2i

ROYAL SORRO\\r: THE STOI{Y ON

OTHER I(NCl\YN DATF,S r\ND EVENTS IN HASA\V'S LIFF. r,+o

r47

A family affair: Hasaw's descendants

Ancient MaYa

THE LrN-fF.L OF STRLICTLIRI iD--52-rST r,+9 YII{'lN'S C;RLAI.F.ST

PRO.IECT: TEJ\{PLL, IV Ii3 TEMPT-F, VI: TIIL, I.FT,MPLE OF THI-INS(.RIPTIONS r_58 Tt$. IILIRIAL

II

I2

OF

and aesthetic a
the jungle canc

YIK'lN r62

glyphs are
RLil.t'.RS

LIM|F.D COTJRIYARD

r8.5 TlrL.

r8r

Lq.LLCoUKts

PALACE CI{OLIPS

r8,+

CF.NTRAL ACITOPOLIS

PI_ANNL.l) GITOWTH

r8o

and palaces ar
In recent Ye
some of the

ancient MaYa

FRF-F.STANDINC MAJOR

knowledge ab

l-IKAL'S

rgo
r92

Decline and fall: the last days

THI-. TERIIINAL CII-ASSIC

THE POSTCII-A5SIC

r66

r8z t'el,tcrs r8j

r87

rgg

rgz

CALISES

ITETROSPL,CT

iust

public's imagir
ing the Maya,

r73

Late Classic architecture, city planning, and the growth of Tikal

T\xrtN-pyRAx{tD clROUps

r3

PLACT-.

The last three lords

YAX AIN ll (RllLER c; c.HlTAri; -\K) rr.tr TllL I'INAL TVro

PALACT-.S

FORE

Or' T'HE C:ClLLAt',Sl. r98

2oo

in the deciphe
ologicai meth
standings of t
Amongthe
ciation that tl

cities and wet

the Maya had
Maya aiso ut
reclamation,

Visiting Trkal

that is often

Notes to thc text

2-AZ

centuries bef(
civilization u

Bibliogr:rpiry

20i

bors in ancie
economicalll

Acknowleclgnreuts and illustration creclits

z,o6

that scholars
but had

Inclex

zo6

lon

the subjects

vessels were
but had a str

dynastic hist
rulers.
Vith the

most signifir

change in sc
Archaeologl

trc)

FORE,WORD FROM THE EDITORS

rzt

r47

t66

r8o

r9L

20i
zo6

zo6

Ancient Maya civihzation is rcnciwned for the sophisticatron of its intellectuai

and aesthetic achievemcnts. Stone temples on tall pyramidal bases rising above
the lung1e canopy and elaboratcly carvcd stonc monurlcnts covercd with hieroglyphs are jr-rst two of the images of the ancient Maya that are etchecl in the
pr-rblic's imagination. There is also a popular impression of mystery surrounding the Maya, and photographs of tropical vegetation engulfing rr-rined ten-rples
ar-rd palaces are often used to characterizc this scemingly cnigm:rtic culturc.
In recent years, however, modcrn scholarship has succccdcd in cr-rtting back
some of the metaphorical foliage that has impecled understanding of the
ancient Maya and has provided significant new insights into archaeological
knowledge abor-rt the rise and growth of this compler culture. Breakthroughs
in the decipherrrent of the Maya hicroglyphic writing systcm rnd ncw archaeological methods have both contributed heavily to these dramatic new understandings of the Maya.
Among the rrew scholarly understandings of Maya civilization are the appreciation that thc ancient Maya had an urban civilization with numerous large
cities and were not a "civilization witl'ror-rt cities" ils previously sr-rpposed; tl-rat
the Maya had a mixed resource base ar-rd did not tcrt.rlly rcly on maize; that the
Maya also utrliz-ed varied agricultural techniques, such as intensive swamp
reclamation, and did r-rot jr-rst practice the slash-and-burn cultivation method
that is often cmployed by the moclern Maya; that Maya civilization arose many
centuries before the bcginning of the Classic period around eo 8oo; that Milya
civilization was not isolated in its tropical rainforest heartland from its neighbors in ancient Merico to the north or Central America to the sollth bllt was
cconomically, politically, and ideologically embedded in the wider culture area
that scholars call "Mesoamerica"l that the Maya were not a peaceful people
but had a long history of intercity conflict; and last, but certainly not least, that
the subjects of hieroglyphic texts found on monllments, br-rildings, and ceramic
vessels were not limrted to esoteric matters such as astronomy and calendrics
but had a strong historical and political content that r:el:rted to topics sr.rch as
dynastic histories and the political and ideological glorification of individual
rulers.

With the advantage of historical hindsight, it is now clear that one of the
most significant and influential archaeological projects in this revolutionary
change in scholarly thinking was the University of Pennsylvania Museum of
Archaeology ancl Anthropology's research, in conjr,rnction with the govern-

FOITE\vOlI.D
1I]
mcnt of Guaremaia, at the great Maya sitc of Tikal. The Tikal Project wils
of the
opefation for more thar-r a decade from thc late r95os through the close
Edwin
of
clirectorship
field
,ieor. This major proiect was ifritiated r,rnder thc
R. coe. From
S-hook and subsecluently led for most of its history by william
the close of the large Trkal Project around I97o through the I99os'
sitc. L1
Guatemalan archaeologists have continr-red important licldwork at the
in
ycars
r1lany
for
participated
this engrossing volurne, Dr. Peter Harrison, whcl
subsear-rd
the Tiial p.,,;-..t, discusses the many contributiorrs of the Project
quent rese:lr.'h thot have led to a raclically new apprccietion of the cultural
in its ecoachievements of the ancienr Maya. Dr. Harrison clearly places Til<al
over :'t
dcvelopment
site's
the
logical conrext apcl takes the reacler t[rough
in
the
,,foo-y.". pcriod, from its rise around 8oo sc to its de''rise
'inth
of
cenrury oo. H" brings the latest scholarship to bear on his inte-rpretations
and
its
rulers
of
downs
and
r-rps
the
growth,
Tik:rl,s architectural and political
their dynasties, ancl Tikrrl's conpetitive position vis-1-vis other major urban
reader
ccllters such as C:rlakrnul. Throughout this interprctivc nlrfative, thc
will continually see the stimulating role that thc archaeological research at
Tikal pi:ryed in reshaping Maya scholarship. The pioneering str-rdy of Tikal's
and
urbzrn serrlement, th. n.* insights into the agriculturtrl techniclues
uncovwere
produce that supported the large population concentrations that
ir"d ot Tikal, "r'rJ th. evider-rce for e arly cultural complerity prior to the ot'rset
Harof the classic pcriod at tl-rc site are just several of the areas in which Peter
to
oniy
not
made
Proicct
risor-r illustrates the key contribr-rtions that the Tikal
civilizaMaya
the illuminarion of the site's history but thc understandi[rg of

tion in gcneral.

Fo. ti-r.rse readers who are engrossed by t6e ancient Maya and the immensity
of their cultural acconplishments, for those interested in the rise of prefasindustrial civilization throughout the ancient world, and for those who are
ci'arecl by stories of scieniific archaeologicai discoveries, this volume will

certainly prove to bc a delightful reading erperience. \fle invite you to share

Dr. Harrisor.t's cr-ichantmcnt with the remarkable site of Tikal.
Jeremy A. Sabloff

Colin Renfrew

Great cities,

expense, refl

happen. In tl
forest of Gur
colors, and s

pretation.

This arch
class civiliza
from 8oo ec
cal classifica
piace the cit

civilizations

By the ti

65 sq. km, v

buildings
figure of

ar

sc

entertained

cally and ir

successive k

performed.
jungle has

sion of
lifted the vt

ror

Great ci'
base aroun

ering

stage

New Worl

however, a
dryness of

Nile, the 1,
det-rt upor

mYSterY at

at Tikal -

subiect an

?roject rvas
close

Le

C]HAPTE,R ONE

ir-r

of the

THE, MAYA AND TFIE,IR

CIVILTZAT ION

hip of Eclr,vin
R. Coe. Fronr

h thc

r 99os,

at the sitc. In
nan,v -ve ars in
:ct rtncl subsc-

f thc culturrll
ikal in its eco-

pment ovcl' il
in the nirrth
rpretatior.rs

of

its mlcrs ancl

major urbat.t
ve, thc rcrcler

al research at
rclv of Tikai's
:hr.riclncs

ar.rd

t \\rere ul'tcov)r to the onset

ich Peter Har-

to
\4al'a civiliza-

Je

not

or.r1y

:he in'rnrensity

:
'e

risc

of pre-

r'vho are fas-

r voltrrnc urill
: ,volr to share

mt,- A.

Sabloff

)olin Renfrew

Grert cities, like greet works of art, are thc product of a grcat clcill of time and
expcnse, reflecting the full r:rngc of emotions of the people thrrt ntadc them
h:rpperr. In the case of Tikal, its splcnclicl setting, pertially hidclen in thc rainforest of Guatem:rla, :rncl thc hedor-ristic clclights offered by thc city's textures,
coiors, ancl sl'rapes arrd tl'rc lrysteries tlrrit lie ber.rerrth its sttrfacc- - invitc interpretatiot'r.

This :rrchitcctural splenclor developed within the franrervork of a u'orldclass civilizatiorr the ancient M:rya. The citv of Tikal tl-rrii,ed and cxpartcled
from 8oo BC ulrtil AD 9oo, spar.rnir-rg most of the knorvn pcriocls of arcl-raeological classificiltion in.rposed by scientific rese ilrch Llpolr the Milya civiliz-ation. Ttr
place the city itr context wc mrlst first examinc how it conparcs u,ith the rise of
civilizations in gcneral, :.rncl how it fits withrn its ou'tt civiiization.
By the tinic of its collapse iri the roth ccnturX Tikal coverecl roughly
6-; sq. knt, lvith over j,ooo kr-rou'n surf:rcc structLlres. As ntattv i:ts ro,ooo mir-rcd
builclings arrcl pl:rtfornrs may lie belorv t1-ie sr-rrface. The populatiorr reacl-red :i
figure of sorlewhcrc between roo,ooo and zoo,ooo, :rlthough a[gL]lrrcllts are
entertair-red for evcn greitter numbcrs. The peak of :rcl'rievement, both politically:rncl in ternrs of mcinumental architecture, fell during the reign of three
successive kings in the 9tl-r centLlry when :rstotiishing feats of cc'rttslructit.,tt tvcre
performecl. These monulnclrts still risc ilbove the tropical forest, altl-ror-rgh thc
lungle has obscr-rrecl most of thc city, blessing the ruins rvith thc aclclecl climer-rsion of romanticism :rnd mystcrll Decades of archaeologrcal rcscarch have
lifted the veil of mystcry only shgl-rtly
Great civilizations bcgan to emergc in the Old Worlcl out of au :rgricultural
base around 4ooo BC. Tl're sarne proccss of emergencc fronr a hr.rr.rting i'urcl gathering stage into farmcrs :rncl thence irrto complex socictics took place iri thc
Nerv \ilorld at somewhat lilter d:rtes, its far: as is uow kno'uvt'l. Differences,
however, attendecl the origins of the Ma1'a. For example, in ccltttrast to the
dryncss of thc clcse rts of Egypt ilncl its deperrclcrrcc Llpon the lifc-giving Rii'er
Nile, the lowlarrd sctting of the Maya civiliz:rtion w:rs ltrsh ancl r':rriccl, dcpendent upon a rain cycle that was not alr,v:rys reliablc. The romauticisnr ar.rcl
mystcry associatccl rvith the public irnage of the Maya civilization arc vcry real
at Tikal features which continLle to promote its popr-rlarity both as :r filn'r
subject and a focus cif scrious rese:rrch.

THE MAYA AND THEIR CIVILIZATION

The Maya

The land
I

Mexico,

co

and all of t

Ozibilchaltun

Maya civilr
northwestt

in two

geo

mountain

divrded ber
a distinctir

The contr:
ied to a mi

ity, the low

ROO

CAMPECHE
B ASC

O\\.... i.----..,.. '--'i. Calakmul oc

\"'---'
'-----'-'-----------/i----

j
'-u"",";Jt
",JJ-t
i

,1w/Cu.,'octo,ni

The evolu

:);7?@
:);7?@

The Maya
the z8 Mr
that date I

! Lamanai'
. i.'- lrHa
- -'- Allun
J t""
\ lsanJose/\<\

n's-' fi",
\'.0'"'
r> /:iir:^"t't*r,
/""ii i^"t'*)))
roninal r"nr"*t*"*'-'
4='
Yaxcniran\

s \cHtApAS

,on".ol*

\Y.
BELIZE
il JL.'rseiuar ( lcaracot ,,

\on".o:-lk#n,.,8i1".,.sacrilicios
\..-'

W4
L ^,

""------Y-f

in land

environme

. c

fc

who becar
Becan

TA

regimes,

[6:;

of the C1a

fest themt
rounds th
predated

fr

guages, c

glyphic

other

sc

sep

tongues iI

Despitt
\
'

a-\
-'-4/-

\l)

xaminalit yu

,r'
e'/

;""'s
Regional map

in larger Print.

of

more enl
Maya ach

-\r

tl

the rate ol

I
\

l.-----'. t.
EI

l-L

A LV A D o

the Maya area with selected cities Tikal, and cities

the probl,
\,t

of

-'\_,rr--u--,

major interaction are shoun

and preo,
thought t
influence

"hydrauli
Tiadition

because t

burn cult

TIII, MAYA AND

THI-,

II{ CIVILlZA:|ION

The Maya area

The land milss occllpiecl by the Maya covers a significant p:rrt of modern
Mexico, comprising the eastem portions of thc statcs of T:rbasco and Chiapas,
ancl all of the states of Campeche, Yucatan, and Qr-rintana Roci. In :rclclition the
Mrrya civilizatior-r extended into all of modern Gllatemala and Belize aricl thc
northwcstcrn parts of El Salvador and Honduras (iLl. r). This area is describecl
in two geographic zolres: the relatively flat Yuc:ltarr Pcninsula and a series of
mcir-rntairi ranges r,vhich lic at the base of this peninsula. Thcsc ranges are
diviclecl between the northcrn and southern highlands. There is :r slcipc forming
a clistinctive region th:rt leads frorn the rrrountair.rs down to the Pacific Occan.
The contrast betu'een the hot, wet lowlarrcls :rncl the cooler, drier highlands has
led to a misconccption of r-rr-riformity within each of thcse trvo zones. In actuality, the lowlands :rre extraordirrilrily varied, exhibiting a variety of vcgctational
regimcs, ccimplex drainage systems :rnd topographic relief. Al1 this varicty

have been a welcomc challenge for the ancient Maya

who becamc aclept at exploiting ancl ad:rpting to llricro-niches ir-r their varied
environment.

in lar-rcl form must

The evolution of Maya civilization

Tlre Maya still livc in this irrea today, nr-rmberirrg ovcr 7'/z million speakers of
tl-re z8 Mayan i:rnguagcs. Economic:rlly subsisting on agricultr.rral practices
that date back 35oo vcars, thcse people carry a rich:rnd substanti:rl retnainder
of thc Classic civilization of their anccstors - beliefs and practices that manifest themselves in sclf-sustair-ring ways, reacting to thc rnodern life that sur-

rounds them (l//. z). Although many of the z8 modcrn May:rn languages
predatecl the Cl:rssic civilization it is now believed that only nv<-i of thcse languagcs, Chol and Yucatec, r,verc uscd in atrcient times as a basis for thc hicrclglyphic script that is a major fr,ature of the ancient civilizatiorr. Many of the
othcr scpar:rte Mayan languages havc clevelopecl aivay from ancient basc
tongr-rr's irr tlr. irtrcIr'cnittg tirilc.
Despite a centLlry and :r h:rlf of study, whicl-r has secn a rccent :rcceleration in
the rilte of scholarly brcilkthrciughs, improved archaeological tcchniclr-res, :tnd at
more er-rlightenecl approach tci non-\(/estern cultures, much of thc ancient
Maya achievement remains poorly r.rnderstood and hotly dispr-rted. Adclitrg to
the problern of incomplete knowlcdgc, there is a great deal of ethnoccntrism
and preoccupation with cherishcd models of how non-'Western sc.,cietics lru

,n are shown

thought to h:rvc operated. Some such models wcrc forgccl in therg6os under the
influence of now-or-rtdatecl Marxist thinking about thc prc-cminence of
"hydraulic societics" - societies with econon-iic bases in irrigation tecl-n.riques.
Tiaditionally tl-re Maya u/cr:c prlt ir-i the "second divisior-r" cif civilizations
because their agricr-rltlrrc supposedly relied exclusiveiy t,r-r shifturg, slash-anclburn cultivation n-rethods. But lro$, rnore current studies havc prciven that the

THE MAYA AND THEIR CIVII-IZATION

'',3*;1,

although

Recent stu

arching N
collapse.2'
cooperati\'
were uniql
accomplis
Interact

and beyon
also of

shz

common \
remains a

include th,
class socie

Apart f
qualified :
remains ir
stone-tool
tive Maya
Modern Mdya lntlians in the market center of Santiago AtitLan, dt the highl.md lake of
Atitlan. Ancient figurines shou that costumes like these uere present in anti,'nt times
and helped to itlentify the bome uillage of the uearer.

basin

yiel<

in a seasor
3,5oo BC.'r

guage spo

Maya utilized a large variety of irrigation, drainage, and intensive forms of

agriculture as early as AD r preceding the appearance of hydraulic agricltitllre
in the Mexican highlands.l
Civilizations have been defined in different ways in various parts of the
world and in a variety of schools of academic thought. With reference to
Micldle Eastefn high civilization, Gordon Childe required the presence of
monumentel ar.chireenrre, x writing system, and ar leasr rttdimelllf,ry \ciencc.
The Maya ful{illed all these requirements. They built in stone' raising public
monLlments that rival those of ancient Egypt in energy expenditure, as well as
design ar-rd quality of fine arr. Some of their ceramics were so finely crafted it is
realize tl-rat thcy were made without benefit of the wheel, and
"r,or-rirhir-rg-to
their painting at its best has been compared to that of Michelangelo' I(nowl.dg" of astronomy, time, and geometry equaled that prodr-rced by many high
civilizations in the Old World. Perhaps, most important, the Maya possessed a
written script by which they recorded their own history' albeit subiect to the
kinds of editing that characterizc all historical accounts. In that sense' the
Maya now may be admitted into the company of literate peoples. Still disputed
is the degree of centralized authority that was established and maintained by
them. "City state" of which Tikal was one - seems the best term at present to
describe the political dominance of certain centers over demarcated te rritories,

small nun
sites indic
ceramics,

as a lame i

Roughly, t

decoratiot
earlier ver
ferent gro

At the s

lowlands
remains o
produced
well-estab

to the far
direction

The drain
It

is the to
the site of
the Univer

THF, MAYA AND THEIR CIVILIZATION

altl-rough it borrows imperfectly from the Classical Mediterranean model'

Recenistudies of Maya warfare demonstratc its strong importance to the overarching Maya cr-rltr-rre as well as the major role it played in the uitimate
.o11"ps=..t The importance of intcrnal warfare suggests that ncithcr an overall
cooperarive nor totally despotic organization was ever achieved. Thc Maya
nu.r" .rr-riq.r., with a distinctive history of developrncnt and a remarkable set of
accomplishmellts as well as their own particular weaknesses.
lntei-action with ctther contemporary cultures in the Mesoamcrican realm
and beyoncl functioncd as an important source not only of shared ideas, but
also of sharecl resourccs by trade. In Mesoamerica therc existed an r-rnderlying
common v2rlue system that goes back so far in time that its source is lost and

ghland ldke
:ient times

of

;ive forms ot
ic agriculture

parts

of

the

reference to
I presence of

lltary science.
raising Public
urel as well as
:ly crafted rt is
he wheel, and
ngelo. I(nowlby manY high
possessed a
'ya

subiect

rcmains a subiect of future study. Examplcs of this inter-cultural sharir-rg

inclr-rdc thc cuits of the plunecl serpent and jaguar' and the concept of a multiclass society dominated by all upper levcl of social elite s'
Apart from academic arguments about whcther thc stzltes of the Maya
qr,"iifi..l as a civilizarion, the date of origin of the Maya as a distinct culture
rcmairrs in dispute. There wcre people occupying thc Maya lowlarrds with a
stone-tool-usittg, non-irgricultural economy beforc thc appearance of distilictive Maya ceramics and agriculture. Santa Marta cavc in the Chiapas river
ir-r the cave
basir-r yieldcd eviclence of Archaic (pre-Maya) groups who camperd
bctwecn
datcd
are
foragers
Tooo ar-rd
ir-i a seasonal cycle. These semi-nomadic
the lanbut
language'
its
be
would
35oo BC.l The true identifier of a culture
sites' A
carlicst
gu"g. ,puk.n cannot be dctermincd from the artifacts of those
,-oll n,rr-nlr.r of such sites are scattered throughout Mexico ancl Belize' These
sites indicatc a stonc or lithic tcchnology which pre-datcs the appearancc of
ceramics, and with ceramics, agriculture. Therefore, ceramics have had to serve
Maya culture'
as a lame ir-rclicator of the earliest clates for tl-re ilppcarance of thc
Roughly, this appcars to be arouud rzoo ec, although the ceramic forms and
decoration by this time are already sophisticated crrough to imply that even
earlier versions probably eristcd. Regior-ral diffcrer-rces in ceramics identify different groups of Maya.
At the siic of Cuello in Belize the earliest cvidcr-rce of sedentism in the Maya
lowlands is iln established agricultural comrnr-rnity rvith ceramics and the
remains of early village life at rzoo ec.4 Several sites in nol thcrn Belize have
produced both pottery and carbon-r4 dates that corrobor:lte the erxistcnce of
well-cstablishccl communities Lry this date.5 While early Maya sites are knowtt
to the far r.vest, Tikal is believcd to have bcen settlcd from the cast, from the
direcriort .,f t lrt' earl iest Bel izeln vi ll,t9'-''.6

to the

of the Central

ihat sense, the

The drainage divide

;. StiildisPr'rted
maintained bY

Irisrhetopographyrharhelpsrodcrermirrelh('reasonslortlre tstrblishnrcrrtol
of
the site of Tikal in its particular localc and at a particlllar time. Chris Jones
the University of Pennsylvalia first observed the role of this locale.T

to
ated territories,
'm at present

Peten

r3

THE MAYA AND THEIR CIVILIZATION

The site where Tikal was established sits upon the ecluivalent of a continental divide. To the east are drainages and rivers leading towards the Caribbealt
coast. To the west are drainages and rivers leading towards the great Usumacinta River which flows directly to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This river
also receives drainage from the uplands to the west. In other words, most of the
Maya lowiands are divided by drainage at this strategic point, a place that
wcluld have to be crossed when trade routes extended from the west to the east

of the Yucatan Peninsula.8 Tikal 1ike1y developed as a "toll" site receiving

benefits from the overland flow of trade between major bodies of water

side

Further, the site is flanked by two large wetlands, the larger lying to the east and
forming the headwaters of a water route leading directly to the Caribbean. A
nr-rmber of investigators have observed from the air signs of channelization
below, leftover indicators of once intensive agricr-rlture.e These channels have
been observed in both the eastern and western flankirig wetlands, but ground
investigation has yet to provide confirmation. Sr-rch gcographic aud economic
factors tell us why this great city was established where it is ar-rd also erplain
why its initial date of permanent habitation is somewhat latcr than in other
areas. Tl-re earliest phase of Maya developmcnt as found elsewhere ir-r the Maya
lowlands, which has been dated at c. rzoo-8oo BC, has not been fourrd at the
site of Tikal. For sr-rch a large site, one of obvious eventual importance, it scems
unusual that Tikal was not inhabited from the earliest known dates. Quite possibly no one dared to establish permanent rcsidence on such a stratelic l-roint
on an inland trade route during the earliest years of Maya development. The
pcople of Tikal finally did jLrst that, and desprte centuries of conflict, the
resulting city becamc a lar-rdmark.
The lowland forests of the Peten in Guatemala consist of the three-stage
variety of rainforest. The three tiers of this tallest form of rainforcst are known
by botanists to each include separate micro-environments and ec<lsystems,
each nourishing their own catalog of plant and animal life. The three levels are
the relatively open, protected, shady forest floor; the lower branches of the
ral1er trees, and mid-height busl-res; and the upper canopy which providcs the
shade (i//s. j and 4). The terrain varics itr elevation, with many hills and ridges,
broken by vast wetlands which today are characterized as seasonal swamps.
The monsoon rair.rs come in two intervals: one in the summer months and
another, with hcavier precipitation, in the auturrur. Accurate prediction of the
timing of this seasonal rainfall is essential to successful agriculturc, which is
why an agriculturally dependent society quickly develops an acutc sense of
time and a cerrain expertise with calendars. Evidence from recent studies of the
Maya wetlands in places outside the Peten have shown that rhc Maya utiiized
such environments for a type of agriculturc that was less depender-rt upon thc
rain cycle and more dependent upon the water levels in thesc swamplands. Such
agriculture is called "intensive" and can yield more food than the usual farmer
is capable of producing.li)
Investigations at Tikal have shown that the site possessed no special or rare
r1

(aboue) L

couered by t
buiLdings ol

light)

TL

wood tree

naturai

st

co

source ma

quality. It
there is no
confines o

On the

reason fo
America,
are given
Tikal, for
the earlies

the city at

Tikalloca
tility of th
of the ridp

a desirabl,

sible adva
enemies

friendly r

based, eff

ability

is

parapherr

continen-

Caribbean
'eat Usumacre

:o. This

rii'er

most of the
a placc tirat
:st to the east
site receiving

;,

:s

of water

r the east and

laribbean. A
rar-rnelizatior-r
:har-u.re1s

hilve

;, but ground

nd economic
I also

explain

than in other
e in thc Maya
, found at the

1 ( ab oue) Lo oking out frctm Tem pLe lV ouer th e cit,tt of T ik-ttL nctw
couered b1t the re-grotun rainforest which smothers most ctf the
buildings of the city,. The canopl' of the forest auerdges jo m in height.

(right) The rainfc,trest canopy as seen from the ground Leuel. The hdrduood tree sul)ports d l)ttrctsitic fig uhich could euentually kilL the host.

ance, it seems

Quite postlategic point

es.

lopnent. The
conflict, the
re tl-rree-stagc
est are knou'n

J ecosystems,
hree levels are

of the
providcs the

anches
:r

lls and riclgcs,

onal sr'varnps.
r months al1c1
rdiction of the
iture, which is
rcute sense of
:

studies of the

Ma,va

utilizcd

dent upon the

mplands. Such
e

usual farmer

special or rarc

natural commodity to sllggcst scttlemcnt based on the presence of a tradable

sollrce material. There is locally available a source of chert of only middling
quality. lt was heavily erploited for manufacture of implements at the site, but
there is no evidence that this locally produced stone was ever traded outside the
confincs of thc srte itself.
On the other hand, Tikal's swampside location readily sugiests an excellent
reason for its settlement in addition to trade considerations. In Central
America, swamps are considered to be places just like towns, and accordingly
are given names. The "Bajo de Santa Fe" lies immediately to the east side of
Tikal, forming its eastern border. On the border of this swamp are a series of
the earliest known settlements within what we now recognize as the confincs of
the crty at its largest cxtcnt. In all likelihood, these earliest settlers reached the
Tikal location by watcr routcs and scttlcd there because of ease of access, fertility of the uplands surrounding the flanks of the swamp, and the l-rrominence
of the ridges that characterize the center of the site. A ridgetop in any cultr-rre is
a desirable location for ease of view of the surrounding territory and its defer-isible advantages. The settler has early warning of the approach of possible
enemies and can communicate by heliograph (reflective mirror signals) with
frier-rd1y nearby settlements. \Thether or not the Maya employccl this sunbased, efficient means of communication rcmains speculation, but its probability is supported by the presence of mirrors as part of the elite Classic
paraphernalia.

TH[, MAYA AND

Bejucal

THT,

Beservorr

IR CIVILIZATION

\;j!)

0
200m
F-------------r
0
500 ft

Complex N

Bal Palace

PLAZA OF THE
LOST WORLD
SEVEN TEMPLES

R
V

MadetraReservon

-"--

ln'

New Excavations

lnscnptions Beservoi

,.styLizedmdp of centralT.ika.l shoruingthe core of r6 sq. km. It is expectedthdt

thousands mort.stru(turcs li, hen,'.rth rhe sur[.tce.

At its peak of population, around AD zoo, the site covered more than
6j sq. km of sertled zone, conraini'g ma'y thousands of structures. The

central core of the most densely populated zone was 16 sq. km and is easily
identified as a major city, one of perhaps three that achieved such size, each
witlr very different political historics (iLL. ). The other two are Coba ir-r norrhern Quintana Roo and El Mirador ro the norrhwest of Tikal. Settlement at
Tikal began around 8oo Bc while the site fell into disuse somerime in the roth
r6

The North

century AD.
a strategic

enemies, in<
Pilas to the,

THE MAYA AND THI.-II( CIVILIZATION

NORTH ACROPOLIS

'E

100 fr

ffiWffi

WEST PLAZA

HEi
ffi*IFEEI

ltt

aa a
a

I
o

ao
I

rtl
a

laal.!l

a aaaa

af
.l
Temple

Temple ll

EAST PLAZA

BALLCOURT

GREAT PLAZA

Structure 43

Maler Palace

Five Storey Palace

tcted that

CENTRAL ACROPOLIS

:ed more than

The North AcroStolis, (]redt I'Laza, and Central AcropoLis.

tructures. The

n and is easily
;uch size, each
Soba in norrh, Settlement at
me in the

roth

century AD. It appears that Tikal was a receiver of goods, and its occurpation ctf
a stratelic position may well have led to its being sr-rrrounded by a ring of
enemies, inclurding Calakmul to the north, Caracol to the southeast, and Dos
Pilas to the west (see ill. r). This situation led to a stormy political history.
r7

TIIE MAYA AND

TH-1,1R

CIVIL]7-ATION

The forest environment

Thc rainforest is at the senrc time:r s()Llrce of r"rsablc plants ancl:rrin'rills, ancl ir
challcngc tc'r survival. The soii is shallow wlrich mcans that thc trccs cxtcncl
their roots broadly soaking up most of the rninimally available nutrienrs in
that frugal soi1. The M:rya lcarncd vcry caily in their cleveloplrent that they
hacl to clear the forest beforc planting any clonresticirted crop irncl tl'ren to
nllrtrirc thi:rt cle:rrecl land rintil its rrutricnts wcrc lnostly usccl up bcforc tnoving
on to anothcr pi:u:t of the forest. The clearecl plot of land is called a milpa in
Mesoamerica, the Spanish namc for "field" (ill . z).
Tlrc tall trees ir-rclude some tropical harclwoocls such as mahog.ury, ,'iricote
ancl pimienta, as well 21s the tropical cedar, all still r-rsed tod:ry. The Mrrya recognized tlrat thc sapodilltt tree, known today for its sap, chicle, tl-re source of
chewing gr,rm, pr<-rviclccl ir r,vood very resistant to the voracious jungle termite,
and so they r,rsed sapoclilla tirrbcr:s at Tikell, where they remair.r ir.r p1:rce tod:rv.
The dmapolla, said to havc bccn r-rsccl by the Maya to nrake an intoxiceting
drirrk, grows :rll over Tikal; in the spring its flaming red foliagc brings color tcr
tlre city. Archacologists :rt Tikirl noticed an unusuallv high number of rttmon
trees whose fmit anci nllts were heavily exploited by the Ma.va. These :rre
perhaps wild remnrrnts of orch:rrcls once nurturecl near habitatior-r. One of the
fil:st outstancling trees encountered by visitclr:s on thc path tci thc ruins is en
itncierrt giant ceiba, sacred tree of thc M:ry:r, known as the "tree of life." The
ceiba figurccl pronrinentli. in the irncient art, iconography, ancl nr,vtholog,v of
the culture. Even today a cciba is ncver cut in the process of clearing:r milpa.
Throughout the Maya arca onc oftcn sees these tall trees standing majestically
alonc in e corn fielcl. Those trees which were particrllarly r-rscful clr: sacrcc'l to thc
Maya wcrc nurtured within the confines of a settlement, bc it villagc or city
This ancicnt nurturir.rg resulted in the preservation of a nr.rmbcr of spccics, ncit
just of trecs, but also of sn'r:rller r-rseful plants such:rs those which producecl
conclirnents for cooking (cilantro, pimicnta) :rnd rreclicinal pliuts as well.
There is also evidence that thc ancicnt Maya appreciatecl plants for decoratior.r,
as for.rncl in illustrations on cerarric vessels showing flou'crs in hcac'lclrcsscs:lncl
on the throncs of prominent figures. These elements of riatur:rl bcar"rty in thc
forcst cnvirollrnent today give r-rs a glimpse of the palcttc of colcir:rnd fornrs
that inspirccl thc ancient art - itenls that were adopted by certaii"r rulers as pcrsonal emblems ancl livcry Dcpictions of flowers, plants, :rnd ar.rimals r-rsed ir-r
this ivay are clearly shown on painted vessels.
The types of game prevalent in thc forcst incluc'lccl white tail cleer, a smaller
rrrcrnbcr of the cleer family called brocket, the tapir ancl collarcc'l pccc:rry,
scver:rl roclentia, especially the dgouti, thc tepesquintli, and r:rbbit, all edible
gan1c. Non-eclible but nonetl-reless valured arrimals of thc fcircst incluclecl tl-re
fox, thc fclinc rnen-rbers - jaguar, ocelot, and jaguanrndi as wcll as othcrs
(pl. Vll . Animirl hides were utilized and their characteristics werc admircc'l
and appreciated. Notably, the jaguar reigned as the New World l(ing of the
r8

7A

miLpa, ot

milpa fires mt
the first rains.

Bcasts, and

spirit or nal
Amphibi
American c
(p/. v). Mo

an animal v

for

r-nost of

monsoons

time. Its mc
this exotic c

The

avia

toucan, an(

birds, hawk

ranging

eve

alone. Also

turkey and
quetzal live
(rzoo m), v

must have c
consriruted

throughout

close to ext

at Tikal.

THF, MAYA AND THF,IR CIVILIZATION

Lnimals, and

:.r

trees extend

e nutrients in

lent that they

r and then to
refore movir-rg
Ied a milpa tn

gany, ciricote
e Maya recogthe source of
rngle termite,
n ;rlace toda.v.

r intoxicating
rings color to
ber of rdmon
ga. These arc

n. Onc of the

7 A miLpa, or corn field, in the burning l)r()cess uhich takes place in the sString. The , .
n.tilpa fLres must lte set ruith precise timing, such thdt the ash wilL be driuen in the soil by
the first rains. lf rains do not dppedr, fires often burn out of control.

he ruins is an

:of life." The

mythology of
rring a milpa.

Beasts, and it was the spint of this animal that scrved as thc archetypal kindred
spirit or nahual for ti-re highest level of Maya lcadership.
Amphibians inclr-rde the herbivorous alligator and caiman, the tleat-eatirrg

malestically
to the
rillage or city

American crocodile (ill. S), a variety of turtles, and a wide varicty of frogs
(pl.V). Most r.rot:rb1e of the lattcr is a rare tropical species called in Maya ao,
an animirl whose strange life-cycle consists of a type of hibernation in thc soil
for most of the year, then cl-nergence to the surface during the height of the
monsoons for mating and breeding in the ground w:1ters that collect at this
time. Its rnournful call sounds exactly like its namc (prottounccd "woe"), and
this exotic creattlre appeafs as one of the Maya month names in thc calendar.
The avian life of the forest included scveral differcrrt species of parrot,
toucan, and the gudcdmdyd, a host of migratory birds including hummingbirds, hawks, doves, and two species of eagle. Thc bird life of Tikal is so wideranging even today that guide books have been published devoted to the site
alonc. Also important as cdible species were the pauo real (ill.9) or Arnericalr
turkey and the curacdo. Prized for its long and springy feathers, the reclusive
quetzaL lives in clor-rd forest, the isolated ecological r-riche at about 4ooo ft
(rzoo m) , where rainforest and highlands collide, a region every Maya trader
must have crossed on his way to highland markets (pl.Vl). The quetzal feathers
coltstituted a universally utilized feature of the headdress of every Maya leader
throughout the lowlands and highlands, so much so that the bird has colxe very
close to extinction. Colored feathcrs were clearly a valuable trade commodity
at Tikal. Birds also appear in the iconography of costumes, often as head-

r sacred

rf species, r.rot
Lich

prodLrced

lants as well.
rr decoration,
addresses and

beauty in the
or and forms
rulers as perimals used in
eer, a smallcr

ared peccary,
bit, all edible
included the
vel1 as others
r,rere admired
I King of the

r9

analysis ol
ceramicist
of the Ma'

beerr founr

and Tzec a
The Lat
cessors an
rramed Ch
complexes
developmr

gist's way

8 This juueniLe American crocctdiLe

represents a species
thut mal, haue been second in importance at TikaL onLy
to the jaguar.

hanclles wl

9 The pw<t retl or royaL turkel'

Classic. T
and Eznat

The ner

Tikal,

i5 the natiue Amet iL:,tn

for the ancient

people. Nurtured by the Tikal Park, these birds haue
returned in large nnrnbers ttnd cttn be seen throughout
the ruins.

species dnd serued as one foctd source

rcp

ceramic

c(

the so-call

in the Ma
ultimate
clresses

and perhaps as nahual spirits, the "animal spirits" attributcd to human

which rvill

bcings.

Thrs was the setting wherein a group

determine

of Maya took up

residence around
8oo sc and begarr the process that would lead to the realization of one of the
gr:andest and most influential cities of this ancient and complex culture.

Chronologies: our view

The rough chronology which archaeologists have irnposed upon the Maya
culture recogniT-es and acknowlcdges changes thror-rgh timc in the form of clustcrs of cultural fcatures. The word "classic" is borrowed inaccuratcly from
Mediterranean civilization and applied to the Maya to distingr"rish the peak of
achicvement fron'r its dcvelopment and declinc. The changes in clusters of cr-rltural "packages" are exprcssed as major periocls. They inch-rde: Preclassic
(r5oo ec-.tu z5o) , Classic (er z5o-rroo) and Postclassic (el rroo to the
Spanish Concluest or roughly thc mid-r6th centr-rry) . This kincl of chronology
at least allows a working framework, but it should be recognizcd as an expedient and not as a complete description of cultural variation.
The major periods are broken into finer divisions based largcly on tl-re
changes in ceramics one of the more plastic of arts and thus subiect to fine
differences that we can cletect both by eyc and by scientific analysis of chemical
compositions. For thc Preclassic period thcre are Ear1y, Middle, and Late
phases (see Table r). Thc names selected by archaeologists to identify thc
ceramic phases at Tikal arc distinctive to the sitc, as is customary in the

tir-ne/chan

as in ccrar
chirnges ir
features. (
matecl, wi

Tal

TFIE MAYA AND THEIR CIVILIZATION

uted to human

idencc aror-rnd
r of onc of the
culture.

pon thc Maya

form of clus:curately from

Le

ish the peak

of

clusters of cr.rlude: Prcclassic

D 1100 to the
of chronology
d as an expedi-

analysis of individr,rai sitcs in tl-re Maya :rrca. The names selccted by Tikal's
cerarricist, T. Patrick Cr-rlbcrt, are taken from the nafires of cl:rys in thc montl-r
of the Mayir calendar.rl The E:rrly phase clates from rzoo-8oo Bc a'd has r.rot
becn found at Tikal. Thc Middlc phase has rwo ccramic complexes named Eb
and Tzec :rnd their cl:ltes are 8oo 6oo ec and 6oo-35o ec rcspectivcly.
The Late Preclassic phase (35o BC AD z5o) is rnorc complex than its predecessors :rr.rd thus is clivided into three distinct ccramic complexes. These i,rrc
nanred Chucn (3-5o ec-en r), Cauac (,rn r r5o), and Cirni (en r5o-z;o) . Thcse
complexes are not arbitrary but represent real, observed diffcrences in the
development of thc pottery that was being produced. They arc rhe arch:rcologist's way of bringing order to the anaiysis of time arrd change, :rnd are rhe
harrclles which we use wher-r discussing thc development of the city.
The nert major pcriod, thc Classic, has Early, Late, and Termi'al phascs at
Tikal, rcpresentccl by four cerirmic compleres, two of which divide the Late
Classic. These ar:e: Manik (el z5o-,55o),lk (eo 55o-7oo),lntir (eo 7oo 85o) ,
and Eznab (ell 85o-95o) . Finally, a Postclassic phase, reprcsenrecl by a singlc
cerarnic complex, is called Caban (eo 95o-rzoo?). Excav:rtions by Laporte in
thc so-called Lost $7orld complcx allowcd hirn tci fr-rrther distingr-rish divisions
ir-r tire Marrik (Early classic) phase n'hich hc labelecl Manik r, z ancl 3.rr one
urltirnatc goal of the archaeology performed by thc Pennsylvanie group is tcr
determine and define elcments of chirngc in tl-re culture other th:ur cerarnics
which will thcn perrnit il lrore objective and refined methocl of dcscribing the
tintc/charrgc coutinuum. For cxample, there arc similar changes in architcctr,rre
:rs in cerarnics, both in style and ir-r thc mech:rrrics of cngineerirrg, as wcll as
changcs in burial practicc, settlemcl-lt pattcrn ar-rd a nr-rmbcr of othcr cultural
features. Only when all of thesc have bcen thoroughly an:ri1,zs6l and anralgam:'ttcd, will it be possible to re-define thc cultr-rral phases of Tikal.

Table

Tikal Ceramic Complexes

Peiod

Ceramic
Complex

Postclassic

(,abar.r

Ao 95o-

Itrrnin:rl

Eznab

.+n 85o-95o

l-ate (.lassic

Tnrix

eo 7oo 85o

Lrtc Classic

rk

AD i

jo

EarJ,v Preclassrc

Menik

AD

5o-,i

Cl:rssic

Approximate Date

loo

7oo

io

largcly on the
subjcct to fine

l-ate Prccl assic

C'imi

AD r,5o-25o

L:rtc Prcclassic

Cauac

Ar)r

'sis

Latc Preclassic

Cl'rucn

35O BC-Ar) r

Midclle Plecl:rssic

Tzec

6oo

Midcllc Prccl:rssic

Eb

8oo-6oo nr:

of chemical
Jd1e, arrd Late
to identify thc
itomary in thc

r50

35o cc;

(?)

THT, MAYA AND THEIR CIVILIZATION

months of zo '
the true sol
bined names and

r8

their

mate

Thc Maya view of their own chronology was different from ours and was based
upon their calendar. The Maya concept and manipulation of time has been
studied and published extensively. It utilized a vigesimal system based r-rpon
r-rnits of zo, rather than the familiar European decimal system based on units of
ten. Time was a sacred and magical concept. Its divisions and units - days,
months, years were viewed as deities carrying a bundle, the burden of time.
The need for an accurate record of the passage of time arose out of the needs of
agriculture. In the lowlands, the seasons are governed by a cycle of wct and dry
months which determine the proper times for planting, growth, and harvest.
Success in food supply was essential first to survival and then to development
and population growth. The basic ur-rit - the day - is based upon thc movements of the sun, perceived as a primary male deity named I(inich Ahau. Those
individuals who mastered the timing of the movements of the sun, the moon,
and the stars calnc to be rcvercd and honored the priests and kings, the
bearers of knowledge that resulted in a bountiful harvest. A consequence of
association of the days with different deities was their association also with
benevolent or malevolent natures. They were, aftcr a1l, modeled upon humair
nature. Thr-rs there were good and bad days - days beneficial or not for giving
birth, initiating war, planting, reaping, and so forth. Developed as a necessiry
to survival, the calendar became an instrument of astrology. It is now believed
that every Maya of every social class had some understanding of this process of
interaction between themselves and the gods of time. This was not an arcane
knowledge held only by kings and priests, but one that was shared on some
fundamental level with every member of the society. However, keeping a
written record of time required literacy and mastery of a codified systern of
notation. This skill was restricted to the elite levels of the society
There is no way to make explanation of the Maya calendar count system
simple and thrs volume does not intend to explore the subject cxhaustively For
the reader who wishes to understand the calendar in depth I recommend consultation of any one of a number of general volumes on Maya culture.13 There
follows a brief sketch of the complex Maya calendrical system.
It is from the hieroglyphic or written record of inscriptions that we know
just how sophisticated the Maya calendar was. Two different calendars were
maintairred. The Tzolk-in or sacred calendar was bascd Llpon a z6o-day collnt,
consisting of r3 numbers and zo names which cycled together until the starting
combination appeared again, after z6o days r 3, times zo. This "sacred year"
was very important to the Maya and each of the z6o days was associated with a
different deity.
The second cyclical count contained 365 days, the "Vague Year," the closest
'We
day count the Maya had to the true solar year of 36 5.25 days.
compensate
with a leap year of 366 days every four years, but fractions were beyond thc

capabilities

of Maya

mathematics. The Vague Year was composed of

of

from each
from the

the

Tzolkir
With

r lk r PoP.
could

not recur

could re-cYcle,
guish

similar da

"Long Count."

Long Cc
and for this tYP
The

assumed

date o

Maya used a m
The Long Cou

with sPecific

columns, readi
long Periods

o1

way we record

indicates to us

rooo. The Ma

rc

Stela 5

ontb

dn excellent exa
text, inclwding t
MaYa calendar'
right, and toP t

THE MAYA AND THT,IR CIVILIZATION

rB months of zo days each,
rnd was based
time has been
n based upon
;ed on units of

units

days,

rrden of time.

rf the needs of
rf wet and dry
, and harvest.
, development
)on the mover Ahau. Those
;n, the moon,
nd kings, the

of
jon also with
rnsequencc

upon human
- for giving

ot

as a necessity

with an added short month of five days to rpproxi-

mate the true solar year. This counting cycle also consisted of a series of combined namcs and numbers, so that any given real day had a number and riame
from each of the two counting systems, for exanple a number arid day name
from the Tzolkin and a nr-rmber and month name from the Vague Year such as
r Ik r Pop. 'Sfith the two counts intcrmeshed, the samc four-part combination
cor-rld not recur for 5z cycles of the Vague Year, or 5z times 365 days. Because it
could re-cycle, the Maya necded yet another form of count that would distingr-iish similar dates that were -t2 years or more apart. This system is called the

"Long Count."
The Long Count days have a unique designation that can never recur again
and for tl-ris type of count a fixed starting date is required, iust as we use rhe
assumed date of thc birth of Christ as the start of the current era calendar. The
Maya used a mythical starting date set on rr August jr14 BC in our calendar.
The Long Count was used to record dates on monuments that are associated
with specilic events. It is a notational systen that was recorded in paired
columns, reading from left to right (iLl. ro). The count had to accommodare
long periods of tirne and it does this thror-rgh escalating positions similar to the
way we record numbers in escalating positions. For example, the numbe r t6z5
indicates to us five units of r, two units of ro, six units of roo, and one unit of
rooo. The Maya used five positions in which the first represenrs the unit of a

now believed
:his process

of

not an afcane
ared on some
er, keeping a
lied system

of

count system
raustively. For
cmmend conLlture.13 There

that we know
alendars were
6o-day cou1lt,
ril the starting
"sacrecl year"

rciated with a

r," the closest

'e

compensate

re beyond the

composed of

ro SteLa J on the North Terrace displalts

an excelLent exam'ple of a hieroglyphic
text, including a number of dates in the
Maya calendar. Texts read from Left to
rieltt. tnd top to bottom.

THE MAYA AND THEIR CIVILIZATION

single day and was called a kin.The sccond position contair.recl zo kins to m:rke
up one Maya month, called a uinal.In the third positiorr the Maya deviated
from their vigesimal system to include only r8 inste ad of zo r-rinals to make r-rp a
Maya year, called a tun.Each tun containcd 36o days, the closest count possible
wrth multiples of zo (zo tirnes r8). Thc ncxt p()sitiorl reverrs to vigcsimal with
zo tLlns (or zo "years"), a pcriod called a katun. At Tikal, thc katur-r was a very
important period markcd for many cycles with the ercctiorr of a dated monllment celebrating its cnd. The last position contain zo katuns, a period of 4oo
"ye:lrs" or tuns and is called a baktun. This position could accommodare
enough time to colrnt from thc mythical beginning urrtil thc Maya present. At
Tikal, recovered writtcn dates begin dr,rring the 8th baktun and continue into
the roth baktun. The span of Tikai's written history is discussed in a latcr
chaptcr.
On il writtcn date of the Long Count, the recorded passagc of days is folIowed by the full name of the day reached. 'We recorcl sr,rch d:rtcs in the following nranrrer: 9.r 4.o.o.o 6 Ahau r3 Muan . This reacls that 9 baktuns, 14 katuns,
no tuns, ncl r.rinals and no kins are counted frorn the starting date and brings r-rs

to the 6th clay named Ahau in the Tzolkin, and the r3th day in the month
named Muan. This happerrs to bc the end day of the r4th katr.rn which is why
thcre are no tuns, uinals or kins. This is the dedicatory date on Stela r6 at Tikal
and correlates with r Deccmber, in the year AD 7rr. While the Maya systern is
complex it is in many w:rys similar to our way of recording pirssed timc from a
firccl date.
Throughout this volume thc Maya Long Count dates arc provided in the
uotes in the short-hand notation shown above, although the correlated dates in
our calendar are uscd as standard historic:rl anchors ir-r the text.

| (right) Airuiew ctf the Creat I'Laza, with Temple I in the foreground, Temple
center and Temple

lV in

ll

in the

the far distance.

Overleaf

ll

One of the unique'pieces from BuriaL ro is a ceramic composite uessel referred to

the "Old Man Deity," probabllt depicting the sun god in his night guise.

ds

lll Some uessels of the Ctturtc period ruere spectacuLar in their size dnd shape. This red
poLished typa of hourgLass uessel is referred to as the "fire-h1,drant" uessel in the Tikal
tltpologlt.

lY

This extractrdinary ceramic Lidtled

uesseL

clepicts

Lt

cottTlotokt resting on the surface of

1D-ES in the Lost

tuith d turtle beLotu. lt utds recouered in Tomb r of Structure

Worltl grctup, dating to the Late Ettrly CLassic periotl.

u.,ater

kins to nrake
.a-va

clcviatecl

to niakc up a
cunt possiblc
gesimal rvith

lll

\\rils a \rer,v

datccl rnonu-

reliocl of 4oo
ccolrmoclate
a presellt. At

rontinlle into

in a lltcr

;ccl

,f

cle-vs

is fol-

n the follolr'rs, r4 katuns,

ri"rcl

brings us

n thc month
rvhich is rvh.v

la r (' at Tikal
AVil S,VStCNI iS

I tinrc fronr

xiclecl in thc
Iatecl c]ates

ir-r

ple II in tht:

'ferrad to ,ts

'pe.

Tltis red

n the TikaL

the surfttce

t tltt Lost

,tl

.'lt

,rir!,

f:-:i'.;: < ll

Ht
Departner
His routc I
thriving, b
L-r r5z5

bchind wit

of

Gr-ratem

Itza, a mer
ancient cit
hc w:rs not

The cen
exploitatic
wrest awa'

souls to Cl

explorers

Spanish dc
cities wcnt
It is knc
was a settl
scttlecl on

settlement
not knowr
site got its

The name

*'
*
:ir

One readir
meaning "
transl atior
as "where

This coLc

Frogs ruere

of the udte,

YI

The que

uas

YII

likeLy n

The jas
kings as the
icctnograph;

CHAPTER T\(/O

TII(AL DISCOVERED

r5z5 Hernan Cortes passed through the area that was to become thc Peter-r
D.p"rt-"r-rt of Guatemala, traveling from Mexico and headed for Honcluras.
His route brought him across Lake Peten ltza to a Maya crty stlll <lccr-rpied and
thriving, by the r-ramc of Tayasal. His passage was friendly, ar-rd a horse was left
behincl-with the king of Tayasai, an event which worked its way into the legends
ft-r

of Gr-iaternalan history. Tayasal lies near the western end of the 1or-rg Lake Peten
1za, amere 6o km from thc l,rins of Tikal. It seetns remarkable thilt such a large
ancient city was missed by this intrepid explorer, but we must to rernember that
he was not interested in ruins per sebut rather in people and their riches.
The ccr-rturies of Spanrsh erploration of this New World were a time of
exploitation. The goals were to claim lands in the name of thc l(ing of Spain, tcr
*rar, n*ny whatcver "treasllres" were perceivcd aS valuable, and to convert
souls to Christianity. F<tr over a century after the arrival of Cortes, the Spanish
explorers focused on thc city of Tayasal which offered remarkable resistxncc to
Spanish domination. In all that time the presence of one of the large st of Maya
cities wer-rt undetected.
It is known from archaeological remains that cluring the rgth centr-rry there
was a se6lcment ar Tikal, probably of Yr-rcatec speakers, like those who had
sertled on the northefn shore of Lake Peten ltzain what are now the modern
settlements of Sar-r Jose and San Andres. The exact years of this occupation ere
not known br-rt the inhabitants are credited with one explanation of how the
site got its name.

The name of Tikal

One rcading of the word "Tikal" in Yucatec Maya divides the word into "ti"'
meaning "plircc of" ancl "k'al" meaning "spirits." Thrs renders such romantic
t."r'rrl"Jior-,, as "place of spirits" or "placc of spirit voices," and for one scholar
as "where voices cry in the night."1 Legerrd has it that on one occasion the

This colorful tree frog is one of many strtecie,s of t'r?gwhose natural habitat was Tikal.
as a symbol
Frogs were important ii the art and iconogratrthy of tfi Ma1,a 66lnnrlor dnd
of lhe watery habitats that surround the city'

The quetzal's long tailfeathers u)eTe prized and traded for use.in.heacldre'sses' The bird
utas Iikeiy neuer natiie to Tikal, but feathers were trdded from the highlands'

Yl

Yll The jaguar u,as lctrd of the forests, dnd its spirit or nahual wds often cLdimed by
i;;g; ,;'tiii, l,orronol name an'd protector. Ima'ges of jaguars ttpt)e,]r frequently in the
,

iconography

of Tikal.

TII(AL DISCOVBRED
people of the rgth century scttlement were driven out of their humble houses in
the ruins by a combination of fear of the "spirit voices" and a plague of bats.
Bats, especially the srnall fruit bat, have always favored the standing, empty
chambers of the palaccs and temples as a suitable and desirable habitat. It is
possible that an oLltbreak of rabies may account for the virtual abandonment
of the site by the Maya re-occupants in the mid-r9th century.
Quite apart from the origin of the name as we knor,v rt and its Maya
meanir.rg, there is the emblem glyph which the ancient Maya thcmselves r,rsed to
identify the site (ill. rr). This raises two questions. Is the name "Tikal" possibly
the original name preserved through time by oral tradition? Can this name be
read from thc emblem glyph? There are two schools of thor-rght. Clemency
Coggir-rs and Christopl-rer Jones both bclieve that the name is original and that
therc are several ways to translate it.z Thc primary translation is relatcd to the
reverence for the zo-year time period called the katun which is so strongly evidenced in thc presence of many twitt-pyramid groups at Tikal, built to mark
thc end of the katun tirne period. As Coggins has elucidated, in Yr-rcatec Maya

thc word for the count of twenty is k'al, while rl'is "place of," providing a
reading of "Place of thc Count of the I('atun," or Ti'k'al.
Furthcrmore, time was rcgarded and depicted by the Maya as a burden or
bundle carriecl by the gods. The glyph is read as a tied bundle, the burden of
time, represented by the katun. This is a compelling interpretation.

The histor

By the tir
become a
shores of

was comn

official ex

officials: I
governor

the first t
at the sitr
was publi
investigatr

later visit.

It

was

Lloyd

Stel

wood, trz
known to
Tikal, anc
The ne

Berne, Sw

mendatio

exploring
Palenque,

Maler's

a<

This emblem gLyph

carved 1in

stdtes "LLiuine lord of

Tikal." The tied bundle is
the gLyph designating the
ndme of this city.

lie today i

tt

preserved
ethics of t
remove th

tion of arr
Alfred

A more recent interpretation represents thc other school of thought ancl is

based uporr a sculpture four-rd at the site of Copan in Honduras. On this sculpture of an adult male, the hair arrangemellt, viewed from the rear, is formed
exactly like the Tikal emblem glyph: a ticd bundle. In this case, thc tied bundle
is the man's hairdo in the form of a topknot. David Stuart reads this configuration witlr the Maya word mutuL which also means "flower. "l The impclrtar.rce of
a man's topknot in the iconography of Tikal had already been cited by Coggins
as a means of emulating the emblem glyph of the sitc in art.
Whether the name of Tikal is onginal and refers to reverence for time, or
whether the name was "Mutul" and refers to a flower with a visual purt
erpressed in a hairstyle remains a matter for academic debate. For the visitor
and for the Guatemalan Tourist Board, the name remait-ts Tikal.

man, he c
Maya citit
simple mr
thoroughl
slay's con

major

ten

glimpse o

of the fol
Unfortunr

without a
fact, the p

fashion bt

TIKAL DISCOVERED
ble houses in

lgue of bats.
rding, empty

habitat. It is
bandonment

nd its Maya
elves used to
<al" possibly

lhis name be
t. Clemency
inal and that
elated to the

strongly evi-

uilt to mark
rcatec Maya

providing

a burder.r or
re burden

of

rught and is
n this sculpr, is formed
tied bundle
s configuraportance of
by Coggins
tor time, or

visual pulr
r

the visitor

The history of discovery

By the time that the rgth-century occupants had departed, the peten had
with a popr-rlation distributcd mainly around the
shores of thc lake some 6o km away - clearly, the presence of the ruins of Tikal
was commonly known to these people. However, it was r-rot r,rntil rg4B that an
official expedition to examine the ruins took place hcaded by two governmenr
officials: Modesto Mendez, the commissioner of El peten, and Ambrosio Tut,
governor of the Department. with them came an arrist, Eusebio Lara, who was
the first to makc a record of somc examples of the sculptured monuments
at the site. An accounr of this journey, rogether with Lara's illustrations,
was published by the Berlin Academy of Science in the year followrng the
investigation. Mendez revisited the site in r8-52, but no record survives of the
later visit.
It was during this period of exploration that the famor-rs Amcrican, Jol-rn
Lloyd Stephens, and his British companion and ilh-rstrator, Frederick cathcrwood, traveled through the Maya area, recording sites ancl making them
known to thc \restern world. By chance, they did not hear about the ruins of
Tikal, ard so this most impor:tant site does not appear ir-r their record.
The next krown visitor to the site was Dr. Gustav Bernoulli, a native of
Berne, Switzerland, who hacl settled in Guatemala for his health on the recorrmendation of the great erplorer Alexander von Humboldt. In rg77, while
exploring Maya ruins, Bernoulli rnct .with Teobert Maler at the site of
Palenqr-re, and traveled from there to Tikal shortly after, prcsumably on
Maler's advice. Following this initial visit he orclered the removal of three of the
carved lintels, two from Temple IV and part of Lintcl 3 from Temple I. Thcse
lic today in the Museum fur Volkcrkunde ir-i Basel, where they remain the best
preserved of ail Tikal wooden lintels. Dr. Bernoulli ir.cted according to the
ethics of the day and obtained fuil officiai permissior-r from the
iovernmenr to
remove thc carvings. These actions reflect the rgth-century view of the fur-rction of archaeology: to collccr curiositics for exhibition and eclucati,n.
Alfrecl Percival Maudslay was rhe nexr explorer to visit Tikal. Ar-r Englishrnan, he did for Tikal what Stephens and catherwood clid for so many other
Maya cities elsewhere: made the site knowrr to tl-re \(/estern world.a Mar-rdslay's
simple map was the first made and it reveals the initial hesitancy to erplore
thoroughly or to recognize more than the most prominent srructures. Maudslay's contribr-rtion was a two-edged sword, however. His photographs of the
major temples of Tikal, taken in r88r and r882, are spectacular, giving r-rs a
glimpse of what thesc messive strLlc[Lrres actr-rally looked like when first cleared
of the foliage which had covered them after their abardonmenr (ills. rz, r1).
unfortunately, once the buildings had been exposed in this way ro rhe elemcrrrs,
without any cfforts at conservrtion, many details were lost due to erosion. In
fact, the great temples of Tikal were exposed to erosion damage twice i1 this
fashion before any effort was made to prescrve them.
become a political entity

The ne>
well as Be

was empl(

after yearr
attempt a
z5 May ti

and parts
included
Palace"

and

it

mr

heavily

stood

er

or,

lar1

outside

tl

intriguing
of the hc
blood-cur
monkeys

Maler r
from the I

half mon
bears his

r2,

j1

Taken by Alfretl Maudslal, in the late rgth century, these remarkttble uietus
Il, il|, dnd lV are not accessibLe tctday.

'l-emples

of

cLearecl

t4

Structu

and r9oq.
the zgth

L<

.f I I( A I- D I SC]O\T !,I{F- I)

clirectccl NIar'rc1slat'as
visitor to Tikal rves Teobert N4alcr, lv1-ro hacl
t\4ale r
A Gcrnr:ln b-v birth arlcl Atlstrian lry choice'
r,r.,ell :rs Bcrnor.tllir,,, rr-r..rr,..
of Harvarcl LJr-rivcrsitv to visit the sitc
r'vas enrpictl'cd br'' the nt"t.l"ay Muscttnl
His rnarrcl:rte w:ls to
tr,lucl ,.,,'tt1 t"plt''"tion irl thc.Mat'a regiou'
"fr.r,""".r',,f
the c:itv's ruins' He sltetrt frt'tu
ilttcnlpt a clefinitive."pto,rrri,r" arlcl rccorcl of
of the fir'e so-c:rllec] "Clrc:rt Templcs"
z5 Nrla.v ti11 5 Jufre i" 'ig; nt"Lirrgpians
This
b..,,lr-r. knon,rl as rhe Celrtral Acropoiis.'t
lncl parrs of u,har *,", i,) -ln,o
"Mllct''s
ktlc^vt]:rs
Stories, r'vhich h:rs been
incluclecl the Pallcc of thc
strLlcttlfe :rs his etlcatllpmellt hc:rclqttarters
this
p:rlace', evcr Sirrce. N4alcr usecl
r'vhtlie of tl-re :lrchitectttral group r'v:rs
ar.rd it must bc retncmbcrccl that the
the paltrcc' hcxvever'
i"-iL, overgro\vl'r t'i""tt trecs (l/l' r'1) ' Thc first stcirv cif to builcl a large fire
of havinEi
stoocl largelv inracr, ancl N4aler:'s descriptions
j:rgr-rars
at bal'are rt'trt'rtrtic:rlrtl
roarit.tg
keep
outsiclc thc cer.rtral clooru,ay tO
is that u,har l-re hc:rrr1 r.vas rhe roar
i,*rig,rir.,g, ro say rhc le"st. T1]e pr.babilitv
thc call of thc iaguer' This
of the h'rvicr ,-r-rur,k.u, u,hicl-r .llur"ln' rcscmbles
sitc toclir\" atrd tl-rc horvler
souncl is still hearcl by visitors to thc
Tl-re next

bloocl-cur:cllir.rg

nronkcys clo roer all nrght'

iil.t r. cornplcrc his u,ork i' r 9o,1 rrtcl retnaitleci tl-ris ti're
of No'enlber, sonlc thrce-:rrlcl-afrorr t6c 6cgin.irg,rii r*,,r,,"tntii the miclclle
plirce that
stai'ed ir.r thc frorrt cetrtral ro.t' of thc
h:rlf rn.r-rths. C)rce
N4aler rcr.rlrccl ,..,

"*oinln.
t-vpical oI Europeln hanclrvriti[rg
bears his l1r1nlc. His floricl inscriptiotr,

of thc

in r 89 i
"
PtrlcrL:t:" tutts lult('1'c lcobt:r/ NIalcr liuttl
r I .\ltlt. !ttrt iD-{'i. /i/t')/r 'r '1: lvl,tlcr's
ct:nturt' bt'
ith
ldte
tlte
itt
Ltttilt
rL'ts
pdlact:
gt:edl
.rrt,l t,tn1. t l'r,,tt"loqt .r/1({r"i/: ,tir'rr'ri,i,
'Iil''tl'
tlt,' :'1t1, I,'td "f

IIKAI, DISCOVERED
time, is incisccl into the east jamb of the central doorway. The datcs under his
lramc, :895l:-9oq, record the years during which he lived rn this roorn, even if
briefly. Although Maler handed over his writteu dcscription and many plans of
buildings to the Peabody Muser-rm, he became a iittlc paranoid in his latcr years
about the uses that the Museum might bc making of his work. Imagirrirrg that
thc Muser-rn-r was realizing vast profits from his efforts at his cxpense scems
humorous today, but it led Maler to withhold his detailcd map of the site, a
document which resurfaced much 1ater.
In ordcr to complete a publication, the Pcabody Museum was forced to send
a ncw erpedition to Tikal in 19ro. Thus, the next explorers were Alfred Tozzcr,
who was to becomc the first occupant of the prestigious Bowditch Chair at

Harvard, assisted by a young Raymond E. Merwin, who would go on tc)

become weil knowr-r as a Maya scholar in his own right.6 Vhile previotts cxplorcrs had cntered thc site from the wcst, approaching from the island town of
Flores and Lake Petcn Itza, theTozzerlMerwin cxpedition was the first to entcr
from the east by way 9f British Honduras, now Belize, traveling from El Cayo
to Lakc Yaxha and ovcrland northwards to Tikal . Tozzer deemed this the
easiest rorlte at the time and rccommended it for future cxplorers. After a
month at the sitc Tozzer and Merwin completed a ntap showing considcrably
more detail than Mar.rdslay's but still tending to overlook the thousands of
smaller srructlrres in the center of the site and failing to rcalize the full scope of
the city's extent. This map, togcthef with rnore dctailed data, was combined
with Maler's report and published in r9 r r. The result is an excitirrg work which
even toclay manages to convey tl-rc flavor of the sitc. It was this volume that
came into nty l-rands, whilc seri'ing as a studcnt at thc Royal Ontario Museum
in Toronto, an inspiration that eventually led me to become yct anothcr
explorer of Tikal.
Followir-rg this pioneer work by the Peabody Museum, the focus shiftcd from
interest in Tikal's architecture to concern for recording thc hieroglyphic
inscriptiolts which were a feature at most major Maya sites. With the sllpport
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, Sylvanus P. Morley unclertook the
major task of attempting to record all the inscriptions to be found in the provincc of the Peten.T I(nowing what we do today of the enormous scope of both
settlement and ir-rscribed records of the ancient Maya, it is certain that this
ambitious undcrtaking has still not been completecl. Howevcr, Morlcy's effort
remains a landmark of scholarship, and it bror-rght him to Tikal for recording
sessions ir-r r9r4, rgzr) r9zz, and 1928. Overlapping with this monumental
effort was Morlcy's other major contribution to Maya studies, the excavations
at the sitc of Uaxactun, ab<tut r8 km to the north. This project cstablishcd an
academic base for understanding the stratigraphy of a Maya site and its chronology. Among the archaeologists working with Morley at []axactun was
Edwin M. Shook, a yoLll1i studcrrt of engineering who carle to be one of thc
most knowledgeable Mayanists of the zoth century, destined to become the
first Director of the Tikal Project out of thc Ulivcrsity of Purrtlsylvania.
14

t
at

During
larger site
were no liv
to Tikalfr<
archaeolog
to the settii

The Tikal

It

was onl,
Rainey, Di

be underta

Tikal in G
Maderrz

Directors

tor for z9
hold for a
pro-Ameri

var-ria.

Thi

realized in
in Philade

scholars ar
Museum.
friend fror

Institutior
A small
Guaten-ra1,

happy circ
logistics o

strife betu

sible for w
A camp

to

serve tL

area of th,

beaux artt

land Guat

architectu
more imp,

the first P
196r and
tions whit
Acropolis
north sid(
kings.

TII(AL DISCOV!,RI--D
under his
oom, even if
tes

rany plans

of

is later years
Lagining that

pense seems

rf the site,

During his work at UaxactLln, Shook made sidc trips soutl-r to the much
Iarger site of Tikal. It was a five-hour walk along a chiclero's trail, and there
were no living inhabitar-rts at the site then. \Work continlled in relative proxi rniry
to Tikal frorn 19z6 until 1937, a period during which the cssential principles of
archacological excavation were forged, suitable to the problems peculiar both
to the setting and thc culture.

,rced to send

lfred Tozzer,
tch Chair at

ld go on to
'ious explor-

lnd town of

The Tikal Project: University of Pennsylvania

It was only a decade later, in r947,that Percy Madeira proposcd to Froelich

Rainey, Director of the University Museum of Pcnnsylvania, that major work
be undertakcn at one of the largest, oldest, and most important of Maya sitcs:
Tikal in Guatemala.
Madeira, an old-f:rmily native Philadclphian, was Prcsident of the Board of

first to enter

Directors at the Muscum, while Raincy was to sefve

rom El Cayo

become the

tor for 29 years. Although positively received, the proposal had to be plrt on
hold for a number of years until after the collapse of the Arbenz regime when a
pro-Arnerican government in Guatemala wclcomed the University of Pennsylvania. This long-standing dream to molrnt an expeclition to Tikal was finally
realized in r95-5, having its genesis in the drawinFi-rooms of promincnt families
rn Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Thc result was collaborarion among several
scholars and benefactors, mostly those connccted directly with the University
Museum. These were Pcrcy Madeira, Froelich Rainey, John Dimick and his
friend from earlier work in Guatemala, Ed Shook, forn'rerly of rl-re Camegie
Institution.
A small airstrip had been built in the r94os on rhe east edge of the site by the
Guatemalan military for use in case of conflict with British Honduras. This
h"ppy circumstance made air travel directly to the site possible and eased the
logistics of working rn the heart of the Peten. Thus it was rhar thc threat of
strifc between Guatemala and the country now known as Belize rrrade it feasible for work to bcgin at Tikal.
A camp had to be built to house thc archaeological team as well as a village
to serve the workmcn, who were mostly Maya from the Cakchiclucl-speaking
area of the highlands of Guatemala. Aubrey Tiik, an architect schooled in thc
beaux arts traditi<rr with additional experience at the site of Zaculeu in highland Guatcmala, joined the team in its early srages. He was able to apply his
architcctural training at first in the design of the villagc and larer to the much
more important work of restoring ancicnt structures of monumental size. As
the first Project Director, Ed Shook oversaw the exc:rvation from 1955 unril
r96t and oversaw thc rnapping of the site. He initiated the trenching operations which led to the discovery of the necropolis that lay ber-reath the North
Acropolis. This impressive collection of temples and platforms which form the
north side of Tikal's Great Plaza served for centuries as the burial place of

ania.

kings.

ned this the

:ers.

After

:onsiderably
rousands of

fullscope of
combinecl
work which
volume that
rio Museum
yet another
Ls

shifted from

rieroglyphic
the support
dertook the
in the provope of both
rin that this
rrley's effort

rr recording
nonumental
excavations
rablished an
Lnd

its chro-

xactun was
: one of the

as

that institr-rtion's Direc-

l5

TiKAL DISCOVERED
:

il
il

ij

large-scale erpeThe university Museum had a 1ofrg tradition of mour-rting

engagc enormous
ditions, especially in the Near East whcre the custom was to
quickly ir-r order
soil
of
quantities
numbers of workmen who could move huge
Tikal was a
time.
of
ro reveal monumenral architccture in a reasonable length
Eastertl
Near
introduce the
site on this scale, and it was the conscious effort to
rt S' Dyson as the proiect's
excavatiot't stylc that led to the appointment of Robe
of his work at Hasanlu i'
leave
took
next director. Fo, th. year of '9tt Dy'o't
workmen rose to above
of
Iran to oversec the operations at Tikai. The numbcr
at least at the
roo, probably ar-r unprecedented number for a Meya excavation,
was initiated undcr the
tin-re. At this point, work in the Central Acropolis
own research in Iran in
his
to
returlt
present authorls supervision. Dyson had to
'19,63,
had been with the
Il
ond6is succeeding director was William R. Coe who
by this time was serving as Curator of the America'r
lroj".t from the ,,u.,

"nd

Section of the Museun.

in the charge of
The original program of consolidation ancl restoration was
As the
Zaculcu'E
of
Aubrey rrrt *t-,,, had earlier worked at the highlar-rd site
similarly
project grew in scope and buclget, the allocation of responsibrlity
t..n-. diversificcl. As a roving architect/archaeologist for the University
Swiss archaeMuseum, Trik was assigned to othcr lTILlseLi[I proiects elsewhere.
of the ressr'rpervisor
ologist George Guillemin rook over as field director and
and
matters
teration operations. For three years I was in charge of budgetary
duties in
administration of the Proiect in the field, in addition to rny excavation
until thc
director
project
overall
the central Acropolis. Coe held his position as
Tikal
report,
lcngthy
formal end of the Proiect in ry69. His detailed ancl
It
Plaza'
at-rd Great
Report t4, describes the excavations in the North Acropolis
*", p.rblirhed in rggz and has been hailed by one reviewer as the masterpicce
of th. most accomplished livir-rg Maya rrchaeologist'
from privately
Funding for this massive p-1"., ha<l to shift of necessity
Guatemala recognized
raised sources ro more officiai ones. The government of

the Pcten, atld

the benefits of this extensive proicct in the rcmote forests of
This sourcc
restoration.
and
agreed to fund sevcral -o." y"u., of investigation
in the
unpreccdented
of national sllpport for a foreign-based proiect was
erpansiot]
an
history of Maya archaeology. Such guaranteed funding allowed
the more
than
costly
lnofe
always
effort,
of the restoration "r-rd p."r"ruation
excahad
been
what
preserving
The concept of
modest costs of
"".ounrio,-t.
vated, standard practicc today, was pioncered in those days'

Theprc,jecthod.o,-'t,o.tedanagreementwithTlmc-LifeCorporationtlrat
that they would
any spectacular finds wor-rid bc reported to them first' and

p.o'ia"beneficialpublicity.ExcavationofBurialro,underTemple5D-34on
the architectural
the North Terrace of the Great Plaza, and Burial r16 under
,,pin-up,, of Tikal, Temple I, were the most notable occasiolls that prompted
articles in Life magazine.e
It was part of the Proiect organization that each individual staff member
,-r,r-b". for identification purposes in the record
a permltllent
received

Proiect

of notes ar

Proiect rec,
dents from

while Nun
allocated t
sity of Coi

als who sp
perhaps a
investigati
conservati

Natural

problems,
variable r:

setbacks. l
diseases u

histo-plas
on the car

from the r
unwise en

natlon. T
carried av
go on to
already

p,

preparati(

At Chr

the Gover
restoratic
the entire
ancient ti
as much

to the sitr
aiike. All
advanced

slowed tl
Museum

New\(/ot
Proyecto
Recogniz

that the

investiga
their ow

control

TII(AL DISCOVERED
'ge-scale expeage enormous

lckly
e.

rn order

Tikal was a

:Near Eastern
ls the project's

at Hasanlu in
r rose

to above

at least at the

ted under the

:arch in Iran

in

Ibeen with tire

the American
r the charge

of

culeu.s As the

rilrty similarly
.he University
,

Swiss archae-

sor of the res'y matters and

ation duties in
'ectof unril the

report, Tikal
Great Plaza.
re

It

masterpiece

rom privately
ala recognized
.he Peten, and

n. This source
dented in the
an expansion
than the more
ad been exca-

rporatiolt that
at they would
nple 5D-34 on

: architectural
:hat prompted

staff member
in the record

of notcs and photographs. Over the course of r5 years of fie1d work, thc Tikal
Project recorded rr3 professional participants, the majority of whom were students from the University of Pennsylvania and elsewhere. It is ir-rteresting that
while Nurnber r was the project's first Director, Ed Shook, Number rr3 was
allocated to Dr. Payson Sheets, now a prominent archacologist at the University of Colorado, well-known for his work in El Salvador. Of all these individua1s who spent part of their professional and training time at Tikal there were
perhaps a dozen who formed the hard-core field force, their work including
investigations of central Tikal, peripheral Tikal, and thc csscntial laboratory
conservation and analyses. 1o
Naturally, no project on this scale of personnel and time could be free of
problems and the Pennsylvania Projcct was no exception. The difficulties of a
variable rainy season, through which work continued, resulted in delays and
setbacks. Isolation and ilh-ress were indeed factors: injr-rries on the job, strange
diseases unfamiliar to North Americans - malaria, leishmaniasis, meningitis,
histo-plasmosis; snake bites by the dreaded fer-de-lance; attacks by army ants
on the camp quarters were especially feared, particularly at night. Rcadings
from the medical diagnosis volume, the Merck Manual, camc to bc a forrn of
urrwisc cntertainmer-rt on Saturday nights. Such readings only stirred the imagination. Then, as the project wound down, deeply involved graduate students
carried away hefty publishing responsibilities, graduated, and were forced to
go on to other jobs. Nevertheless, of 39 projected numbcrcd rcports, r8 arc
already published, while many others are either awaiting the press or in active
preparation.
At Christmas t969, the University Museum officially turned over the site to
the Government of Gllatemala, and that particular epoch of investigation and
restoration came to an end. Thc goals of the project had been lxany: to survey
the entire site; to gain knowledge through excavation of al1 levcls of society in
ancient times at the site, not iust of the elite center; to restore and consolidate
as much as budgetary linitations would allow for the benefit of future visitors
to the site; and to establish a base that could be used by visitors and scholars
alike. All these goals were met and publication of these data is now well
advanced, although the sheer mass of it, as well as publication costs, have
slowed the completion of this phase of the project. To date, the University
Museum's Tikal Project is the largest-scale archaeological invcstigation in thc
New \forld.
Proyecto Nacional Tikal

Recognizing both the success of the original Tikal Project as well as the fact
that the site was so enormous that its remair-ring possibilities still demanded
ir-rvestigation, the Government of Guatemala initiated a second project under
their own supervision in ry79. The title in Spanish reflected the national
control of this venture. The appointed director was Juan Pedro Laporte, a
37

revealed

deceptivell
have revea
This disco

this perioc

vacant zor
did not cor
In addit
in other ar

archaeolol
r94os. Her
had been c
Both pr

how much

per cent ol

named "c
one (Tem1
joint Gua

III,

IV, an
Central A
were inve
questions

Pro ject, tuith the "Lost Vlorld Pltramid" in the

t \ MJF oI the stuJt .rtt'.r oI tlte Lu"tlern'tlan National
date are found to the east in the plata
Clas'sic
Late
s
ctf
ourl
b"tll'
t
hre,"'tJlaccnl
c, nt, r,,I ihr rrorp.

knctu;n as the "Seuen TemPles."

erperieuce
Guatcmalan archaeologist who had accomplished much of his field
Number
nembcr
57'
with the originirl TikalProject as project
The new project had a new focus. In additiolr to furthering the investigato visit,
tions, it *n, i.rir"ble to open up another portion of the sitc for tourists
the best l0cale
and thc unitcd States Park Scrvice was consulted for advice on
as well
investigation
under
arcas
the
of
for such development. The significance
affeckfrown
zone
The
as the need for open space *".. .o..f,rlly considcred.
l'L.rrf
new
for
World Pyramid" was chosen as the locati.n
tionately as rhe
becn partially
developmenr and ercavation (lll. r;). This massive pyramid had
its
origins lay in
that
showed
which
."pl.,..d during tl-re Pennsylvania project,
open plaza
cxpansive
au
the Middle Preclassic penod (c.6oo_ 35o rc) . lt sits in
dates
pcriod
surroundecl on two sides by numerous tenples of various classic
(ilL. 15). The location exceeded anyone's expectations, revealing yet another
,oy"l ,-r".rupolis that served as an alternative to the North Acropolis excavated

li

hy rhe crrlier pr,,iecr.

to
Also, o ,o,-r" to thc sor-rth of thc Lost World Pyramid which had appeared
ol
[.t.devoitl of arry sigrrificarrt surfaee rrchitcctttre was given a tcst-pit serie'
tests
these
Instead,
routine.
merely
to
be
excavations; the resr-rlts were expected

(right) The west face ctf the Lost \xlorld P ,tramid (structure 5.c:--i1) as it appears
)ir'nii:lr'or-o,iion)ri r"rtnrorion. The structure uisibLe is of Early Classic date.
16

roday,

The

Gr

maintena
tions curt

TII(AL DISCOVER!,I)

of buriecl structures that had bcen undetected bcneath the

deceptively flat surface. Excavations in what was called the 5C-XVI Group
have rcvcaled an entire buried acropolis dating to the Early Classic period.11
This discovery has shed much light upon the political activities of the site for
this period, as well as suggesting what tnore may lie undetected in apparently
vacant zones of the map. Other planned excavatiorrs at Tikal's North Group
did rrot come to completion before the project cnded in r989.
In addition to tl-ris zone, the Proyecto Nacional Tikal branchccl out to work
in other areas. Uaxactun, to the north of Trka1, had receivcd no attention from
archaeologists since the days of the Camegie excavations in thc r93os and
revealed a vast array

r9l+os. Hencc, excavation and restoration were re-commenced here after a road
had bcen constructed to join the two sites.
Both projects, that of Pennsylvania and the National effort demonstrated
how much rnore remains to be learned of Tikal. It is estimated that less rhan ro
per cent of those structures known by mapping have becri excavatecl. Of the six
named "Grcat Temples," two were ercavated by Penn (Terrplcs I and II) and
one (Temple V) is presently under a tr-rnneling ir-rvesrigrrion sPonsored by a new
joint Guatemala-Spanish project. This lcaves three uninvestigated (Tcmples
III, IV and VI), and these are only of the namecl grcar remples. Evcn in the
Central Acropolis, where this author worked for three years, 24 of 46 structures
were investigated, a total of 5z percent. \We know that the answcrs to many
questions lie beneath the unexcavated portions.

ramid" in the
in the 1:laza

The Guatemalan government has sustained its intcrest in Tikal through

maintenance and consolidation progl:ams in recent ycars, witi-r new excavations currently taking place and, hopefuliy, archaeological investigations will

eld experience

fi+?t

the investiga)urists to visit,

:he best locale

gation as well
known affecation for new
been
r

partially

origins lay

ir-r

ive open plaza

c

period datcs

rg yet another

olis ercavated
d appeared to

;t-pit series of
,ad, these tests

t dppears today,
late.

'r.i{l

'r*'l

TI I( A I, D]SC]OV}.,RI,D

continue. As a laboratory for learning the site offers a virtually bottomless

potential. It is a pity that firrances for excavation remaitt dif{icult to raise, ever-r
for this great city that was once a capital of the New \7orld . However, breaktl-rroughs on other fronts of invcstigation, namely in the translation of hieroglyphic texts both at Tikal and elsewl-rere, have led to exciting and revealing
advances in our knowledge of the history of the lords of Tikal. References tcr
thc great central city are for-rncl at many other sites in thc Peten and even
beyoncl, helping to piece togcther a sketchy history of Tikal's fortuncs, at least
for the Classic per:iod.
This volume attcmpts to summarize what is now known of the site drawing
Llpon the work, not just of the University Muscum of Per-rnsylvania, but of al1
scholars who have turned thcir atterrtion to the art, iconography, and especially
the hieroglyphic terts which concern thc vicissitudes of fortune that marked
the site's history iri ancient times. No account of Tikal can ever be complete,
and this one does not pretend to fulfill such a rolc. Rather, it is intended to
inform the reader and to clucidate the site and its known history to the extent
that is currently possible. To do this, I follow the growth of the sitc fr:om
archaeological data prior to tirc begir-rr-ring of dynastic nrle and thc writterr
record. After this record began there is refcrcnce to a "founder." This individual was recognized by thc Maya of Tikal as an anchor point irr their own
histor). Clearly, the founder was not the first ruler of Tikal, but hc is a fixed reference point for the ancient Maya hrstorians who recorded in tert Tikal's
progress and dccline. Following the evidencc as presently known, the history of
the site is tracccl through the works and succession of its rulers. The record is
not complete, nor mrght all my colleagues agrec with n-ry interpretations of
which rulcr accomplished which fcats and cor-itributions to the developmcnt of
Tikal. This is the nature of archacological evidence and scholastic ilrtcrprctxtion. The goal of this volume is to present the evidence for interpretation to
flesh out the weathcrcd rr-rir-rs back into the living cntities that they once were
:rnd for the first time to present the story of Tikal as seen through the eyes of its
owrr lords.

Tikal today

'i i
I

r7

The uis

museums,

museums
archaeolc
ancient er
the ridge

ward fror

did the earliest sctThe modern pilgrim coming to Tikal

tlers of the site - at the eastern edge of the city - close to the shore of the Bajcr
de Santa Fe. No longer can such pilgrims fly directly to the airfield which facilitated the original project. The National Park of Tikal closed the airfield in
ordcr to preserve the natural quality of the site and its surrounclings. Instead
the visitor must take a land route similar to that followed by Modcsto Mendez
when thc ancient city was first visited in r848. The road now travcls directly
from the ncw airport in Santa Elena close to the capital city of Flores and the
tod:ry arrives jLrst as

ancient site of Tayasal.

On arrival at Tikal the visitor is greeted by a cluster of public br-rildings,

1o

'\'lt

old roads
system is

E, a pair
east-wesl
Causewa'

the Grea

Temple I.

The sc
winds br
and

evenr

TII(AL DISCOVERED
)r-North

1ly bottomless

"

[t to raise, even

tl{"+lH

or

group

owever, breakation of hiero; and revealing

to

. References

eten ancl even

rtllnes, at lcast

drawing
rnia, but of all

re site

To Flores
...,1-:

and especially
e that marked
r be complete,
is intended to
y to the extent

the sitc from

rd the written
'This rndivid. in their own
e is a fixed ref-

[l=

,'b

l.-i."

.4.'.;

ffip;:.:;

D_H
G

C ro

u.p.

'.

'. 1':.4

CENTRAL TIKAL

n tert Tikal's
,the history

"ll

of

t:1";

The record is

fpretations of
evelopment

of

tic interprctapretation - to
)y once wel e

the eyes

of its

re earliest setre of the Bajo

I which facilirhe arrfield in

r7 The uisitor's map of the site shous the entrdnce from the sctuth, location ctf
museums, and the road rctutes into the majctr ruins.
museums and hotels that now cover the space that once was the camp of the
archaeological investigators from the 195os through the r9Sos. From this
ancie nt entry way the visitor must walk - as did the original residents - to climb
the ridge that attracted the earliest settlers. The single white road leading wcstward from the modern cluster divides at what is now thc Park gate to follow the
old roads established by the Pennsylvania project (ill. ry). This modern road
system is simple and not entirely arbitrary To the right the road leads to Group

lesto Mendez

E, a pair of twin-pyramid complexes both built by the same ruler on an

east-west spine of high ground. From here, the road climbs onto thc Malcr
Causeway which it follows upwards to the East PIaza, immediately adjacent to
the Great Plaza, where it joins the top of the southern road right behind

:avels directly

Temple I.

rlores and the

The southern road departs from the same gateway closc to the "camp." It
winds briefly thror-rgh the forest where no structures are visible from the road
and eventually ;oins the Mendez Causeway at a turning l-roint in the causeway

1ings. Instead

rlic buildings,

4L

TIKAL DISCOVERED

il
ll
il
ll

adjacent to a cluster of palaces called "G Group." This intcresting complex is

partially cleared and the visitor has access to one interior cor.rrtyard and a
groLrp of surroundir-ig, partially restored palaces. From here, the road follows
the Mendez Caurscway and one can turn sharply left to the southeast following
thc lower end of the Causeway until it terminates at Tenple VI, called the
Temple of the Inscriptions - an importlnt feature of thc city. This numberccl
Great Tcmple lies at a much lower elevation thar-r the Great Plaza and on the
map looks like an urban ertensiotr well to the southe:rst of the city center. Followilrg the Mendez Car,rseway from G Group towards the Great Plaza, the road
rises sharply, climbing onto the ridge to terminate also in thc East Plaza where
the northern and southcrn routes meet behind Temple L Enterirtg the East
PIaza, the visitor passes by 5E-38, a substantial ternple on the south side of the

road. The East Acropolis, thc Marketplace and a large ballcourt (where the
Mesoamericari ballgame was played) are all hidden in the current growth of
forest. A small ceremonial strLlcture with three visible stairs adjoins the grcat
walls of the Central Acropolis and is notable for its Teotihuacan-style decoration. Howevcr, the back of Tcn'rple I dominates the East Plaza ar-rd the first view
of it always clicits a gasp of disbelief from the first-time visitor (ill. r8).
From the East Plaza, a ramp lcads up to the Great Plaza, the heart and center
of the city, dominated by Temples I and II facing each other on the east and
west sides, with the North Acropolis, a cluster of templcs, ar-rd the Central
Acropolis, a cornplex of palaces closing thc other sides of thc p1aza. The
pilgrirn to this place cannot help beir-rg awed by this magnificent ancl sacred
space. The Central Acropolis is arr elevated complex of six courtyards at differing lcvels, extending from the middlc of the Great Plaza, eastward ncarly
halfway past the East PIaza.
The roads leading up to the plaza and bcyond can only bc r-rsed by government vehicles and foot traffic today. A bypass behincl the North Acropolis now
prevents all vehicular traffic from entcring the Great Plaza. The o1d proiect road
continlles west from behind Temple II, passing through the'West Plaza, ncxt to
Templc III, then circles around the "Bat Palace," now called the Palace of the
t'Vindows, focusing on a more permanent feature. Thc formerly resident bats
were evicted during restoration of the building. From behind the Paiace of the
\Tindows thc road curves through N Gror-rp, a twilt-pyramid group of great significance to the history of the city, and final1y rcaches Temple IV The distance
from the Great Plaza to Temple IV is r km. The tallest aboriginal structure in
the New'World is not visible at its base due to the growth covering thc giant
pyramid. The clearcd temple above however can be secn from atop a number of
strlictllres to the east. From Templc IV, a recently rcvived road follows the
Maudslay Causeway to H Group, the northenr focal point <-if the city.
On thc map, the roLltes of the ancient ciluseways are clearly revealed, belying
the chaotic impression given by the moderr-r roads which only follow bits of the
ancient ways. Three of the causcways join togethcr major features of the city in
a rough, brokcn-line right-anglcd triangle. The Maler Causeway connects the

18 (right) The uisitor's first uiew of Temple I is trLways from the eastern side. The Great
Temple is dramatically framed by the rainforest nou grotuing in the F.ast Plaza.

!ii;r

ng complex is

urtyalcl and a
road follows

east following
VI, callecl the

'his numbered
za and on the

ty center. Fol'laza, the road

;t Plaza lvhere

:ring the East

rth side of the
Lrt (whcre the

lnt growth of
cins the great
-st1'le clecora-

the first view

/. r s).

lrt and center

the east ancl

I the Central
e plaza. The

tt ancl sacrecl
ards at differtward nearly
:d by govcm-

cropolis now
project road

)laza, ncrt to

of the
resident bats
Palace of the
r of gleat sigTl-re distance
I structure in
ing the giant
a number of
follows the
Palace

itli
aled, belying

w bits of the
of the city in
connects the

t. The

()rcitt

TII(AI, DISCOVF,R}T,D

East Plaza from directly bchind Temple I to H Group, the north group, with a
berrd in the road adj:rcent to the twin-pyramid group callecl R Complex. The
Malcr Causeway is notable for two features. It is brokcn by a great stairway
descending into a ravine iust north of R Compler. As the road clirnbs out of
the ravine on the north side and just bcfore arriving at H Group it is interrupted
again by a giarrt exposcd rock carving, facing south. This carving oncc displayed two human figures and three glyph panels. The ligurcs show a seated
victor arrd a standing bound prisoner. The scene is attributed to Yik'in Chan
I('awil, the zTth ruler of Tikal who reigned in the middle of the Bth century.
The causcway itsclf may also be his work.
Recent reconstructions in H Gror-rp make it well worth a visit. Twin-pyramid
Complex stands to the west of a very large temple (SC-+:) which is larger and
taller than the Temple of the Inscriptions, but l:rcks a roof comb, :r major
featr-rre of Classic temple dccoration, and so was not graced with the official
term of "Gre:rt Terlple."
Thc Tozzcr Causeway connects the West Plaza to the basc of Tcmple I!
passing by Temple IIl, the Palace of the \flindows and N Complex (twinpyrarnid group) al1 to the south. Like a drunken hypotenr-rse connectinl the
other two Causewi.rys, the Mar-rdslay Causeway twists from Temple IV to the
northern H Gror.rp, ending at the twin pyramids of P Complex. A cluster of
large palace groups north of H Group are not easily accessible.
To the south side of the city center a deep revine separrrtcs anorher east west
alignment of irnportant architectural groups. On the map parts of this ravine
are identified as the Palace Reservoir and the Temple Reservoir. This series of
temples, plazas, and monumcnts extends from opposite the East Plaza almost
to Temple IV Thc principal features, from east to west, include Templc ! a
towering Grcat Tcmple presently under restoration and ercavation; thc South
Acropolis, completely unexcavated and facing north; the Plaza of the Seven
Temples, incluciirrg three ballcourts and an elevated palace group; and finally
the Lost World Pyramid group with its gigantic four-staired pyramid at the
center of a complcx of temples and palaces. Although this pyramid offcrs a difficult clirrb, the view from the summit is highly photogenic.
Literally thousands of other strlrctures surround the n-rain site, somc of them
significantly large. The F Gror-rp palace conplex lics between the East Plaza
and E Group and is accessible by trail. Howevcr, the group is unexcavated and
P

Birth, dau

Tikal is s
which run
zone, the

effect of

The kar

of

geologr

The hump

denly sur
impermea
ing today

geously

possessed

hilly

settir

known as
Althoul
tant role ir
source of

elements

rdentity

ot

the swaml

The tinto
or beams
The hil

clearing of the trail is spor:adic.

dependen

All of the architcctural

and settir
ground m
cially alor

features described in this very brief outline are

accessible to the visitor, and rcclr-rire differing amollnts of time to explore. For
example, due to extensivc cxcavation and restoration, the Central Acropolis
alone rcqr-rircs scveral hours for a thorough examinatiorr of its detail. Conversely, thc South Acropolis can only be passed at its base on a trail, since
neither clearing nor excavatior.r have occurred to datc. To visit each of the
groups mentioned here would require a minimum of two days for the young
and energetic, more for the rest of us.

41

VIl

looked by
the earth.
dew whic

the horiz<
into liqui<

group, with a

CHAPTER THREE

3ompler. The
great stairway
climbs or,rt of
is

interrupted

VILLAGES AROTJN D THE RIDGE:

THE M IDDLE P RECLASSIC

uing once disshow a seated

r Yik'in Chan
Le

Sth centr-rry.

hvin-pyramid
h is larger and

rmb, a major
th the official

rf Tenple I!
'mplex (twin-

Birth, dawn, and the color red

Tikal is situated quite favorably orr the southern porrion of a great dividc
which runs ror-rghly north-south through the Peten in Gr-ratcmala. L'r the Tikal
zone, the spine of this divide is br:oken by cross arroyos and gr-rllies giving e nct
cffect of a series of irregular hills.
The karstic nature of thc Yr-lcatan peninsula remains the delight ancl mystery
of geologists due to the unpredictable quality of thrs type of land formation.
Thc hr-rmps of sl-r:rrp or bh,rnted hills rise out of plains; underground rivers sud-

cnnecting the
rple IV to the
. A cluster of

denly sr-rrface

her east west

impermeable clays that cause "perched" water tables that rctair-r water, rcsr-rlting today in scasonal swamps. A1l of these fcaturres in thc varied ar.rd advanta-

of this ravine
This series of
Plaza almost
: Temple ! a
on; thc South

of the Seven
p; and finally
'ramid at the
d offers a

dif-

some of them
re East Plaza

xcavated ancl

or,rtline are
explore. For
ral Acropolis

detail. Cona trail, since

each of the

or thc young

to appear as open wells;

basins

of wetland are lined with

geously unpredictable lowlands admirably served the ancienr Maya wl-ro

ability to aclapt to a varied cnvironment. The broken,
hilly setting that came to be the city of Tikal is flankecl by swampy basins
known as "bajos."
Although thcse basins were uninhabirable they played an enormously irnportant role in the initial settlement and later development of the city. Scrving as a
source of food production as well as transporration, they also harbored many
elements of nature which were incorporated into the ideology and spiritual
identity of the city. Crocodiles, frogs, and warcr lilies are but a few products of
the swamps which came to servc as namesakes and ritual elements of the site.
The tinto or logwood tree from these swampy basins served as wooden lintels
or beams that did not deteriorate thror,rgh time in templcs and palaccs.
The hills of the site and the swamps that flank it have a physical interplay
depelident upon daily temperature fluctuations and air moisture. The rising
and sctting of the sun effects the temperature change required to produce
gror-rnd mists that form and gather in the lower parts of the upland, ar.rcl especially along the flanks of the swamps. Such phcnomena were sr-rrely nor overlcioked by the ancient Maya with their deep concern with celestial effccts r-rpon
thc earth. .fr-rst bcfore sunrise thc air is filled with precipitation a fog, or thick
clcw which obstructs the view in the pre-sunrise moments. As the sun breaks
the horizon, however, its rays strike the ground moisture and the world turns
into licluid gold, announcing the rebirth of I(inich Ahau, rhe srarr of a new day,
possessccl an ingenior-rs

4\

VILLAGES AROUND THE RIDGE

a kin tn the Maya language. Kin means not only "d"y," but is also the root of
the namc of the sun god. When the orb of the sun first appears over the horizon
it is deep red, the same color it will be when it sinks finally into the wesr, rhe
direction of death. In the Maya lexicon, red is the color <tf east, equated with
birth, dawn, and a new start (ill. 19).It was on the east side of Tikal, on the

edge of this grcat swanp, where the sun rises, that one of the earliest settlemcnts of the site is found. This locale continued to be important to early settlement throughout the Preclassic period. The atmospheric effects in tire evening

begin shortly before sunset, but they are not as dramatic as the morning
of excellent positions atop ancient architecture offer
vantage points for savoring the rising (or setting) of the sun each day, when
anyone can appreciate the Maya symbolism of heavenly birth, rencwal, and
death. With the forest as a factor the highest vantege poirtrs now are rhe top of
the Lost World Pyramid (SC-i+), the highest points on the North Acropolis
(5D-zz), and the top of Temple IV Chronologically, thcsc are structures that
date frorn thc Late Preclassic, the Early Classic and the Late Classic rcspectively For the earlier settlers, the hilltop that was to become the North AcropoIis was likely the best var.rtage point bcfore the coming millennium of
architectural achievements providcd Lretter ones.
clisplay. Today, a number

Sourccs

of settlement

Drainage routes through the great castern bajo (Bajo de Santa Fe) probably
served as the initial entry routc from the east - a waterway that may not have
been seasor-ral 3,ooo years ago br-rt rather served to guidc canoes of wandering
Maya to the brokcn upland that would becorne Tikal. The flow is downstream
to the east, off thc divide, towards other sites whtch grew along its en-rbank-

ments Holmul, Nakum and Naran jo. I The last-named,

at a clistance of 4o km
from the center of Trkal, would play a prominent role in thc fortunes and destinies of the larger site's history, first as a friend and ally, then later as an enemy.
Ultimately, this water drainage which connects a scries of sites like beads in a
necklace, crosses the modern bor-rndary of Belize, then mcanders into larger
and greater rivers r.rntil it reaches the Caribbean shorc. As a trade route, it musr
havc becn very significant. Shells, seaweed, thc spines of stingrays - all occan
products assumed a highly significant ritual role for the lowland Maya. Evidence from caches ar-rd burials show that the people of Tikal werc parricularly

attracted to this cr-ilt

q6

of

sea-borne objects. As a route

of exploration,

the

r9 Looking
painting by )

site of earll
concentrat

Tikal's late
Despite ex
suggest tha

site betwee

Early Precl
says that tl

densities d,
agrees

witl

lands durir

settlement

the highlan

the coast

eastern water flow likely scrved to bring the initial settlers to Tikal.
Parts of the sor-rthern Yucatan peninsula were settled to both the east and

through a r
Peten. Cur

west of Tikal at carlier dates. These ir-rclude Altar dc Sacrificios and Seibal olr
parts of the wcstern watershed; and the three sitcs of Cuello, Pulltrouser
Swamp, and Colha in Belize, all of which were established by rzoo BC. By contrast, Tikal's earliest recorded settlcmcnt occurred near 8oo BC, suggesting that
this ridge land with its scarcity of pcrmanent water supplies was not e primary

available v

clearly exp
struction b

account fot
there are ee

VILI-ACES AROUND THI, R]DG].,

so the
er

root of

the horizon

the west, the

equated r,vith

Tikal, on the
:arliest settlc:o early settlein the evening

the moming
ritectr,rre offer
Lch

day, wherr

renewal, and
are the top

of

rth Acropolis
.ructures that
lassic respec-

orth Acropo-

illennir-rm of

19 Looking east from Temple IV to the direction of settlement of the cit-t, ctf TikaL. This
painting by Didna Nobbs inuokes the sense of morning and rebirth at Tikal.

Fe) probably

concentrations of wcalth

site of early settlement. Its many other advantages, discovcred later, led ro great
at.rd power.

may not have

of wandering
downstrean.r

;its embanktnce of 4o kn-r

res and destirs an enemy

ike beads in a
rs

into larger

route, it must
,s

all ocean

d Maya. Evir

particularly

loration, the
1.

the east and

Seibal on

Lnd

, Pulltrouser
c BC. By conggesting that

rot a primary

Tikal's late beginning

Despite extcnsive searching, no indicators werc recovered by archacology to
suggest that there werc any residents within the boundaries that now defir-ie the
site between the years 2ooo BC and 8oo ec. This is the period identified as the
Early Preclassic in the Maya lowlands. This absence of early setrlemenr only
says that the ultimate size of a site in terms of land covercd ancl population
densities do not necessarily correlate with earliest settlemenr. This conch,rsion
agrees with recent theories about movement of peoples around the Maya lowlands dr-rring the earliest period. Thc central core of the Peter-r was not a focus of
settlement at this time. Rather, peoples are thoughr to have movecl down from
the highlands of both Guatemala and Mexico, across the Gulf Coast and down
thc coast of Belize. Judging from these solrrces, setrlement apparently spread
through a series of lake chains, used as waterways, and moved into the central
Peten. Current swamp basir-rs may have been lakes, increasing the number of
available waterways into the central Peren. These theorics have bcen most
clearly explained by Don Rice of Southern Illrnois University, whosc reconstruction bcst fits the known data.2 Such a pattern of settlcment growth cor-rld
account for Tikal's relatively late appearance in Maya prehistory, and also why
there arc earlier known dates at smaller sites both to the cast and wcst.

17

VII,I,AGES AI].OUND THE I{IDG.h,

Santa Fe, a local

The Middle Preclassic at Tikal

on high points

of clevelopmcnr (at any site) are identifiecl witl-r blocks of time ancl by the
p."r.r... of culturirl characteristics such as architecture and artif2lct types, and
s,rmetir11e, burials. The most commonly available iclentifier is ceramics, irncl it
is by cerilmics that wc can interpret where and r'vher.r the first settlemcllts of
Tikal occr.rrred.
In performing his analysis of the massive quantity of ceramic fragments left
at the site thror-rghor,rt timc, Patrick Culbcrt s<-iught to iderttifv locations of scttlemcr1r c|-rring tl-rc early periocls. His strategy of intcrpretation iderrtifiecl settlemer-rt locations by the prcsence of "pttre" rniddens' that is, girrbage dumps
which contiritt discardcd and brokerr ceramics frotlr one pcriod orlly' Such
deposits are rare at Tikal, :rnd cven rilfer between 8oo ilnd 600 eC. These
ceramic locatiols 1re a first step itl defilling thc characteristics of :rny given
tir"le period. Whcn architecturc, buri:rls and other rittial featr.rres appear, these
roo cen be addecl to thc esse mblages that clcscribe t1-rc growth of Tikal.

swamp-edge loc

St:lges

<

is at the edge of
ar-rd easy transp
isolated instanr

spread along tt
Classic period

Bajo de Santa I
site settlement

least seasonall
During the Eb
cation of each
Although the l

side locaies we
Very ltttle rs
detice. The ber
site . Rising 6o

The Eb sites
The Eb complcx was thc fiISt to appe2lr at Tikal ilnd is dated at 8oo-6oo sc'
Only three loc:rtions of "pure" deposits of the Eb conlplex are knowtl, two
close to the ccnter of the sitc, and ollc at the edge of the castern sw:rmp' This
clistributior-i ctf settlement is irl itsclf revealinF!. It suggcsts that the first peoples
at Tikal hacl established three separate villagc units, within rcach cif each other
but in cliscrcte lociries, each with its clwn attrlction'
One such locale was found under the North Acropolis, olt olle of the highcst
lancl poir-rts encompassed by the site. Thrs spot lnay well have beerr vetlerated as
a sacred place beforc tl.rc apperrrlncc of ar:chitecture, holding meanitlg for
rcasons lolv lost to r-rs. The vcneriltion of sacred hills is knowu :rs part of the
May:r cosmic belief sysrem. Thc earliest archacological activity is a cleposit dug
into thc bedrock that c:rme to be the base of thc tnost sacred royal br'rrial
ground, the North Acropolis. The vcry antiquity of this spot as e prim.rrv sct,1.-.r-,, probably rccounts for the cluirlity of ancestral veneratioll that later led
to centurics of royal br,rrials ilnd tombs.
Another locale was found uncler the strtlctLire cirllecl the "Lost World
Pyrarnicl" (;C-;+) , a gargantuan buildingnow known to be of I-:lte Preclassic
constrLlction (c. ;5o BC-AD z5o). Ag:rin, the prirnary settlemcnt occr.rrrccl later
in one 9f thc most sacred foci of the city, :rnd incidentally, or-re of tl-re best places
to view thc uroruit-tg ancl evening atilosphcric cffects. Structure 5C-5'1 is
central to a l:rrger group of Lruildir-rgs which inch-rde the only other l<nown focus
of royal burials. The correlation between primary settlerrent and subsccltlent
royal br.rriirls is not likely to bc a coinciclencc' but rathcr sLlggests that memory
of pl:lce was very intport:rut to the Maya of Tika1.
ihc tl-rircl Eb locatiorr of pure ccramic deposit is at the vcry eclge of Baio de

4tl

se

ries of pits u

Among this tr

Tikal had accr

tant economic
cates that the
present in th(
quartzite, bot
rally in the vic

is significant.
date of 588 n
course of thi
sistcd of brol
structed on Pi

Eb ceramics

tecture is totz
in the same v

quarrying

an

have existed i

A single h
nearby trash
an intention

from the bor

skull. Had tl
(or mandible
skeleton set

rary with tht

VILLAGES AROUND TFIE RIDGE

Santa Fe, a locatior-r which at first glance does not seem to fit with thc other two
ime and by tl-re

fact types, and

:ramics, ar.rd it
settlements of
fragments left
cations of set-

identified setarbage dumps

od only Such
ioo ec. These
; of any given
appear, these

Iikal.

t 8oo-6oo ec.
: known, two
rswamp. This
e first peoples
of each other
of the highest
r venerated as

meaning for
as
a

part of rhe
deposit dug

I royal burial
primary sct-

that later led

"Lost ril/orlcl
ate Preclassic

rccurred later
re best places

ure 5C-54 is
known focr-rs
J subscquent

that memory
ge

of Bajo de

on high points of the ridge with the advantage of distant views. However, the
swamp-edge loc:rlc is only r km distant from the North Acropolis location and
is at the cdge of the water where the sun is see n to rise, adjacent to a food source
and easy transportation to the east through the water route. Also, this is not au
isolated instance of choosing a swamp-edge for settlement. Similar locations
spre:rd along the same bajo bordcr are found right r.rp to the beginning of the
Classic period (eo z5o) . The sclcction of settlement locations at the eclgc of the
Bajo dc Santa Fe was made for important reasons during thc carliest phases of
site settierncnt. Turtles, crococliies, and even fish could inhabit the swanp at
lcast seasonally if the water levcls were no iower tharr they are at prcscnt.
During the Eb period, all three known scttlements were within easy communication of each other, perhaps fulfilling diffcrcnt functions for a r.rnified grotlp.
Although the high ridge locations did later devclop at a faster rate, the swampside localcs were not abancLrned, and in fact sprcacl in number.
Very little is known about the Eb people due to the scarcity of recovered evidence. The best material derives from thc Nortl-r Acropolis at the heart of the
site. Rising 6o rn above the eastern bajo, thc hill itself was quitc impressive. A
series of pits were excavated right ir-rto the bedrock ar-rd rnostly fi1led with trash.
Among this trash is a large amol111t of chert'r dctritus, reflecting the fact that
Tikal had acccss to a good naturalsource of this matcrial. This is a very imporranr economic consideration. Its presence at this earliest of all settlements indicates that the chert sourcc was another factor in settlement of thc site. Also
present in these trash pits were fragmeuts of obsidian (volcanic glass) ar-rd
quartzite, botl-r n'raterials that had to be importecl as they clo not occur natllrally in the vicinity of Tikal. This indrcatior-r of trade dr-rring earliest settlement
is significant. A radiocarbon date obtarned frorn charcoal in one pit yielded a
datc of 588 sc, wl-rich is the source of the rounded date of 6oo ec ending the
coursc of thrs particular ccramic occupiltion. The ceramics then-rsclves colrsisted of brciken vessels in sr-rch quantities and sizcs that they could bc reconstructed on papcr. The largest of these bedrock pits contained a pure deposit of
Eb ceramics suggestillg an adjaccnt or nearby settlemcnt. Evidence for architccture is totally absent, due largely to enormous amounts of building activity
ir-r thc same vicinity at :r later date which removed the earlier ar:chitecture. The
quarrying and leveling that took place destroyed whatever construction might
have eristed ir-r Eb times.
A single hr-rman skull complete with articulatcd jaw was recovered from a
nearby trash pit. The combination of skull and jaw preserved together indicate
an intentior-ral beheading, or ritual sacrifice since thc separation of the head
from the body in a single violent:rct retains the jaw in conjur-rction with the
skr-rIl. Had the deposit been a re-location of an old skr.rll from a burial, the jaw
(or mandible) would not iikely be prcsent. A nearby pit contained a flexed adult
skeleton set into the bedrock and is assumecl by its proximity to bc contemporary with the adjacent Eb activity.

VILLAGES AROUND THE RIDGE

of the site

called mill
the basis

<

food prodr
source not
It is the
peoples w
diversity ir

iar from
20

Pomacea shells are d u)dter-

dependent spe.ies that formed d source

o,

lish their n

of food at Tikal. Their remains haue

been recouered frequently in food

middens at the site.

Snail shells of a variety narive to Tikal (pomacea) occurred in the Eb trash in

abundance, indicating not only one food source but also that the damp, marshy
conditions which foster this snail were prevalenr rhen as they are now (ill. zo).

The other two locations of Eb deposrt offer iittle addrtional evidence to

broaden the picture of life at Tikal during this period. The only archirecture
consists of chultuns,well-shaped excavations in the bedrock whose function at
Tikal remains in dispute. Tests have demonstrared that the bedrock is too
porous for these bottle-shaped roorns to have held water. Some contain
ber-rches and have plastered floors and walls, including chultun
5D-6, which
dated to either the Eb complex or its successor, the Tzec complex. It was ercavated into the bedrock on the summir of the hill beneath the North Acropolis
and contair-red a main squared room with a plastered floor and .o.,gh h.wn
bench. Three smaller chambers adjoined the main room at a slightly higher
level. The bench and floor suggest living quarters, but such speculation would
be difficult to prove. Since chultr-rns are a fairly common feature at Tikal it is
instructive to know that they have their origir-rs during the very earliest phases
of occupation.
Characteristics of the pioneer settlement

Little data are available to help in the task of characterizing Tikal in its eariiest
occupation. That the occupation was small and scartered is clear. The occupation sites either favored the swamp edge, and all that this choice implies; or
were hilltop villages that would endure as mosr sacred places for the entire
history of the city.
ceremonialism, and possibly even sacrifice are indicated by the remains
under the North Acropolis. Exploitation of a "home produc" is established
immediately (chert) , and trade of exotic products is already in evidence.
From elsewhere in the lowlands we know that this is a time of small villages
with simple ceremonial structures. The presence of chultuns as a characteristic
to

The TLec

The pione
The differ
material,

a greater v

Tzec rer
and had br
North Acr

only one k

the site, ev

Let us

since the

unmixed

enclosed ir
bones alsc
vessel may

The loc

settlement
de Santa F
to argue tl

burial (Bu
the varietl

dishes, pla
a greater

tion impli
During Tz
During
of locale t
most celel
reflect the
a preferre<

was the dir

VII,LAGES AROUND THE RlDGF,

of

tl-re site has already appeared. The slash-and-burn system of agriculture

called milpa is known to have existed elsewhere at this time and rnust have been

/dter'med a source

the basis of the econony The proximity of the swamp with its own special
food products, and elements which appear later in the iconography arc anorher
sorrrce not just of food but of spiritual awareness.
It is the ceramics themselves that are the most elocluent featurc for the EL-r
peoples with a variety of cooking and serving vessels that show a degree of
diversity in form and surface fir'rish. The particular vessel types arc mostly familiar from other parts of thc lowlands br-rt have distinctivc qualities which cstablish their manufacture as local to Tikal, the 6rst of a long series of traditions.

,ndins hdue

in food

trash in
damp, marshy
rhe Eb

now (iLl. zo).

ll

evidence to
y architecture
rse function at
edrock is too
iome contain
r 5D-6, which
r.

It was exca-

rth Acropolis
I rough hewn
[ightly higher
rlation would
at Tikai

it is
arliest phases

in its earliest
The occupa-

inplies; or
or the entire
e

the remains
s established
lence.

mall villages
haracteristic

The Tzec ceramic complex

The pioneer settlement of Tikal was followed by the Tzec ceramic complex.
Thc difference lies in a change in the ceramic forms. Despite a scanr body of
material, er-rough has been recovcred to know that this compler demonstrated
a greater variety of vessel shapes and 6nishes than in the prcvior,rs cornplex.
Tzec remains were positroned by stratigraphy above thosc of the Eb complex,
ar-rd had been even more thoroughly destroyed in the latcr rnodifications to rhe
North Acropolis. As a resuk, the distribution map for Tzec settlemenr shows
only one known pure deposit as a new location on the bajo edge to the east of
the site, even though Tzec material was present on the North Acropolis as wel1.
Let us consider first those remains that did occur on the North Acropolis,
since thc continuity of occupation tl-rere is obvious everi in the absencc of an
unmixed ceramic dcposit. Evidencc included a scated humen intermenr
enclosed in a bedrock pit (Burial rzr), and another group of partially burned
bones also in a pit, suggestive of cremation practice. Finally, a single inverted
vessel may reprcsent an offering or "cache."
Thc Iocation of the one certair.r pr-rre cleposit of Tzcc ceramics (ancl implied
settlement) lies to the east, on a peninsula of high ground ;utting into the Bajo
dc Santa Fe. While close to the site of the F,b depcisit, it is sufficicntly separate
to argue that a new village had been cstablished. The Tzec locale includecl a
burial (Burial r58) with three ir-rtact vessels, a goocl sollrce for dcmc.'nstrarini
the variety of shape and decoration which defincs the compler. The range of
dishes, plates, atrd bowls is much better known than that of Eb, srmply becausc
a greater cluantity was recovcred from the sitc overall. This increase in production implies an increase in popr-rlation as well as greater spread over the sire.
Dr-rring Tzec times, Tikal was gradually becoming a morc unified settlement.
Dr-rring the Middle Prcclassic these Maya still clung to two conrresring types
of locale to lay the for-rndations of what wor-rld becomc one of the largest and
most celebrated of Maya cities. Settlen'rent at the eastern swanrp cdge may
reflect the point of cntry into the sitc as the pioneers arrived, and it persisted as
a preferred location throughor-rt this periocl. In relation to thc city center, this
was the direction of the color red, of dawn, of rebirth (ill. zr).

Tikal

becc

The pione,

with most
Tikal exhi

change af{
rics ec anc

Thc per
until en z
according

which

2r Mod(.rn thatch huts dlongthe edge of the Camp Aguada euoka the conditions of
lit,ing at: the tuater's edge tuhich characterized the earLiest settlement of TikaL.

are

other artil
and growt
E.xcaval
e

ast-we st

The May;

Contrasting settlement on the high ridges had two foci at first, on the North
Acropolis ridge, and at the location of the Lost \7orld Pyramid. Both of thesc
continued during the Middle Preclassic, and persisted as sacred burial grounds

into the Classic period.

If there was any scnse of cosmos at this early time, it manifests itself as position - the Tikal Maya were anchored simultancously at their eastern bounclary
and on one of the highest vantage points of the ridges that form Tikal: an cast
west axis that followed the daily course of the sun. The shape and size of this
cosrrros was to change its configuration repeatedly dr-rrir-rg the generations tc)
come as expansion demanded such change. The north-sor-rth dimensior-r was
yet to be developed, according to the fortunes and wishes of the indlviduals

who would rule thc city. Only part of the story of the carly developnent of
Tikal is known, and much of it rehes upon inference. During the next major
period, the Late Preclassic, the dcvelopmer-rt of a distinct individuality can be
discerned together with the first tangible monuments of grandeur. Nevertheless, it was the pioneers of the Eb and Tzec complexcs who establishecl Tikal's
sense of place, and the rudiments of a sacred cosmos in its layout.
5z

Bajo

cle Sz

from

whi,

settied, w
expansior
period.
The N<
ra1 growt

that

was

World

Py

location c
relatively
pLlrpose

Groups,"
where thi
observatt
towards r
From the

behind tl
corner oi

CHAPTER FOUR

THE, MOVE INTO GREATNESS:

THE LATE PRECLASSIC

Tikal becomes a city

The pioneers of Tikal had established the roots of their civilizatior.r at this sitc
with most of its basic characteristics by 35o nc. By the change of eras at AD r,
Tikal exhibited a1l the attributes of Maya high civilization. A great deal of
cl-range affected the pcoplc of Tikal during the last tl-rree-and-one-half centuries ec and even more change was to come

>nditions

of

ikal.

, on the

North

Both of these
:urial grounds
;

itself

as

posi-

:ern boundary

Tikal: an east
nd size of this
Ienerations to
imension was
re individuals
:velopment of
re next major

luality can

be

ur. Neverthelished Tikal's

ir-r the ncxt z5o years.

The period that archaeologists call the Late Preclassic lasted from 35o ec
until AD 2-io at Tikal. The dates of this period vary from one city to another
accorcling to the local history of development. It is primarily the ceramics,
which are most subject to change, that inform us of these developments, but
other artifacts and archaeological features help to definc these stages of change
and growth at any site.
Excavatiolr data tcll that the contours of the city cxpanded along an
east-west axis morc than to the north and sor-rth of the original settlements.
Thc Maya of Tikal clung to their earliest vrllages along the edges of the great
Bajo dc Santa Fe to the east of the city as rf fcarful of abandoning the direction
from which they came. Some locations of villages are those that were first
settled, while others are new to this pcriod. The only significant northward
erpansiorr was along the shore of the swamp during thc earliest part of this
period.
The North Acropolis remained the major and coristant focus of architectr.rral growth at the site, establishing this ridge as the heart of Tikal, a fixation
that was to waver briefly at a later date and then re-affirm itself. The Lost
\World Pyramid group to the southwest of the North Acropolis was thc other
location of important growth. The focus here began with the construction of a
relatively srnall group of buildings that had ceremonial and astronomical
purpose. This was an example of the architectural grouping known as "EGroups," namcd after a configuration of buildings at Uaxactun north of Tikal
wherc this type of gror-rp was first recognized. The E-Group functior.rs as an
observatory using its four-staired pyramid as e viewing station, looking east,
towards a series of three small temple-like structures aligned on a platform.
From the viewing pyramid an observer can sight the positions of the rising sun
behind the middle of the center temple on the equinoxes; at the far north
corner of the north structure on the summer solstice; and at the far south

53

I
n

ll
I't
l/r

I
I

I
I

r'\

\.1
L-J

N_
zz TheLostWorltlPt,rdmitl(Structure:C-;+) tuttsconstru.tedttsdnobsenutorybuildinginrelat:ion
t:he ettst, sbott,n in this map of tha plaza.

zq

The obs
tct illustrate

to thc thrce snttrll tenrples to

the right an

z1 Orte of thc smdll lentstLes tt,hit:b formed part oI t.he obscn,tttctr,t- group, Structure.tD-8,+, shous all
oI the eLeme:nts thdt reca.lL Con,tn DoyLe 's "/-o,sr Worl/."
corner of
'', ,:

groLlp be
Preclassic

Both

ce

lcici,rtion

i,

thc Late I
fercnt at t

tu.rc, a p
self-conta
axis, even

of the acrr
as an obs(

of recordi
Pure ce

to the wes

city cente
another s

city rema

eastern s\'
75o m wi<

illirrurilililllilllllllllililillllliillllllll

lillilllilillllillr||llril

ing in relation

illl1

z4

The ctbseruatory group of the Lost \XlorLd is reconstructecl here b1, Juan I'edro Ldporte
to iLlustrate the configuration during the Early CLassic period, with the radial pyramid on
the right dnd the sighting tempLes on the left.

l-84, shotus alL

of the south structure on thc winter solstice. The Lost rWorld Pyramid
group bcgan its function as an E-Group when first constructed in the Middie
Preclassic and continued this use until the end of the Preclassic period.

corner:

Both ceramic dcposits and architecture in the Lost World zone show that this
location was one of equal development with the North Acropolis throughout
the Late Prcclassic period. However, their respective fr-rnctions were quite different at this time. The North Acropolis remained a focus of temple architecrure, r plac,.' ..-,f hurial ol kirrgs and e growirrg cosmic cxpression - r
self-contained cosmogram of the world directions, wrth a srronl north-soLlth
axis, even thor-rgh this axis did not meaningfully extend far beyond the confines
of the acropolis itself. On the other hand, the Lost World Pyramid group served
as an observatory dedicated to marking important solar events for the benefit
of recorc'ling the seasons.
Pure ceramic deposits from the Late Preclassic period have bcen found well
to the west of the Lost \World iroup and interestingly, far to the sourtheast of the
city ccnter, adjacent to the location of Temple VI whrch wor-rld not be burlt for
another sir centuries. Despite some scattered examples of ceramic finds, the
city remained spread along its original east-west axis, from the edges of the
eastern swamp as far west as Temple IV but clr.rstered in a narrow bclt about
75o m wide and z km long.

5t

THE

N'TOVE

INTO GREATN[,SS

The Lost World PYramid

is
Thc Lost \il/orld Pyramid itself is structurc lc-i+ by map clesignation. It
signifcoupled with 5D-86 to form an cest-west axis of ritual and astrononlical
i.nr-r... Structures sD-8+ and 88 flank tenplc 5D-86 to form the obscrvatory
conrpler (ill. zz) .The ,ra-e "Lost world" was ascribecl by the origin:rl mappers
of thi, arca who wcre strongly impressed by the visior-r of the great pyramid
area
rising through the ir.rngle growrh, and by the wildlife that teemcd in the
(iLt.;). Thac."plor.., of rltnt felt that the setting evoked the imagery of
namc. The name stuck
c.rr-rnr-, Doyle's primitive u,orld in his book of the same
Perclido'" Juan
"Mundo
ancl has even becn trar-rslated ir-r the Spanish version of
pedro Laporte 's cxcavations dcscribe the development thror-rgh time of what he

calied the "Commemorativc Astronomical Complex'"1

The mair-r structure began as a smail platform from whicl-r thc other thrce

srructufes could be firced on thc eastern sidc. These threc were ahgnecl
north-soLlth, closely togerher, but so spaced thilt elements of their architecture
grouP at the
marked the visible risint of rhc sun in thc spring to the nortl-r of the
winter
solstice
tl-re
at
south
the
to
solstice; in thc center on thc equinores - and
configuThis
- all viewed frorn the ro-.."r-t,rol spot on thc westerlr plirtform'
ration grew in size over the ycars, wrth the small western platform finally
b".o-i,1g the Lost worlcl Pyramid itself, a giar-rt pyramid some 3z m high,
the stairs arc giant
sqLlare in plan with stairways on the four sides. Part wi'ty up
(ll/'
,tor-r. nndr.ulptured stllcco masks, now in a st2lte <-if scvere disintegration
were
these
r6) . Enough detail rcnainecl in one or two cases to ir-rdicate th:rt
at
Uaxactun
strllcture
central
the
E-7-Sr.rb,
on
jaguar -nik, not unlike those
masks
thc
At
Uaxactun
that gave irs name to this architcctural configuration.
one
the
and
w"re'paircd vertically, with the one below displaying Night Jaguar
I(inich
nbou. displaying Day Jagr-iar, thc two fnanifestations of the sr-rn god
appearances. Thc line between the se paired masks
Ahar-i in his night o"d i!
an obsc^'er
was a platforJ marking the horizon to the east, the point at whicl-r
to
,-r."d.i to stand to view t6e soiar phenomena as thcy related the castern
these iaguar
srructures. It is likely that the same iconography :1-rd fr.rnction of
(ill' z+) '
rworld
"
n
"temple
eastcf
its
ar-rd
Pyramid
masks pertains to the Lost
earliest
the
in
occupied
first
was
The locatign of the Lost World Pyramid
side, is
to
each
one
times of Tikal's sertlement. A pyramid with four stairs,
astrocalied a radial pyramid, ancl the first version w:rs built by 5oo rlc. The
lomical concept was formalized with new constructions between ;oo and z5o
a new eastern
BC in the Late Preclassic includirrg a new radial platform and
Tl-rc
Preclassic'
Middle
platform, both much largcr than the prototype from tl-re
of
placing
i-po.ror].. of the east-wcs[ axis was established at this trme by the
ritual
burials and caches along it. There is a contrast between this formal and
North
the
complex,
contemporary
compler with that of ih" other major
Acropolis tr-r which the ritual aris of importance to burials was north-south.
occr-rrred
Fr-rrther renovation of both the main pyramid and the east platform

56

,/,1.",'

/,,,i
.l

1.1

/.,:I

; =-.!-1
.,.

,ro1u.-""

,rl*

z5

The com
Terrace whi'
from his exc

between z
point the r

first time

phase of g
complexes
small teml
displayed

Throug

sacred axi

goods ind

quantity

cers. In C:

Acropolis
Lost \(orl
beginning

The Nort
Beginninp

women, z
status of t

that woul
although
are too P'
tant. The
the ceren

ciearly in

THE MOVB INTO GREATNESS

290 M

gnation. It is
cmicalsignif-

l observatory
;inal mappers

reat pyramid
:d in the area
Le

imagery of

name stuck

:rdido." Juan
ne of what he
e other tl'rrec

were aligned
architecture

,l*.

.l*.

tl*.

.l*.

,l*.

,l*.

z.y The complexity and time depth of construction in the North AcrctpoLis and North
Terrdce ruhich form the north side c,tf the Great I'ldza was recorded by'WiLliam R. Coe
from his t:xcat,ations in this group.

,l*.

oL*.

ll,

: group at the

'inter solsticc
fhis configu-

tform finally
e 3z n'r high,
airs are giant

regration (i//.

rt these were
at Uaxactun

;n the masks
r and the one

r god I(inich
:raired m:rsks

r an obscrver

thc eastern
these jaguar

between z5o and roo BC associated with the Chuen ceramic conplex. At this
point the whole complex irrcreased once again in size but now includcd for the
first time huge masks as central decoration atrd flanking stairways. The next
phasc of growth was Lretwcen roo BC and eo z5o (the Cauac and Cimi ceramic
compleres) when the pyramid grcw it't size once again, ancl for the 6rst time
small temples wcre br-rilt on the east platform. The central eastcrn temple even
displayed two jaguar masks on the establishcd e ast-west axis.
Throughout the Late Prcclassic burials and offcritrgs were placed on thc
sacred axis, and although the individuals buriecl were accompanied by gravc
goods indicating a moderate degree of wealth, such goods are insufficient in
quantity and importance to suggcst that they were kilrgs or high-ranking officers. In Cauac times such high individuais were still being interrcd in the North
Acropolis. The end of the Preclassic period did not see the end of growth of the
Lost \Torlcl Pyramid complcx. It reached its peak in the next phase dr,rring the
beginnings of the Early Classic period, as we shall scc.

" (ill. z4).

n the earliest

each sicle, is

:. The astroioo and 2.io

new eastern
'eclassic. The
he
Lal

placing of
and ritual

:, the North
rth-south.
rrm occurred

The North Acropolis

Bcginrring in the Chuer-r ceramic complcx (3.5o ec-eo r), burials of men,
women, and children had vaulted tombs, a feature normally indicating clite
status of the interred. However, the same tombs do not contain the grave goods
tl-rat would suggest royaltyz Few burials are dated to the Chuen conlpler and
although their presence establishes the Acropolis as a ce metery the grave goods
are too poor and scarce to suggest that the individuals were especially impor-

ranr. The clement of royalty is still missing at this point in the development of
the ceremonial hot spot. Coe describcd the earliest evidence of interment of a
clearly irnportant personage bencath a temple br,rilding of the later Cauac

\7

THF, MOVI, ]NTO (iRI],ATNF,SS

complex (en r-r5o) . Both the structures and the burials of Cauac times
to define the Tikal style of architecture ar-rd burial patterns (ilL. z).

begir-r

Death as a window

It is through the burials of the North Acropolis that we receive a glirnpse of the
individual style of Tikal as it took form in the Late Preclassic. The Car-rac
complex tombs tell of attitudes toward death and the ritual placement of the
mortal remains. Thcsc carly burials are all foui-rd beneath small ternple strlrctures some of which are represented only by their platforms ancl stubs of tornout walls, the architectural victims of later and more grandiose consrruction.
The individuals in these tombs are nameless although the ceremony and
accompanying precious objects tell r-rs that they were people of substance,
leaders - ahaus. The fact that some of these unnamed royalty are women tells
r-rs further that women did indeed play a role of some power and inflr-rence, even
in Late Preclassic times. Their lives had been significant enough to their dcscendants to allot them a place on the royal necropolis. A1l thcse royal burials of
Cauac times are known today oniy by the prosaic dcsignations of burial
number as there are no texts to providc a clue to their ancient real names.
Four burials bearing the nr,rmbers 166, t67, r28, and 85, are of particular
interest. The nurnbering is based entirely on the chronology of their archaeological discovery and has no relationship to their stratigraphic position in the
North Acropolis.

Burial

167

located un<
smallplaze
vaulted tor
This time t

head to tht

the long ax

right angle

establishes
features of
and one ov

tained the r
loins held
victims mi

wife and cl
goods accc
status. She

shell

beadr

which may
figurines rr
relationshi

the northr

gourds wel
deceased r

Burial r55had bcen placed in a pit through earlier floors as a preparation for
the construction of a small east-facing temple. The small, rectangular, and
vaulted tomb contained the remains of two indivicluals. It is thcir disposition ir-r
the tomb that provides some insight into Tikal burial rituals. Both personages
wcrc apparcntly adult females. The central figure had her head placed to the
north, a primary pattern at later dates in the North Acropolis for burials of
kings. Thc secondary female had been butchered, with her mixed-up bones
placed at thc fcct of the regal skeleton. The skull of this unfortunate, probably
a sacrificial victim, was placed in the iowest of three nested ceramic vesscls.
Spread around the south end of the tomb, at the fcet of the "c1l1een" were 20
excellent examples of the Cauac ceramic complex. Thc masonry walls of the
tomb had been crudcly plastered and then painted with red cinnabar - the
color of thc cast, and the color of life.This earliest known effort to decorate a
tomb was then further elaborated. Sir black-line figures were painted over the
red walls on the east, south, and west sides. The blank north wall is a l-rint at a
serual dichotomy between north and south directions as representing malc and
female respectively. This unusr,rally well-decorated tomb is our earliest glimpse
of the elaborate ceremonial surrounding death and burial at Tikal. It is also
sigr-rificant that this first glimpse rs the tomb of a woman. Such female tombs
are rare not only at Tikal but at Maya cities in general.
58

his glory

receive qui

we do not
It is of fur
was indee
sides and
cream-col,

Bwrial rz[
dealing wi
low platfo
of the futr
ries. Buria

of the pur
include

extremely
example c

ormation.
infant's sl
and bone

THE MOVE INTO GRF,ATNESS

ac times begin

Burial r67 opens the window of death a little further for us. This burial

)).

located under yet another small temple buiidtng, thrs time facing west, across a
small plaza formed by structures on a platform of the Cauac period. Another
vaulted tomb, this one shows yet other aspects of the burial attitudes at Tikal.
This tirne the main figure is interpreted as an adult male who was laid with his
head to the east. In the case of Burial t66,the woman was laid out parallel to
the long axis of the temple building. The male in Burial 167, however, is laid at
right angles to thc long axis of the temple above, an interestini contrast which
establishes an eastern orientation of the head. However, the most fascinating
features of this burial are in two large ceramic vessels placcd one over the head
and one over the loins of the rnain figr-rre. The bowl over the head region contained the cramped skeletal rernains of an adult female, while the bowl over his
loins held the remains of an infant under a ycar of age. Who these sacrificial
victims might have been raises a plethora of speculations. Could they be his
wife and child, cramped into vesscls to accompany him rn his tomb? The grave
goods accompanying thc main male figure indicate his high, and likely royal,
status. Shell bracclcts with bone clasps surrounded his wrists. A necklace of
shell beads with pcndants graced his neck and chest. A greenstone figurine,
which may havc related to his namesake, lay in the pelvic region. Similar carved
figurines recovered from later Classic period tombs at Tikal proved to bear a
relationship to the name of thc king. Nine fine Cauac vessels were clustered in
the northwest corncr of the burial chan-rber and two red-pair-rted sruccoed
gourds wcrc an unusual addition to the lcxicon of goods usr,rally :rccompanying
deceased rulcrs. The walls of this tomb were plastered, but not paintcd. For al1
his glory and the grisly ritual of his interment, the man in Burial r67 did not
receive quite the same level of dccoration as did the lady in Burial r66, but since
we do not know their relationship to each other, such comparison means little.
It is of further interest that the small shrine built above the ruler in Burial 167
was indeed elaborately decorated with polychrome frescoes painted on the
sides and rear of the structure, in hues of black, yellow, red, and pink over a
cream-colored plaster.

glimpse of the

c. The Cauac

of the
temple struc-

cement

stubs of torn-

construction.
eremony and

of
e

substance,

women telis

nfluence, even
r their descen,yal burials of

rns

of

br,rrial

names.

of particular
heir archaeoosition in the

eparation for
.angular, and
Jisposition in
h personages
placed to the

ior burials of
red-up bones

is

ate, probably

amic vessels.
een" were zo
'walls of the
rnabar - the
to decorate a
nted over thc
is a

hint at

ing male and

liest glimpse

ral. It is also
:male tombs

Burial rz8, the r-rext br-rrial of interest in the range of Tikal techniques for
dealing with death, does not come from the North Acropolis but from a large,
low platform located r.5 km to the southeast of the North Acropolis. It is west
of the futurc location of Temple VI, not to be built for at least six more cenruries. Burial rz8 was discovered during cxcavation of a housemound and is one
of the pure ccramic deposits described in the nert section. The burial did not
includc a vaulted chamber but yrelded eight Cauac vessels, one of which was
extremely large and containccl the remains of the burial figure. This first
erample of a "pot burial" contained an adult femalc, showing clear head deformation, a mark of beauty among the ancient Maya achieved by strapptlrg the
infant's skull to a headboard during the years of skurll growth. She wore shell
and bone bracelets, similar to those found in the malc burial of fi7. The simi59

THE MOVE INTO GREAI'N}.]SS

gri:Lvc goods arc so strong that the dates of Burials fi7 and rz8 are
believecl to be the same. This additional eramplc of graves with fernale figurcs
includcd during this phase cif Tikal's developmcnt suggesrs rhat lvomen played
it more important role than is to bc for-rnd in later Classic periocl burials. The
prcdominance of Classic period male royal br-rrials has indicated that patrilineal descent was the norm in thc Classic pcriod. The tomb contents fron-r Buri:rls

larities of the

t66, t67, ar.rd rz8 sLligest rhat matcrnal relationships may well have playcd
major role during the morc developmental phases of Tikal's growth.

Burial S.; brings us back to the North Acropolis. This vaultecl romb was placed
below another srnall tcmple structure on the south side of the acropois and
directly on the critic:rlly irnportant north solrth axis of the acropolis itself. In
Classic tinres this axis was to takc on rhe sacred propcrties of a ley lir-re. As the
generations passed, the central aris of the North Acropolis grew stcadily as it
becatne increasingly sar-rcti{ied by the burials of kings. This is ir-r contrasr to rhc
east-wcst axis described eilrlier of the Lost world Pyramicl group and indecd
the axis of growth by which rhe city was setrled.
once again, clcath's wi'dow is opened a little more for us with
grisly
'ewon
dctails of Tikal burial practices. The first known ruler to be buried
rhe
sacred axis was an adr,rlt malc who had been disrrrcmbered following death. His
skull and thigh bones were not includcd in the burial. \(/e now know that thcse
importartt parts of the body were occasionally omittcd from a royal burial.
This occr-rrs not just at Tikal but at otl-rer major sites as r,vell, most notably
Paler-rque far to the west in the realm of the Usr,rmacinta River. It is a rnatter of
speculation just why specific parts of the huiman bocly were sometimes retained
aud not inch-rdcd in a burial. \(/as it a matter of parts missing ir.r :,rction, lost ir-r
war, or retaincd by the cnemy as trophies? or was this the result of familial
rctention of these parts for mr-rch the samc reason? Reverence of the dead, and
even for specific bocly parts of the dead is clearly irrdicated, whether or nor rhis
rcverence c:rme from cnemies or friends.
ln Burial 85 what remair.red of the ruler was bundled rolierher, probably wirh
textiles, and placecl in a seated position in a chamber otherwise lilled with
splendid ceramics. Lrcludcd within the bundle was a stinaray spine used in
bloodlettilrg ccremonies, and a prcpared spondyLas shell, both imported from
thc sea. Tl-re spondvltrs, or sl-rir.ry oyster, wxs a favoritc trade item for the Maya
of Tik:rl and is con.rmonly found in caches ar-rd bur:ials throughor-rt the Classic
period. Intcrestingly, this bi-valve shell is founcl in both thc caribbcan and
Pacific occans. The Maya of thc central Pcten, far from either ocean, tracled for
both spccies, which can be inclividually identifiecl. The closcst sourcc for Tikal
lies in the reefs just off thc coasr of ircarby Belize. The Maya loved to scrape rhe
white lining from the shell to reveal the oraligc-red unclcrlayer - il color sacrcd
to thcir cosrnology-the color of the east, of rebirth, the direction of the great
swamp east of Tikal and also of thc distant Caribbearr, nearest source of thcse
precior-rs shells.

6o

z6

This masl
eyes and teett
treasures plaL
Preclassic tor
Tikal. The m
reltlacement

buried lord.

The mos

mask with

attached to
mummy bt
carving fou

carvings

arr

Ceramics o

The Late

over 6oo yei

to any site

<

ysis. They

plastic art
vidual expr
rendering

<

emerges at
vessels and

THE MOVI, INTO GREATNF,SS

and rz8 :rre
[emale figr-rrcs

57

vomeu plaved

I burials. The
that patrilinfrom Buri:rls
have played a

'rh.
was placed

Lb

Lcropolis and
>olis itself.

In

y iine. As the

steadily as it
)ntrast to the
p and indeed
h new grisly
uried on the
rg death. His
)w thet these

royal burial.
nost notably
matter o1:
mes rctairred
;tion, lost in

sa

t of familial
re dead, ancl
)r

or not this

obablv with
: {illed with

z6 This mask ctf greenstone tuith inLaid

antl teeth of sheLL is one of the

eyes

tredsures placetl in Burial. 8.1 , d Late

Preclassic tomb of the Cauac period at
'likdl. The mask ma-t' hdue been a
replacemant for the missing heatl of the

burierl l.orrl.

The most errdearing object retrieved from this burial was a small greenstone
nrask with inlaid eyes and teeth of shell (iLl. z6). This gem may havc been
attached to the bundle itself in place of the missir-rg sku1l, evoking images of the
murnny buncllcs of thc Inca civilization. This object also rccalls the small
c:rrvirrg found with thc male rr-iler in Burial t67.It seems rhat sllch greenstone
carvings are not found in the royal ladies'tombs.

rirre used in

rorted from

rr the Mayir
.

the Classic

'ibbean and
r, traded for
ce

for Tikal

the
:olor sacred

o scrape

of the gre:rt
rce of these

Ceramics of the Late Preclassic: an art form and time marker

The Latc Preclassic penod spans three different ceramic compleres at Tikal
over 6oo years dating from 35o BC to AD z5o. Ceramics are extrcmely important
to any site chronology and are nor merely the dry stuff of archaeological analysis. They are an art form which often achieves rare beauty. ccramics are a
plastic art and because of this plasticity are subject to rapid change and inclividual expression. Each major Maya site has its own artistic expression in the
rendering of details in their locally made ceramrcs. The overall style which
emerles :rt a singlc city contains a combination of the shapes and finishes of
vcssels and the irrdividual charactcristics of paintcd decoration cleveloped by

6t

THE MOVE, INTO GRBATNESS

zz (right) Som'

the artisans of that city. ht the Preclassic period there is no paintcd decoration
'per se, but there are distinctive shapes and colors' For erample the chamberpot-like wide-mouthed vessels of the Eb compler are distinctive:rt Tikal (see
tclow). Silrilarly, spouted, flarirrg-mouthed ve ssels ancl fire-hydrant sh:rpes are
also part of the Tikal styie during the Cauac complex. However, all vessels
fo.rrrd at any given site werc not necessarily made there, cspecially those that
are for.rnd in royal t<tmbs. This is true for two reasons: the Maya tradecl extcll-

designed uith s
the period had

of

shaPes

dndl

z8 (belotu) Th,
composite maP

approximate li
the Cauac Prec
circa,+D r5o.

sively among thernsclves and royal funerals often included gifts of resp-rcct fron.r
other rulers. \(/e assume that such mortLl:lry presents arose froln inter-citrt alli-

ances made either by marriage or for purely political reaso1ls. Such gifts
bror.rght by outsiders to bc includecl amollg the br-rrial p:rrapherr-ralia of the
cleacl king cannot always be identified as items thilt wcre ir"rtroduced a situation whicl-r pfescnts problems for accurate dcscription of a given city's stylc'
Thc alliar-rces wl-rich resuited in gift exchange were more common and significant ir-r the later periods of May:r history, but Llndollbtedly werc already at play
duritrg the Late Prcclassic at Tikal.
It is the variarion in individual style of ceramic proclr-rction that milkes
ceramics so important to archaeologists. Cerarnic shape and clecoration
ch:rlgc with time across the Maya region ancl this allows the division by stylc
into spccific periods for each givcn major site or ciry.
Tl-re three ceramic compleres that characterize the Late Preclassic phase

Cauac times

This phase o
ar-rd

variatior

forms are mr
hydrant" sha

ticularly

cha

mostly in tht
plexity of sh
artistic and c

While the
during the 1

(3-5o rc-,Ao r), ciluec (ao r-r-5o), and cimi

complexes that can be discerncd at xrly given site
of
(e.o r5o z5o) . The nLlmber
will vary according to several firctors. The amount of excavation th:rt has bcer-r
reillizecl in proportic)n to the size of the site is certainlv a major filctor. Thc
complexity of the site's history as it interacted with other surrouncling realms
will affect thc ir.rfluences on home-made pottery as wcll as the introduction of

at Tikal are cirllcd chuen

L.

/'

or,rtsicle styles.

Chuen times at

Tikal

One inclicator of how the population of the site was growing thror-rgh time is
founcl i1i the comparison of the incidcnce of pure deposits of cerarnics in the
Chucn complcx with those of the prececling Tzec complex (Middle Prcclassic)'
Only ole cleposit is known in Tzec times, whe reas therc are scven such cleposits
from Chuen times. Their occurrence shows the site spreading out over the
ridgetops, cxpanding outward from ti-re central area, bllt stili maintaining a
villagc populatior-i ncar the edges of the great swamp to the east. As well as the
.tp.lt".l .1.posits in the North Acropolis, there are now also deposits in thc

of residence occupricd by
Celtral
the elite social stratr-lm. Other deposits wcre found to thc west of the Great
Acropolis to rhe soLlth indicatir-rg a location

'$ilorld Pyramid) beneath the

;
Plaza; ip the Seven Temples groLlp (near the Lost
platresidential
in
a
Plaza
Great
the
of
south
far
to
the
itself;
Lost World group
edge.
swamp
form; irs well:rs:1t two lcicaticir.rs at the

6z

':

+l

.J

l._.

.r

ed decoration

z7 (right) Sctme Caudc period uesseLs were

designed with side spouts, sbowing that
the perictcl had deueloped a greater uariety
of shastes and finishes than before.

the chamber: at Tikal (see

rnt shapes are

(below) The shaded zone on this

composite mdp of the site, shotus the
dpproximdte limits of Tikdl at the end
the Caudc PrecLassic ceramic period at

rer, all vessels

zS

lly those that

traded exten!

respect

fron

circa AD r;o.

inter-city aliirs. Such gifts

:rnalia of thc
ced - a situan city's style.
n and signifilready at play

Cauac times at Tikal

This phase of devclopment shows a great stcp forward, with a burst of growth
ancl variation irr the cultural component associated with Car-rac ceramics. The
forms are more varied rhan ever before a.d quite specific to Tikal. The "firehydr:rnt" shape mentioned above and several kinds of spoutecl vessels are particularly characteristic. Ceremonial ceramics recovered from royal burials,
mostly in the North Acropolis, are larger than any found to date, and the com,
plerity of shapes suggests that more leisur:e time was available to be devoted tcr
artistic and ceremonial pursuits (pl.lil and ill. z7).
while there are fewer actual occurrences of pure ceramic deposits than
dr-rring the previous chuen complex, the quantity of cauac cerarnics is far

r that makcs

decoration

ision by style
classic phase

), and

of

Cirni

rny given site

.hat has becn

r factor. The
nding realms
t|

roduction of

ough time is
amics in the
: Preclassic).
uch deposits

rut over the

aintaining

c--

.s well as the
rosits in the
occupied by
rf the Great
beneath the

'_
t'-'.,
:_

Jential plat-

'i

'

i_Fi

-,,'7-'"

THF, MOVI.- INTO GR!,ATNt,SS

greater and distributecl over larger parts of the site. Of thc four known pure
deposits, two are in the North Acropolis, one being fronr thc north terrace,
abr-rtting the south side of the acropolis. The other two clcposits arc interesting
for their locations: one from the swamp edge, br-rt in a new settlement r-rnrelated
to those found here at earlier times; and one close to the present location of thc
Temple of the Lrscriptions (Temple VI), described ilbovc as Br.rrial r68. The
establishment of a Latc Preclassic ccntcr in this location near Temple Vl is suggcstivc of the ceremcinial origins of a sacrccl place that would become highly
significarrt much latcr in timc (ill. z8). The swamp edge site shows that this particular environment remained one of great irnportance to the people of Tikal,
probably for economic reasons such as the on-goirrg exploitation of the swamp
as a sollrcc of food, either: of aqu:rtic lifcforms, or by ir-rtensive agricr,rlture - a
possibility by this date (er r r,5o).

Cimi times at Tikal

Thc last cerilmic complex beloriging to this pcriod is called Cimi and dates to
its last ccntury (eo r.;o-z5o) . The pure ceramic deposits only tell us that the
population of Tikal was spreading even further westward, while still cLnging
to residential bases at the swamp edge. Occupaticin of thc North Acropolis
continued to become more elaborate with ever more complcr:rrchitecture and
buri als, :rs descri becl elsewhere.
Thc ccramics of this phase are sometimes called Protoclassic and include the
four-footed dishes with mammiforrn feet that had their origir-rs in the southeastern regior-rs of the Maya area.a
Thc Latc Prcclassic at Tikal witncsscd the 6rst large spr,rrt of growth ir-r the

city This growth is cviclcnccd by vastly increased quantities of ceramics and a

new vision irr scale of architecture. A threshoid had been passed: the entry into
greatness. No longer was Tikal a cluster of amalgamated villages or even the
sizeable towr-r it had become by the beginning of this period. R:rther it wils a
city with differentiated zones of residence, high ritual, ancl royal buri:rl. Thc
only missing piece of tl-re forn.rr-rl:r for Classicism is thc writtcir languilge . No
inscriptions crist from Tikal for this period, although many scholars today
believe that the written form of Maya did already exist by this time. The city
had an clongatcd cnst-wcst configuration by this period, stretching from the
ever-important eastern swamp to the approximate eventual westerr.r limit
where Temple IV now stands. Between the eastern and western linlits werc twcr
points of high ritr-ral punctr-rated by the highest elevations of architccturc at thc
site irt the time: the North Acropolis, mar:king thc longcst occupicd location of
the city; and thc Lost'S(orlcl Pyr:rmid, not yet at its fullest, present height, but
nevertheless breaking the horizon as a rival to thc royal br-rrial :rcropolis in the
city center. Tiacle items already show that thc city had rnade its mark on the
larrdscape and begun to form inter-city relationships. This spurt of growth was
a taste of what was t() come.
64

l
TF

The same

fr

occupied w

in the Clasr
hence of thr
In addition.
rary of Tik,

its burial cu
As wella
important

have availat
ir-r

stone on

little late in
Tikal at eo
change of c
cerned with
the early ga

knowing th
Only in t
cies of the I

tion of tex
calendrical,

months, an
other consir
and their fa
date, not fu

The texts

Tikal,

even

since he doe

r known pure
north terrace,
rre interesting

CHAPTER FIVE,

THE BIRT H OF DYNASTIES:

THE EARLY CLASSIC EMERGES

rent unrelated

ccation of the
Lrial 168. The
rple VI is sugecome highly

that this parrple of Tikal,

of the swamp

griculture

and dates to
rll us that the

stillclnging
'th Acropolis

The same fcatures that gave Preciassic Tikal the image of an urban center prewith ritual and dcath, wealth, and beauty continlle and are magnified
in the Classic period. Everything gets bigger - the size of the population ar-rd
hence of the city; the size of the architecture; the elaborateness of the ceramics.
In addition, the culture of the great highland city of Teotihuacan, a contemporary of Tikal, wielded enormolls influence on its art,and to a certain extent on
its br-rrial cllstoms.
As well as the changes in scale and artistic expression there is the extremcly
important appearancc of written rcxts. For the first time in Tikal's story we
have available a written history in the form of the hieroglyphic texts inscribed
in stone on royal monulxents and painted on ceramic vessels. The texts are a
occr-rpied

in the south-

little late in appearing in the archaeological record, with an earliest date for
Tikal at ro z9z1 (Stcla 29, iLl. jo), almost half a century after the recognized
change of cultr-rral periods which occurred at AD 2io. However, later texts concerned with lineage and historical descent reach back in time to fi1l in some of

irowth in the

the early gaps. The addition of

knowing the story of Tikal.

hitecture and
Ld

include the

ramics and a
he entry into
s

or even thc

ther

it was a

I burial. The
lnguage. Ncr
holars today
me. The crty
ing from the
restern lirnit

written history is the grcatest breakthrough

ir-r

Only rn the last decade have archaeologists begun to understand the intricaof the Tikal dynastic systerr-ls through the great strides made in the translation of texts. Inscriptions occur in two distinct bodics of material: one is
calendrical, involving the numerical counrs of time, the names of days,
months, and other time cycles which the Maya observed ancl recorded; the
other consists of narrative tcxts telling of events in the lives of individual rulers
and their fan-rilies. The whole body of known texrs from Tikal is still, as of this
date, not fully trar-rslated.
cies

z9

The founder

Tikal dynasty

rits were two

'ecture at the

of

the

tuds named

Ydx Ch'acteL Xok uhose

name gLyph is cited
frequentLy throughout

i location of

Tikdl history.

t herght, but
opolis li the
mark on the
growth was

Thc texts tell of a dynastic founder recognized by all subsequent rulers of

even though this personage was clearly not the first leader of the city
since he does not appear until the second century Ao, and perhaps died around

Tikal,

span between knor

though no conteml
Of the 3r known rt
the four-rder.

An important

at

time. ril/hether this

greatness during hl
is not known to us,

hieroglyphic recor<
individuals, a little
gested that rulers

left a fuller

recor<

honored by their
Maya of Tikalha<
There is no usage

from associated d
analysis allows us

of Tikal themselvt

()

.-'f

z,o Stela z9 bears the

earliest tldte found at Tikdl

tlt AD 292. The steLd tuas

found in d dump on the
tuest side

of

the Vlest Plazd,

probabll, throutn there

during one of the tuar
incidents at TikaL.

full millcnnium after the city sitc was first occupied. Ncve rtheless, the
Maya themselves counted all subsequent rulers as slrccessors from this man's
reign. His name in Maya reads "Yax Ch'akte1 Xok" (First Scaffold Shark) ,z and
this name is repeated often throughout the next several centllries :1s the starting
poirrt of the count of the rulers of Tlkal (iLl. z9). Another rcading of the Maya
glyphs for this man's name is "Chaac Xok." The "Xok" part of his nrrne is universally agreed to be the Maya word for "shark" - probably the origin of this
word in English.3
Over a period of almost sir centuries the hieroglyphic texts of Tikal (and
elsewhere) tell us that thcre were 3r knowt-t rulcrs of Tikal after the founder.
Not al1 have been identified by name, nor is it known whether this number rcpresents all of Tikal's rulers aftcr the founder. The earlicst inscription at Tikal is
set in AD z9z, while the last known ruler is mentioned in inscriptions of eo E69,
after which there are no more tcxts as the written record for the city slips into
oblivion. Tl-rerefore, there are j77 ye^rs of recorded history. However, the time

AD zoo) a

66

THE BIRTH

OF DYN AST i I,

span between known rulers is from eo

2oo until AD 869, i.e. 66.1 years even
though no conremporary inscription is known
for the earliest clyr.rastic ruler.
Of the 3r known rulers only -rg tf then., are known
by nanre glyphs, ir.rclucling

the foundcr.

An important aspecr of rurers' names at Tikar

is thcir reperition through
time' rwhether this was based upon adn-riratio.r
of an earlier ruler who ,.hi.u..]
greatncss during his rule, or by means
of sciure other cult'ral selcctio, system
is rrot known to Lls' and cannot be determined
from ,n. ."iriirrg cviderce. The
hieroglyphic record is spotty yielding a great
deal of infor'ation about cerrair.r
irrdividuals, a little about otrrerr, oJd ,io',.
n, arl about stiil othcrs. Ir is sug_
gested that rr-rlers whr, p.erforme.r the
greatest exproits wrote more texts irrcr
left a fuller record of the evenrs in tieir rives,
and thnt th.s. people wer:e
honored by their descendants who later
recycred their- ,ames. Howevcr, the
Maya of Tikal had
ryrl.l fo'recorc{irg the succession of a re-uscd name.
": as "George
Thcre is no usage such
I, II, anJ III,, ancl ,o forth. w. .nr-, only tell
from associated dates how the rh. r"-. rames
succeccl each othcr,:rnd this
analysis allows us to dub rhese names as "Jaguar
craw I, II, an<1 III.,,The Maya
of Tikal
thenselves made no such distinct"io,.,.

'ears the
{ound at

Tikal

te

stela r.uas
mp on the
he West Plaza,
ttun there
-

the

'ikal.

udr

rtheless, the
r thrs man's
hark),2 :rnd
the starting
,f the Maya
Lame

is uni-

igin of this

Tikal (and
re

founder.

rmber repat

Tikal is

of

et

869,

'slips into
r, the tir.ne

3r (left) 'lhe influence from the highLand

ctttt

of

1, ot iltu.tc-tn is st rong

tt I'ik-tl

during the F.drly Classic peiiod. This

lid,lcd tri.pod ucsscl is tl.pic.rl oI th,,
r.mportL,,t stt'1,. allhouqlt thr, ucsscl tuLs
Irkclt made,tt Tikal.

jz (aboue)

SteLa 1z shotus Lt pure

Teo,tihua.can fac,e', a Tl.alctc image, the
rain
go.d of the highLands. lts presence
ar TikdL
tuhere it tuds carued demonstrates the

strength of foreign influence.

fHE BIRTH OF DYNAS'IIES

The time of Yax Ch'aktelXok fa1ls withirr the late part of thc Cimi ceramic
cornplex at Tikal which ertended frorn ,A.D r50 to 2.5o. This was il tinre of mirny
cl-rangcs for the citv Along witl-r influcnce on the ceramic forms and stylcs that
came from the Highland Mexican city of Tcotihuacan, thcrc also came a focus
on warfarc, :rnd possibly new ways to m:rke rrn,arfare morc cffective. Now wc
find evidencc not jLrst of grisly bLrrial practiccs but of new ways tci shed blood in
corrflict - Maya agairrst Maya, city against city. Thc infh-rence of distant Teotihuacan was so important to the trajectory of Tikal's cultural clevelopmcnt that
it deserves some attention hcre. Many clucs to the relationship betrveen Tikal
and Teotihuacan have been for.rncl. They show then-iselves in thc shapes of
ccramics madc at Tikirl, most spccifically the tripcid, lidded cylindcr vessel (l//.
3r), which is usr.r:rlly also deccirated witl-r designs that originatccl in the
Meric:rn capital and iri other expressions of ert (iLL.3z). The presence of grccrr
obsidinn ivhich corres only frorn the regiorr of Teotihuacan shows that Tikal
u,as trading dircctly or indirectly with that city The styles of its rlt, cct'tt-ttics,
and mythology wcrc copied at Tikal :rnd it is quite likcly that indiviclr-rals from
Teotihuacan even carrc to Tikal, 1ivec1 there, ar.rd may havc rr-rled t1-re city for a
while clr-rring the Manik ceramic phase. Conversely, one or rnore lords of Tikal
may havc visitecl Teotihuacarr ar.rd brought horre ideas as u'cll as objects. Infl-rence from Teotihr-racar-i began vcry early in the Early Classic periocl irncl contiuued :rr Tikal through the reigns of scveral of the earlicst known rulers in fact,

until AD 5.5o.
There are a numtrer of uniclentrfied burials from the North Acropolis for
this time ancl it is likely that one of these is thc br-rrial of the founcler. Recentl,r',4
Christopher Jones has proposcd Burial rz5 in the North Acropolis as the
probable grave of the four-rder. It is a curious burial inclced ir-r that it rv:rs clevoid
of any :rssociatecl grave material, suggesting that thc corpse ivas laid in the
tomb nakccl. In most tombs traces or laycrs of org:rnic rn:rtcrials lie beneath
the bones of thc interred indicating the rotted prcsence of clothine, costulre,
or shrouding anirnal skins. In Br-rrial rz5 sr,rch organic traces rverc :rbsent. The
skcletor-r \\'as that of a tall adtrlt male, measuring r.7 n'r (5 ft 7 in) in stature. The
interrnent was located directly on the original sacrecl north sollth:rris of the
North Acropolis. However, our understanding of this strilnge br-rrial is complicated by another c()nrcnrporerl- featurc that lies some 6 m to the east of tl'rc
tomb's sp:1rtan chamber. This is a br,rried deposit containiirg the very kinds of
goods that would be erpectecl to be founcl in the tomb of a king of this period:
fine ceramics, shells, the bones of probable sacrificiirl victims. This strange
deposit looks like the contents of a ravaged tomb ir.r which thc gr:rve goods
were depositcd separately from the main figurc. It is an inferencc tl-rat these
curiously divided dcposits, one human, the other of goocls, both pcrtairtecl to
the same individual - possibly the for-rnder of the grcat clynastl, of Tikal. The
connectiorl between thcse two deposits is that their locations precisely mark
the original and new arcs of the North Acropolis. The pcculiar deposit of
goods without a main figure was placed on a new axis linc resulting from an
68

eastern expanslon
the duratior-r of thr
period. No furthe
central axis. It is
lished by the dyna

fashion, with his t

new.

Thc founder, Ya
nium after the site
of this distinctior
importance to the
back of the roof-c
standing historica
point of its carvir
beforc the time of
the sitc. lt is an ac

knew the differenr

The count of kno

Foliated Jaguar (Hr

Discr-rssion of an
problem of identi
tion deper-ids upo

texts. Most such

late r99os to giv

reading of the gl1

some it-tcouveniet

the on-going str

frequently found
interpretation of
study has been ar
translation. Furt
scholar may be a
phrase, without I
ir-rto English. Thr
base for convcrsir

the process we r

guage was Chol

Given these limit
differcr-rt ways: a

looks like (and n

of all, a translati
able for onlv a fe

TI{E BIRTH
f the Cimi ceramic
time of mar]y
rms and styles thiit

vas a

: also came a foclls

effective. Now we
to shed blood ir.r

ys
e

of disrant Teoti-

developrnent that
rrp between TikaJ

in the shapes of
:ylinder vessel (i//.
rriginared ir-r tl-rc
presence
shor,vs

of greer-r
that Tikal

its art, ceramics,

individr,rals fronr
rled the city

for

lords of Tikal
as objects. Lrflu:riod and continrre

n rule rs

ir-r

fact,

th Acropolis for
:nder. Recentlya

[cropolis as rhe
rat it was devotd

was laicl in the

rials lie beneath
thir.tg, costunre,
'ere absent. Thc

in st:rture. The
)uth axis of thc
: burial is conr) thc east of tlre
)

Le very kinds of
;of this period:
;. This srrange

)e grave goods

that these
to
of Tikal. The
rrecisely mark
iar deposit of
rlting frorn an
)nce

h pertainecl

OF' I]YNASTIF]S

of the North Acropolis. This new axis remaincd valid for

of thc usage of the architectural complex throughout the Classic
pcriod. No fr-rrther lateral expansions causcd a change in tl-re location of the
central axis. It is an acceptablc interpretarion that the new axis was established by the dynastic founder hirnself and that his burial was divided in this
fashior, with his bones marking the old axis and his grave goods marki'g the
eastern cxpansion

the duration

new.

Thc founder, Yax ch'aktel Xok, established a dynasty more rhan one millenrrium after the site was first settlcd. The Maya of Tikal seem ro have bccn aware
of this distinction. Several inscriptions stand out at Tikal for their extrcme
importance to thc site's history. Among these is the very long inscriptior.r on the
back of the roof-cornb of the Ternple of the hrscriptions (Te''rple vI), an outstanding historical text which purporrs ro reveal the history of Tikal Lrp ro rhe
point of its carving (about rn79o). This "history" rakes the reacler well back
before the time of the founclcr, right back, in fact, to tl-re time of first entry into
the site. lt is an accolurt of this cluality that tclls us th:rt Tikal's own historians
kncw the difference bctween thc founder and the for.rnding.

The count of known kings

Foliated Jaguar (Hunal Balam)

of any king/ruler of Tikal n'rust be rernpered by referencc ro rhe

problen of identification of these hurnan beings by namc. Positivc identification depcnds upon the existing level of confidencc in the translation of known
texts. Most such trar-rslations are still tentative, so that it is not possible in the
late r99os to give a consistent reading i' English translation versus Maya
reading of the glyphs for all known rulers. while this inconsistcncy may be of
scime iucot.tvcniettce to the readcr, it reflects the excitement that characterizes
the on-going study of Maya archacology. Descriptivc names in English
frequently found in the literature arc "nicknames" based upon a subjective
interpretation of certain glyphs' outward appearanccs. usr-rally, when more
str-rdy has been accomplishcd, such nicknames are discarded in favor of a rcal
translatior-r. Furthermore, the currcnt state of translation is such that the
scholar may bc able to confidently converr the ideogram to a Maya word or
phrilse, without being able to takc the nert step of translating the Maya phrase
into English. This is because the ancierrt Maya spoken language in use as thc
base for conversion into glyphs is not pcrfectly understood. As we rry ro reverse
the process we run into barriers of understanding. The ancient spoken language was cholti, a now extincr language not recorded in Colonial times.
Given these limitations, the names of Tikal kings have to be prescnted in three
different ways: an English descriptivc phrase which orrly says what the glyph
looks like (and may be wrong); a true (or tentative) Maya translation; and best
of all, a translatiolt into English of the truc Maya tr:anslarion. The last is availablc for only a few of Tikal's recorcled kings.s
Discussion

6.)

THE BIRTH OF DYNASTII.]S

33 The ndme glyph of

Foliated Jaguar or HunaL
Balam is the earLiest
recouered name

of

a Tikal

lord after the founder.

the first time t

and in what c
referred to onl

serving as a re

would have be,

an important

time. In additi
second referen

This problem arises immediately with the next known king. Emphasis here
must be on the word "known" because Foliated Jaguar (Hunal Balam) is certainly not the next king in line after the founder, b.r the next known king by
name' probably the 6th or 7th in line given the time span available. Reference to
Hunal Balam is made on stela 3r, one of the most importf,nr texts so far recovered from Tika1. Its date of carving is approximatcly eo 445,6 br-rt it refcrs backwards in time to carlier rulers. Unfortunately, on stela 3r thc name glyph for
Hunal Balam has lost its associated date (ill. .,.,). L-rterpretation of rhe name
glyph has variously been presented as "Foliated Jaguar" as used here, and
"Scroll Jaguar." Peter Mathews has suggestedT that the same name glyph
appears as an object held in the hand of the ruler shown on Stela zg,theearliest
dated monument of Tikal at .to z9z8 a'd tl-rat this monumenr may indecd
depict Hunal Balam himself. The surviving text on the monument does not tell
us which numbcred successor after the founder the pcrsonage showr-r n-right be,
denying us any further clue to the identification.
Zero Moon Birde
Much of the written record about Tikal comes from outside Tikal, from orher
cities which recordecl events concerning their interaction with the rulers of this
obvior-rsly important capital. During the troubled beginnings of the Classic
period, in thc early 4th century, ar-r object called thc "Leidcn Plaque" was made:
a carved jadc plate that was found outside Tikal and which later surfaced in the
European city of Leiden. Both sicles are incised: one side bears a drawing of a
rulcr in the contemporary styie of Tikal art; on the other is an inscriprion me1tioning the city and stating that the ruler named "zero Moon Bird" was seated
as kir-rg in the year AD 32o. Sincc this date conflicts with the recorcled dates for
the king named "Jaguar Claw" as liste d on Stela 3 r at Tikal, two possible ir-rterpretations must be allowed. One is that zcro Moon Bird was a ruler at Tikal
betwecn two rulers, both named "Jaguar claw," or else thatzero Moon Bird
was a collateral "ruler" near or at Tikal fulfilling a rulership function that was
clifferent from that of .f aguar Claw. If this intcrpretarion is rruc, rhen he would
have been ruling ar AD Joo. The Maya texts from Tikal have told us that there
are differing levels of rulership that operate ar rhe samc time. This fact alonc is
a fascinating aspecr of the socio-political strucrure of the city. Rcferences to
these differences in leadcrship lcvel occur later in the story of Tika1, but this is

7o

altar found

top

Tikal, which

rr

show a style oI
includes a glyp

this informarir
formed a bridg

)+

kn
ltt

dtt
nd

fre

11t

Jaguar Claw I ((
Chak Toh Ich'a
from the enorn
tains the most c
Tikal's dynasti,

period for whic

sionally made
emerges some sr
ing the founder.
have to date. Frr
ing how many r
events recorded
the same name.
Events were r
supremacy For

reiationship bet
guing mysteries
peak in the firsr

known as "Jagt

THT, BIRTH OF DYNASTIES

il
.al

Emphasis here
1 Balam) is cerknown king by
le. Referer-rce
<ts so

to

far recov-

the first time that it presents interprctive importance of who was ruling when
and in what capacity. The recorded facts could mean that Zero Moon Bird,
rcferrcd to only twice in the known hieroglyphic record for Trkal, was in fact
serving as a regent while the infant Jaguar Claw I was too young to rule. He
would have been the 7th or Bth lord of Tikal. Alternatively, he cor-rld have been
an important noble from ar-rother city who had allegiance with Tikal at this
time. Ir-r addition to the reference toZeto Moon Bird on the Leiden Plaque, a
second reference comes from Altar r3 at Tika1. This is a fragment of a sculpted
altar found together with Stela 29, the stela with the carliest known date from
Tikal, which refers to rr-rler Hunal Balam. Found together, the two monuments
show a style of sculpture that is ncarly identical, and the altar's artistic design
includes a glyph idcntical to Zero Moon Bird's patronymic glyph. Togcther, al1
this information suggests that Zero Moon Bird lived at Tikal and somehow
formed a bridge between the reign of Foliatcd Jaguar and Jaguar Claw I.10

it refers backrame glyph for

Lt

of the name
rsed here, and

rn

re

nane glyph

2,9,the earliest

nt may indeed
nt does not tell
Lown

<al,

might be,

from other

rulers of this
of the Classic
ue" was made:
surfaced in the
r drawing of a
;criptior-r menrd" was seated
e

,rded dates

for

possible inter-

ruler at Tikal
ro Moor-r Bird
ction that was
rhen he

would

I us that there
is

fact alor-re is

References to

kal, but this is

1q laguar CLaw I uas alsr.,

knc.,tun as Jaguar Claw the
Great, bacause of his
attri but e d ex'p Lo it s. H i s
name gl-lph occurs
frequently in the texts

of

Tikal.

Jaguar Claw I (Chak Toh Ich'ak I)11

Chak Toh Icl-r'ak I is one of several

Tikal rulers whose dates and role are known

fronr the enormolls tert of Stela 3r (ills. 34 ar-rd 35). This long inscription contains the most detailed exposition of historical events covering the early part of
Tikal's dynastic history and helps to reconstruct the early part of the Classic
period for which there are few other monurnents. Fortunately, the Maya occasionally made reference to their own distant heritage. From these rare texts
emerges some sense of identification of the first ro rulers of the dynasty following the founder. Faulty and full of gaps as they are, these written clues are a1l we
have to datc. From the text of Stela 3r we encounter the first difficulty in deciding how many rulers were named "Jaguar Claw" over a period of 6r years. The
events recorded do not make clear whether thcre were one or two such rulers of
the same name. Here, a single ruler is assumed, named Jaguar Claw I.
Events were moving quickly as city centers close to each other struggled for
supremacy. For Tikai the rival city was Uaractun, jr-rst r8 km to the north. The
relationship between Tikal and its nearest neighbor remains one of the intriguing mysteries of thc Maya, and the tension between the two citics reached a
peak in thc first half of the 4th century during the reign of one of the rulers
known as "Jaguar CIaw." The two dates associated wrth the same name are

AD

T7

and AD

171

the 6r-year gap in

tainty that he was
"Great Jaguar Clz
quest of Uaxactut

rule of this man

K'ak' Srh or "Fire'
as the recorded dr
the conquest batt
Born received the
recent paper by
"atriva|" at Tikal
"the west" is thou
Claw I on the sal
what it really wa
foreign warrior ol
Royal settlement

Royal social life

North Acropolis
center of the ci

north-south axis
their world. On tl
olis was another
called the Centrr

ihr}i

occupied 4 acres
residential struct
early as the 4th
were not entirely
the only places ir
evolved into strt

family

residence

uses, such as retr

those palaces th;

was a member ol

j1
-=t
;(Jr
-(

The text carued on the bdck of

S!,'l"t jt is one oI thc mos! cxlt'nsiu('
histctric rec()rds so fdr recouered at
Tikal. The steLa uas found in a
redeposited trtosition inside the
buried tem'ple of .JD-3 j-znd on the

North

Terrace.

istrative functio:
rooms set aside
royal chapel. Of
on the Great Plr
such as the soutl

the Central Acr

other palaces thr
integrated with

THI, RIRTH OI,- DYNASTIF,S

AD 3r7 and AD 37B.It is possible that they both refer to the same rl11cr despite
the 6r-year gap in the dates, but this cannot be proven. It is known with certainty that he was the 9th ruler of Tikal. He presently is often referred to as
"Great Jaguar Claw" in deference to his erploits and length of rule. Thc conquest of Uaxactun in Jar-ruary of el 378 was Llntil recently associrltccl with the
rule of this man at Trkal, cven though the warrior rcsponsible was namecl
K'ak' Sih or "Fire-Born" (see below) . The date of the conquest is the same year
as the recorcled death on Stela 3r of .Jaguar Claw L Any connection between
thc corrquest battles and the death of Jaguar Claw I is not known sincc FireBorn received the glory and apparently went on to rule ovcr Uaxactun.12 In a
recent paper by David Stuart,13 new readings have shcd some light on his
"arrival" at Tikal on 16 January eo 378. Fire-Born, presumed a warrior from
"thc wcst" is thor-rght to have come from Tcotihuacan, and the death of Jaguar
Claw I on the same day is significant. The subsequent "conqucst" (if that is

what

it rcally was) of the city of Uaxactun was under the ar-rspiccs of this

foreign warrior of whorrr morc

will

be said below.

Royal settlement and defense systems

Royal social life in 4th-centlrry Tikal centered arouncl the Great Plaza. The
North Acropolis teemed with a clLlstcr of temples and served as rhe cosmic

the bnck of
most extensiue

n
'

recouered

at

ound in d
nside the

1j-znd on the

center of the city (ills. j6 and j7), the place of burial of its kings. Its
north-sollth axis likely was perceived by the 4th-ccntury Maya :rs thc axis of
their world. On the south side of the Great Plaza that fronted the North Acropolis was another acropolis, a compler of palaces and administrative buildings
called the Central Acropolis. By the 8th century this architectural complex
occupied 4 acres. In the Preclassic period, we know that there were scatterecl
residential structures in this area but they did not form a cohesive group. As
early as the 4th centllry this area had emerged as a complex of palaces that
werc not entirely residential, not just the homes of the elite and certainly not
the only places in Tikal wherc the elite lived. By this timc palaces in Tikal had
evolved into structures of compler function. Some of thcse structlrres were
family resider.rces while othcrs served solely ceremonial and administrative
uses, such as retreat houses, reception places and houses of jr-rdgement.la Evcn
those palaces that were built as family houses had other uses if the family head
was a membcr of the elite royal court. Then his house had also to servc administrative functions, and such royal houses would likely also have contained
rooms sct aside solely for religious functions, comparable to our concept of a
royal chapel. Of all the known Early Classic palaces, those that front directly
on the Great Plaza are not residences, but rather serve cercmonial purposes
such as the sor-rth side of a cosmic space, the Great Plaza itself. Further easr, in
the Central Acropolis, beyond the space of the Great Plaza, the Maya br-rilt
other palaces that were residential. While the cor-rrtyards of the whole complex
integrated with the cerenonial palaces that do face the Great Plaza, the
73

P\aza. Rather th
fashion that sugl
of the elite powe

monial and adm

dence just like tL

probably a strat

attack. However
settlement at Til
tWe know con
number of other
Early Classic pe
about two differ
is represented

b1

of the city; an<

amount of subtl
tions that appea

south sides of th

j7

Seen

from

Tem

obscure their earli,

36 Themdpctf theNorthAcropctlisdndNctrthTerraceshotuthecompLexityantldensitl,

of temple construction that formed the

heauenLy axis

of

a costnic grouping

in

its finaL

Late Classic stage.

rcsidcntial palaces all lie physically east of the plaza itself and sor-rth of the East
Plaza. The Central Acropolis was the place of the high royal court for centurie s, but not the only place of socio-political power and wealth at Tikal.

Looking back to thc timc of scttlcmcnt in 8oo ec of thc rcgion that wor.rld
become the city of Tikal, we noted that the site was scttled as a scrics of vi1lages - small settlements scattered over the landscape. This quality of scattered
settlement persisted throughout the history of Tikal and is stili reflected dr-rring
the beginnings of classicism in the 4th centllry eo. Elite family residences did
not occur only in the Central Acropoiis close to the cosmic center of the Great

THE BIRTH OF DYNASTIES

Plaza. Ratl-rer they are found scattered around outlying parts of the city in a
fashion that suggests that there was a conscious clispersal, or dc-ccrrtralizatior-r
of the elite power. The more "rural" grollps of palaces wor-rld have served ceremonial ancl administrative functions as well as those of a wealthy farnily residence jr-rst likc thc ones close to the city center. The de-centraliz:rtion was itsclf
probably a strategy of internal control, rather than a defensc against outside

attack. However, such attack was part

of life and therc was an effect upon

settlement at Tikal.
'Jfe know conclusively from thc texts, not just from Tikal but frorn a large
number of other Peten sites, that warfare was a prominent featllrc of life in the
Early Classic period. Politically, a city the size of Tikal had to be concerned
about two different forms of aggression: one from within, the control of which
is represented by the scattering of elitc ccnters around the physical boundaries
of the city; and onc from without, whicl-r is represented by an increesing
amollnt of subtlc fortification inside the site, as well as the very real fortifications that appear at this time as wall/moat constructions tci both the north and
south sides of the city.

37 Seen from TempLe ll, the temples that Line the edge of the Nctrth Terrdce seeln to
obscure their edrLier counterpdrts in the North Acropolis.

xity and densitl,

ng

in

its

ftndl

Lrth of the East

)urt for ccntLl-

Tikal.
ln thitt would
r

r series of vil:y of scattered

flected during
:esidences

did

r of tl-re Great

THF],

BIRTH OF DYNASTII.]S
Aside from the city settlement patterns, the rise of warfare had other effects
upon the 4th-centr-rry Maya. A systen of allegiances and cnmities had already
come into being. Tikal's relationships with its neighbors, near and far, were
fragilc and mutable. A' ally under one king could shift quickly to an enemy
under the next, or even under the same leader. One explanation of the source of
conflict lies in Tikal's strategic location arrd control over rrade rolrtes. Dr-rring
the early phases of the Early Classic we have only hints of the troubles that
were brewing. Thc specifics becon're clearer toward the end of the Early classic,
when they virtually boil over, heralding the major cultural shift into the Late
Classic period. That warfare played a signi6cant role ili the cultural shift now is

bcyond doubt.r5

39

?ight)

Tbis tr

cache uessel was

stair of 5D-46 ir
translated until .
4o (belotu) The

dedicatory cacb'

The sacred clan house of the Jaguar Claw family

At thc eastern end of the Central Acropolis there is a very special structurc that
had an extraordinary history This building is now knowlr as 5D-,16, br-rt wher-i it
was burlt around AD j50, or earlier, it was the clan hciuse of theJaguar claw
fa'rily whose name identified a blooclline and dynasty lasti'rg through ro the
very demise of Tikal. The dynasty did not endure all those cenruries withor,rt
difficulty, and it is the ups and downs of this extraordinary farlrily that tells
the story of Tikal. As if it represented the fortunes of the family line, Srructure
sD-+6 survived, unlike any other elite house of the period, up to presunt timcs
(ill. jB andpl.IX).

finally translatet
who reuealed tb

to be the house

'

38 At.the beginning of excauations, the earth mound that was to be reuealed as a ltalace
complex was ouergroLun by trees at the site of ;D-$ the bome of Jdguar Claut l.

Built by tht

is one of a vr

within the Ce
was not parti
This evident
dents of the c
tion. This bui
the city that r

ments over ti
excavation a'
residence in

of corrobora
ceremonial

function and

other effects
ties had already

Lad

and far, were

ly to an enemy

Lr

of the source of
routes. During
Le

troubles that

Early Ciassic,
[t into the Late
rral shift now is
e

strLlctllre that

ry (right) This polished black, carued

cdche uessel was excauated under the uest

stair of 5D-46 in 196.J . lts text u)ds not

translated untiL zo years Later.

p (below) The caruing and text on the

dedicatctry cdche uessel from .JD-46 tuas
/inaLly transLated b1, Linda Scbele in r985
who reuealed that it declared the building
to be the house of Jaguar Cldtu l.

46,btttwhen it
e Jaguar Claw
:hrough to the
turies without

mily that tells

line, Structure
present times

led as a palace
Claw L

I (Great Jaguar CIaw), this building

is one of a very few that has been positively identified as a family residence
within the Central Acropolis. Further, it is the only Early Classic residence that
was r-lot partially demolished and covered by a latcr structllre in central Tika1.
This evident reverence for the building extended not only to the dynastic residents of the city, but to its enemies as well, during times of defeat and dominatior-r. This building was considered so sacred and so important to the idcntity of
BLrilt by the king known as Jaguar Claw

the city that no one dared touch it, other than to rnake additions and embellishments over tifirc, and certainly, such additions were macle. Evcn at the time of
ercavation a variety of features of the buildir-rg identified it as a probable family
residence in the analysis of my own excavation.16 However, in a very rare case
of corroboration of academic interpretation, the discovery of a cache under a
ceremonial stair of the original building served at a later date to confirm the
function and sanctity of this building. The cache had been buried beneath the

THE BIRl'H O}. DYNASTIT,S

the dircction of death - not a direction normally cledicatecl to a
doorway to living qllarters. It was a broad and high st:lircase rescmbling thc
stair to a temple. The cache included an extraordinary vessel of c:rrved ancl polishcd blackware , a cylincler with a lid. A carved inscription surroundecl the 1id
of the vessel. Thc text revealed that this was the housc of the ah:ur named Great
|aguar Claw, tl-re 9th rulcr in the succcssion sirrcc t1-re for-rndcr Yax Ch'aktel Xok
(ills. j9 and ry). Thc work of Linda Schele and David Freidel h:rs been senrirral
in re-working ancl urrderstandirrg the relationships bctween Trkal and Uaxactun during the rcign of Jagr-rar Claw I. Schele translated the tcxt on the cache
vessel, which I had recovcred in 1965, sorre zo ycars after the excrvatior-I, confirming my hypothesis that this was irrdeed a royal residence .
L-r its original form the building had seven rooms on the grouricl floor ancl
was oriented ec1Lra1ly to both cast and west, with thrce doorways on each side.
The central western room was approached by the grancl staircase above the
dedicatory cache ancl its identifyrng inscripticin. The central room had no
interior acccss to any other of the rcsidential rooms of thc builc'ling arid likely
served as a householcl shrine. Thus the householcl was protectcd frorn any
malevolent influer-rces from the open-sided western approach by an unconwestern stair

rrectcd sacred roorn.

As time passcd, the palace grew in size and changed in charactcr. Stratigraphic eviclcnce shows that the second story of the building and its inrerior
staircasc, r-rnique at Tikal, werc added at a slightly lilrer date, br-rt still wcll
within the architcctural building traditions of the Early Classic periocl. Addition of the second story may have been made towarcl the encl of the 4th century;
or cven in the 5th century ,ct. Much latcr, probably in the latc Sth century, and
likely {1111ng the reign of the zgth rr.rlcr of Tikal, a number of large addirions
were macle to the main building. These inclr.rded raised patios to the north :urd
sor-rth ends surrounded by residential rooms probably accommodating a much
expanded royal family. By this timc the orientation of the srru*ure had
changed considcrably and access to the western side had been restricted from
the outside. \(hen these aclditions werc made, thc house was alreirdy over 4oo
ycars o1d. Thc rrewly br.rilt patios and their rcsidenti:rl rooms werc reachecl
exch-rsivcly from the eastern sicle of the palacc now totally encloscd by a private
courtyard . Lr other worcls, the structurc built as the sacred clan or lineage
housc of the Jaguar claw clynasty enjoycd over 4oo years of continllolls occLrpation during which timc it sufferecl no known damage. I(nowledgc from
written texts of the history of Tikal tclls us that there were a number: of occasions durirtg almost half a millenliium when intcrlopers :rrrd ever conqllerors
were in charge of the city, often resr-rlting in damage to public ancl silcred buildings ancl rnonuments. Howevcr, this particr-rlar structure helcl such a sacrcd
aura, that l-lot even the interlopcrs dared do it harm. These sarlrc interlopers
joined themselves to the counr of Tikal lords, appropriating the very same
founclcr as his legitimate heirs. Thr-rs they too had to cherish rhe house of onc of
their grcatest ancestors.

The significan

The royal title

social structut
kalomtelT is d

European un<
highest possit

Tikai, and en,

own boundar
Tikal at one p

The next hi
and signifies z

very large city

same time, b]

importance

at

meant suprefi

kingdom,

a gr

"kalomte" in
title "ahau" r.l
Early Classic

denote a lesst
reigning kalor
Batab is an
less active at
batabs at oth
where. Simila
is more comn
A bowl belor
this title.18
After the r
together, kal<
succeeded to

position of

ries are descr

but not alwal

"Fire-Born"
Just as Huna

Tikal,

anoth

glyphic repre
Tikal during

documented
shadowy cha

but in r983, j

THE BIRTH OI. DYNASTIES

y dedicatcd to a

resembling the
carved and poi-

rounded rhe lid

lu named Great
x Ch'aktelXok
rs been seminal

kal and UaracKt on the cache

KCaVation, con-

rund floor ancl

,s on cach side.

case above the

room had rro

ding ancl

[kciy

cted from any

by an unconaracter. Strati.nd its interior

, but still well

period. Adclihe

4th ccntr-rry,
h century, and

arge additions

the norrh and

Cating a much
strr-rcture had

:stricted from
eady over 4oo
were reached
:d by a

private

an or lineage
tir-ruous occu-

rwledge frorn
nber of occan conquerors
sacred

build-

ruch a sacred
re

interlopers

le very safre
ruse

of one of

The significance of royal titles at Tikal

Tikal are an esscntial part of the city's history ancl of its

social structure. Each title is rcpresented by a known hieroglyph. Chdcte or
l<alomtel7 is the highest rank uscd at the site, and is likely comparable to rhe
European tu.rderstarrding of "emperor." It denotes thc supreme leader of
highest possiblc rank whose domain was greatcr than a single city such :rs
Trkal, ancl crrcompassed the area that such a large city dominated outside its
own boundaries. For example, the nearby city of Uaxacturi, don'rinated by
Tikal at one point in its history, wor,rld be ir-rcluded in thc domain of a kalornte.
The next highest rank is ahauwhtch bears the litcral translation of "lord"
and sigrrifies a lcacler whose dornair-i may inclr-rclc the whole, or just part of a
very largc city like Tikal. More than one ahalr could be in office at Tikal at thc
sarne tirne, but there could be only <-ine kalomte. The evidence is that the
importance and meaning of this title changed over time at Tikal. Originally it
meant suprenle rulcr, lcader, or king, but as tl-re city itsclf grew to resen.rble a
kingdom, a grander titlc became needed - hence the appearance of "chacte" or
"kalomtc" in a newer reading. The earliest lcadcrs of the city are cited with thc
titlc "ahau" with the apparent meaning of "king or lord of Tikal". During the
Early Classic period (eo z5o-.5.5o), this concept changecl and ahar-r came to
denote a lesser rank, or a leacler who had given allegiancc and loyalty to the
reigning kalomtc of Tikal.
Bdtab ts another known title used by thc Maya br-rt may have been iln office
lcss active at Tikal than at other citics. Tikal's diplomatic relationships with
batabs at other cities are cited in hieroglyphic texts both at Tikal and elsewhere. Similarly, sdhal ts a recognizcd title der-roting a noble of high rank which
The royal titles r-rsed at

is more con-rmonly r.rsccl outside Tika1, althor-rgh it was recognized there as weli.
A bowl belonging to the king 'Anirral Skr.rll" (see below) makes refcrcnce tcr

this titlc.18

After the reign of Jaguar Claw I there were always two officials who
together, kalomte and ahar-r.

'S(hen

n-rled

the kalomte died, the rcigning ahar,r r,rsually

sr-rcceeded to his title, wl-rile another lord, the next in line, moved up into the
position of ahau. Thr-rs wc firrd in the knowr.r, namecl inclividuals whose histories are clescribcd here, there is frequently a surviving record of this succcssit,n,
but not always.

"Fire-Born" (K'ak' Sih)

Just as Hunal Balam was a shadowy figure in the lineage and politics of early
Tikal, another character, known originally as "smoking Frog" (from his
glypiric representati on, ilL.4-r), but now known as "Firc-Born," played ir role at
Tikal during tl-re reign of Jaguar Claw I and overlaprpccl in time with the next
clocumented rulcr of the city, "First Crocodilc" whose dossier follows. This
sl-radowy character (Fire-Born) might havc remair-red nothing lnore than that,
br-rt in r983, Juan Pedro Laporte's workers pulled an ertraordinary objcct fron-r

THF, BIRTH OF DYNASTII,S

'World

Pyramid.

palaces and oth

object now kno\
piece known by
,13). Thc inscribt
his action again

shows a represel
the rcverse is a b,
an dtlatl or speal
this kind have be
dence that new v
with Uaxactun

One of tlte most mystericttts fLgures in the

F,arh, Clttssic history of TikdL wts n,tmt d
Fire-Bctrn, l1nclu,n for many teLtrs ds
"smoking Frog." His nante gLyph has l:,een
found in seuerttl clifferent contexts ttt the site.

kalomtc.
(abot,L:) This tlr,uuing of the "mtrc.rtdor" or ballcourt
mttrkttr r(constructs the oLtject in its origin.aL urchilecturtrl
selting, a.s fountl in the excttutt.tictn of Ldporte.

The personttge t:aLLetl "Spearthrcttuer ()ul" is nou'

thought to be the father of the toth ruler of 'f ik,tl, and likely
neL)er cilme to the citt'. His tt,tme glltph occurs in a nuntber of
aontexts.

aj (left)

A turning point
By the middle

o1

and family linee

influence from T
with a strong cc
had been establi

its owi] art style

rubble in the Lost \ilorld complex. Although the powcrfr-rl influence of Teotihu:rcan hacl long been rccognized at Tikal, Laporte fourrcl the first sculptlrrc ilt
pure Teotihuacan stylc. The texts inscribecl upon it aliow a few alterrrative
unclerst:rnclings of the rolc played by Firc-Bortt. He was il warrior of qrerrt
strength :rnd was directly connectccl to the inter:lction between Tikal and UaxactLln, which was thought to be a corlllLlest by Tikal, cnacted by Fire-Bcirrt itt eo
378. The ncwest interprctation urade by Stuart (see abovc) says that thc Tikal
ruler called "First Crocodilc" "arrived" (as tl-re texts euphenistically pr,rt it) at
Tikal in t1-rc company of Fire-Born. Refercnces to a highcr orcler personagc, lrot
of Tikal, by the name of "spearthrower Owl" suigest that this latter person
was :,r ruler of Tcotihuacirn and that he sent his son (First Crocodile) to Tikal.
Thc "arrival" of this pirir from thc west was anticipated at Tikal ilnd coincided
with thc deatl-r of thc reigning king, Cireat .Jaguar Claw The de:rth of FireBorn, lvho zrpparently stayccl in the Tikal region, is recrtrc'lecl on Stela 3r at Al)
4oz. Great.lagr-rar Claw I hacl already drcc'l in el j78 (on Stela 3r), and thc next
year, AD 379,is the recordccl clate for his successor coming to 1'ro1vs1. Thc differcnce is oncc ilgain that of kalorrte and ahau. Fire-Born was a high kalomtc, but
the dimensions of his domilirr are not known other tharr that they irrclr.rdecl
Tikal.
Firc-Born becamc more important to the history of Tikal upori the cliscovery
by Laportere of ilrr crtraordiuary object in Group 6C-XVI south cif the Lost
8o

cmerged. This r.r

Changes, and

Name
Yax Ch'akt

(First Scaff<

Hunal Bala

(Foliated Ja

Zero Moor

Chak Tbh I

(Jaguar Cla

I('ak'Sih
(Firc-Born)

THE BIRTH OF DYNASTIES

World Pyramid. This group proved to be a buried Early Classic compler of

palaces and other ceremonial strllctures and one such structure yielded an
object now known as the "marcador." This was a columnar decorated stone
piece known by its forrn fron-r Teotihlracan as a ballcor-rrt marker (ills.
and
'tr2
The
inscribed
text
on
the
column
mentions
Fire-Born
twice
in
relation
to
a3).
his action against Uaractun. The artwork on one side of the upper flar-rge
shows a representation of Tlalclc, the rain god important to Teotil-ruacan. On
the reverse is a bearded owl crossed by a drawing of a human left hand hoiding
an atlatl or spear thrower, an instrument of war. No other ballcourt markcrs of
this kind have been found at Tikal and it is thought that this oblect displays evidence that new war methods were introduced to Tikal at the time of its conflict
with Uaxactun and perhaps through the agency of Fire-Born, a warrior, e
kalomte.
tr ballcourt
rchitecturdl

A turning point

Otul" is not,
"ikal, and likely
in a number of

lnce of Teoriit sculpture in

:w alternative
rrior of great

of the Early Classic period at AD j7o the

Tikal's culture
and family lir-reage had beerr set. F{owever, there were still more changcs and
influcnce from Teotihuacan yct to comc. Thc concept of a scattered power base
with a strong control center emanating from the Great Plaza and its environs
had been established. Tikal had become a center for trade and distribution of
its own art style. A new element that had not been prominent in the Preclassic
emerged. This was warfare, and Tikal bccamc a ccnter for its vicissitudes.
Charrgls, artd w.rrs,.'. wt'rr. comirrg.
By the middle

base for

ikal and Uax-

Table z

re-Born in AD
hat the Tikal
:ally put it) at

Chronology of the early part of the Early Classic at Tikal

eISOnage,

not

Time span AD 2oo-4o2 (zoz years)

RulerNo

Name

Date

Euent

latter person
lile) to Tikal.

Yar Ch'aktcl Xok

a. AD 200

ruling

coincided
eath of Fireitela 3r at el

Hunal Balam

AD zgz

ruling

Stela z9

6th or

rr-rling(?)

Leiden

7tl-r

rulirrg
death
kalomte
death

Stcla 3r

9rh

Lnd

Zcro Moon Bird

eo joo(?)

Chak Tbh lch'ak

AD 317

(Jaguar Claw i)

,+o 378

I('ak'Sih

,rl

(Firc-Born)

AD 4oz

the discovery

r of the Lost

7t1'r

(Foliatecl Jaguar)

differkalomte, but

hey included

Founder (rst)

(First Scaffold Shark)

and the ncxt

:r. The

Source

378

or Sth

Stcla 3r

Stcla

Stela

tr

Not of Tikal

CHAPTER SIX

CHANGE, AND CHALLENGE,:

TFIE, END OF THE EARLY CLASSIC

and the docume

Stela 3 r, or-re of
The America
Guatemala unti

Tikal

(see

lll.

8)

out the Peten. Ir

moving waters
man-ki11ing sau

First Crocodilc I (Yax Ain I)

Accession to power of thc ruler known as "First Crocodile" brought fr,rrther
changc to Tikal (ilL. aa). Not only was influcncc from Teotihuacan increasecl,
br-rt thcrc was most likclv a change ir.r the actr-ral lir-reage at this point. Until the
alrpearance of this ruler, the lirrc:rgc in power was that of Jaguar Clilw - a
lineage that lviil re-:lppear at a l:rter date. Morcover, it is possiblc, and ever.r
probablc that First Crococlilc was a noblenran from the Mexican highlands from Teotihuacan itsclf as has been ilr:gucd by a number of scholars.l Lr ordcr
to cntcr peacefully intci the hierilr:ch.v of a city of such wealth and polvcr:, hc
lnttst have m:rrriecl irito the ruling linc. Present knor,vleclgc from archaeological
and glyphic eviclcnce is not ablc to tel1 eractly what rclationship pern'rittccl an
outsider to take rulership of the city.
The name glyph of Yax Ain I is
uery imPortant as he ma1, hsue been
a fctreigner Luhct cttmt to ruLe TikaL
from the highLands. lt transLdtes
ets "Firsl Crctcodile" trntl his tomb,
Buridl to, contained tt crocodiLe

skeleton.

First Crocodile has had rnany names in the progress of study cif Tikal. Previously known as "Cur1 Nosc" or "Curl Snout," thc image of his n:rrrc glyph rvas
uot recogt'tizcd:rs the head of a crocodile untilrcccntly. He is the ncxt true sllccessor aftcr Jaguar Claw I and he becarne ahar"r of Tikal in AD 179, ils roth nller
irr the succession after the founclcr. As usua1, wh:rt rvc know about his lifc
corles largely fronr the commernor:rtions and inscriptions that followecl his
cleath. The contcnts of his tomb are not just revealitrg, they are :lnong some of
the finest :rrt works to emergc fron'r the city. Irr Mayii his name is Yax Ain. The
word "ain" ulcans "crococlile" in Maya.
Twent,v-thrcc years after First Crocodile's acccssion as ahilu of Tikal, the
de:rth of the lord Fire-Born, the kalorrtc in power in Tika1, is rccoldecl in eo
4oz. First Crocodile thcn acceded to thc most exalted position. Referer.rce to
First Crocodile's cleath in eu 4zo is for-rncl on Stela 5, r'rot of Tikal, but of thc
sitc of EIZapotc, a small regional city that owecl allcgiance ro Tikal. Bv this
tirnc the distinction bctween ahau and kalomte hacl becn forrnalized at Tikal
ea

dile must have r

spirit of the forr

The ruler nar

of Tikal to bez
influence on Ti
not a native of

Guatemalan hi

closely affiliate<
gested that he c
At any rate th
ceramic style ar
the contents of

41 Burial ro u'as
archaeoLogist Stu'

exposing the rich

CI.IAN (]E AND CHALL!,NG [,

and the documentation for both offices is in the comprehensivc inscriptions of

Stela jr, one of two of the city's major known hrstorical records.2
Tl-re American crocodile (Crocodylus dcutus) was not thought to inhabit
Guatcmal:r Llntil thc late r9Sos, when one was killed in the camp water-holc at
Tikal (scc lll. S). They are now known to he quite widely distribr-rted throughoLlt the Peten. In ancient times the swamps that bounded Tikal with their slow-

GE:

ASSIC

,rought fr-rrther
tcan incrcascd,

roint. Urrtil the

guar Clar,r' - a
;ible, ancl even
an highlands

rlars.lln order

and por,ver, hc
archaeologicirl
r permitted an

is

'l

een

kdl
tb,

f Tikal. Previglyph was

next trLle suc-

Lrnc

roth rulcr
about his life
followed his
, as

nong somc of
Yax Ain. Thc

of Trkal, the
:corded in at
Reference to

al, but of rhe

likal. By this
ized at Tikai

moving waters were a perfect habitat for this species of rnert-eating

man-killing saurian. As an animal spirit for the Maya, the power of the crocodile must have rir':lled that of the jaguar one a spirit of the water, the other a
spirit of the forest.
The ruler named Yax Ain I (First Crocodile) was indeed the first known ruler
of Tikal to bear this distinguishcd narre, but by no means the last, and his
influence on Tikal was formidable. Cogginsr has argued that he probably was
not a nativc of the city, :rnd that he may have come to Tikal by way of the
Guatcmal:u highland site of l(aminaljuyu which at this timc pcriod was
closely affiliated to the civilization of Teotihuacan in Mexico. Others have suggestecl that he canre clirectly from Tcotihr-racan, possibly as a resiclent diplon'iat.
At any rate the iuflr.rencc hc brought from Teotihuacan upon architccture,
cerarnic stylc ancl dccoration is especially stl'onli and is perfectly cxcmplified by
thc contcnts of his tomb. This crypt is known as Br.rrial ro (ills.4; and $) and

q;

Burial ro ruds excduLtted b1, Edtuin Shook, the first Directctr of the Project. Here
drchdeologist Stuart Scott, utho aided in the excduation, ctbserues the'progress of
ex'pctsing the riches of the tomb.

CHAN(]E AND CHALLENGE

-v(

,AoT

V712
1\
\J

a6 (Left) BuriaL ro was tl:

contained many pieces o,
influence. The lord's nam
crocodiLe skeleton was in

burial riches.
t4

\\15

l6

7a1
"" 39

40

t
L-

44@

I
r
t_

>u_
N

a-.,

,..:

-.

159

ii.
I

mog

IM

rt,l

I
I

q8 (belotu) A painted ue:

a pure art styLe from Teo
dpplied to a stucco coatil
uesseL.

morphing into a conch st

in his beak. The piece mr

Teotihuacan and been in,

personal treasure,

52

ll

tr@
'4-

+z (ri7ht) This complex

t
{-

CHANGI] AND CHALLENGI

(Left) BurittL to tuas the tomb of Yax Ain I, and

contained many pieces of strongTeotihudcttn
influence. The lord's namesalze in the fornt of a
crocodile sk-eLeton was inclucled anlong the many

a6

burial riches.

(right) This comtrtlex scuLpture of a parrot

morl)hing into a conch sheLl hoLds the symbol of song
in his beak. The'piece ma1, hdue originated in
Teotihuacan and been imported ds f)art of Yax Ain I's

personal treasure.

(beLow) A painted uesseL lid from BuriaL ro depias

pure art st1,Le frctnt Teotihurtcrtn. The uiuid fiaint ruas
dpplied to a stucco cctating ouer the surface of the

qS
Lt

uessel.

ry (belotu) One of the most reuedling pieces of drt

from the EdrLy CLassic Period shotus the arriual at TikaL

of Teotihuacan peoples bearing the new techttoLog.t

Lu(trr the atlatl.

of

(,HANGL AND CiIAI,L-t:-N(]

F-

u'as fotttlcl berlcath thc tetrple tD- j4 on thc' Norrh Tcrrace frontir-rg the North
Acropolis. I wrrs fortttrtatc enotlgh to be prescnt clLrring the cxceyation of this
cxtraorciinar')'tornb in r959.a Thc torlb w:rs uniclue, we now k6glr,; becltlsc so
nlatlv of thc grlve goocls it cotrtainccl h:rve il foreign flavor, infltrcnceci br,, or
ir-nported clir:cctly from the ciistarrt Mexican city of Teotil-ruacan. Thc teriri-,lc
above the btlrial r'r':'rs First Crococlile's commclnoralive tcmple ilnd remailcd
irrtact until rl'rc irbar.rc'lonlrent of Tikal.
Dcspitc thc influcnce from Tcotihuacan Llpon the :rrt corrtainccl in First
Crococlile's t<lt.nb, the pieces arc still Maya irr thcir nature ancl renclition. As ir.r
tl'rc tonrb of the lcsser Eg,v1-rtian king -futar-rkharltrn, Yax Aip I's tonb ceptri'ecl "worrclerf.l thirrgs." But yar Ai'I u,as ror a Icsscr king at Tikal. His
role cleterlr-rincd the clirectiori of thougl-rt, alt, ancl rvarfare ot tl-r. citv for
,lc.lt.lc* Itr r. 1y11,...
Sot.nc illtcrcstilrg itctns in the fr-rnerar1, rnatcrial of Bnrial ro ir-rclldc
thrce
tttrtle carapaccs and one hcadlcss crococlilc skcletor-r. Thc l:rttcr rvas clonbtlcss
a persotlificatiorl cif the tonrb otvncr's nalre, but why thrs deacl
saurial w:ls pr.csct.ttcci l-rcacllcss we calt ouly gucss. The cviclence of bir:cls as fur.rcl,rrv
ec;r-ri1.rlnellt appears herc for thc first tirne at Tikal. Wrth First Crcicociile's bc,d,u iu.ic
incl-rclccl thc rcnairrs of trvo p)rgnly.u,ls, greer jays a'cl alr.rt trrnagcr.
Coggirls sees the tclclitiort of brrcls:rncl their feathers ro rhc n-rtrch o1.1cr tr,rppirlgs of jaguar skir.rs ilr-rcl snakc nrotifs as :ur influcr.rcc frorn Tcotihrlac:.llr,r4,.r"r.e
feathers arlcl bircls \\rcre vcry proniincnt in ar:tistic synrbolisnr. Ironic:rlly; rvhilc
the Teotil-rtrilcftrtos hrrd to ilnport thcir bircl feather:s from the N4aya lor.vlar-rds,
thc Mrvrl thcl.llsclvcs hed paicl ]ittle attcntion to rhc usc of such fc:rtl-rcrs Lrntil
tllcir cultnrc rvi'ts influcttcecl by the Teotil-ruacan cllstor'ns cviclcr.rt in First Croc-

zone of Teotr

oclile's tcinrb.
Stir-rgrrrl' spirtes artcl spclnclylus shells wcre a.lso part of the torrrb goocls, ritr-ral
itenrs ir'portec'l fro'the A,{a1'a sea coasts. Als. of great intcrest was e jaclc

looks a lot lil

orllellrcllt clellictirlg thc satnc'stl,iizccl crococlilc hcacl that is part of yax Ain's
1litnle. Strcl'r atl objcct rccalls sirrril:lr grccnstonc c:rrvings for-rncl in tire to11bs
of
I.ale roval b.rials irt earlier clatcs, .pparertli' a crlstom at Tikal.
TIlr:ce cffigv vesscis atttong t1-re gravc contents rre quirc renrarkablc for: thcir
iconograPl.rv ancl probablc history: The so-callecl "olcl ciod,, clerty figtrrc, nrilde

two prrrts, depicts the cleity seatecj or.r a tril.-roql r,f hLrnr.ur 1.,<,n.* anJ holcling a
in his crtcliclecl hancls (pt. il). Thc cletails of the imagery of thc
herlcl coutaitl rcfercrrces to the sur.r gocl (l(inich Ahau) irr 1-ris Sun-i1-thc-LInclerrr,,r'l.l Niglrr,l.rqrrnl qrrisc.
A sccorlcl effigv vesscl rvrs Iri'rclc of fine creumy prlste i.vith a briclgc spoqt,
atrd u'as coverccl irt paintecl stllcco. Thc figure rcprcsentecl u fantastic blepcl of
a
bircl bonclecl it.tto a conch shell (i//.47) . This crtraorclir-rr.rr,v piecc hacl bcel
corltccl rvith stucco scveral tinies ancl repainted cach tirrre. Coggins suggested
that it rrlav havg becn atr heirlocim piecc brciught tci Tikal t u li.rt C.rococlile
froru eitl-rer I(atttirtalju,vrr in highland Cluatcmala or eyel fror-p Tcotihqacan
Itself. Thc icor-rographl' of bird/conch shell images is prer.alenr in the Tetitl:r
ir.r

hrrrrrrrn he:rcl

lJ6

represents a s
of thc conch
trumpet. Thir

that the May

origir-ratccl frr
that made th

Thesc

elemer

highlands of
ers of local T

bird/shcllimr
A third irnl

"diving god'
concept is vel
in

Tcotihr-rac

hips of tire di
irnportance t

It is in tht
str-rcco under
car-r.

The Tlr

Br-rrial ro cot

cityl The sun

ablc (l//. +B).

Another ir
tior-r comes

itcrn in this
sccne

(ill.

s'

49

form, drawn
sion of six

setting

fi1

ir-rclu

weapons, sp
friendly Me

warfare tech

exactly what

culture were

himself ma1
dircctly date
we know fr<
AI) 42o, sugg

Stormy Sky

(l

The ncxt n
"Stormy

Sk1

CFIANGE AND CHAI,I,F,NG}

rnting the North
xcavariolr of this
<now, becausc so

influenced by or
can. The tenrple
ie and rernaincd

ntained

in First

renclition. As in

n I's tomh

cor.r-

Tikal. His
at the ciry for

ng at

ro includc thrce
:r w;rs doubtless

;aurian was pre-

fuuerarl' equip,lile's body were

rn ant tanager.
uch older traptil.ruacan whcre

ronicalll',

r,vl"rile

laya lowl:rnds,
h feathcrs until
Lt

in Fir:st Croc-

rb goods,

ritual

:cst was a jade

rt of Yax Ain's
Ln the tombs of

zone of Teotihuacan where the tabbed fillet held in the bird's beak obviously
represents a speech scroll indicating song, and possibly doubling as the sound
of the conch trlrmpet as well. One of the bird's wings becorres the conch sl-rell
trllmpct. This scnsual blcncl of sight ancl sound in visr"ral purrning is scin-rcthing
that thc Maya wor.rlcl vcry much apprcciate in their culturc, evcrr if thc piccc
originatcd fron-r ilnothcr civilization. It may have beer-r tl-ris meeting of values
tl-rat rnade the rich iconography from Teotihuacalr so appealing to the Maya.
These elements sugiest a strong and perhaps direct trade:rlliance with the
highlands of Mcxico at this particular time in Tikal's history. Shel1s and feathers of loca1 Tikal origrn are also included with the grave goods paralleling the
bird/shell im:rgery of this amazing effigy vessel.
A thircl irnportant vessel from the tornb is a blackware cylincler tripocl n ith a
"divirrg gocl" figr-rrine depictecl as the hancllc of thc lid. Thc iccinographic
concept is very Maya in design even though the tripod cylinder form originrtes
in Teotihuacan. Of particLrlar interest are the projections fror-n the legs and
lrips of the diving figure in tl-re form of cacao pods, a cr:op known to bc of gr:cirt
importancc to latcr Maya economy, br.rt apparcntly :ilrcacly valucd at this tin-rc.
It is in thc trcatmcnt of thc ccramics, thc painting stylc ilnd presencc of
stllcco undercoilt th:lt dcn-ronstratcs thc most clirect influence from Teotihr-racar-r. The Tlaloc (rain god) f:rces and motifs that occur o1r the vessels fron-r
Burial ro cor-rld have beer.r copied directly fronr paintecl rnr-rrills at the highlancl
city Tl-rc sr.rrvival of thrs fragilc surf:rcc trcatmcnt over the centuries is remarkable (i//. a8).
Another important vessel that helps us to understand this period of transition comes frorl a colltemporary deposit of a large number of ceramics that
looks :r 1ot like the contents of a tomb that was re-located. The most 1-rlon.rirrcnt
itcm in this strarrge deposit was il r,vhole tripocl blackwarc vcsscl with an inciscd
scene (i//.49). Thc sccne dcpicts a royal personage standing on a palace platform, drarvn with details that identify hirn as a Maya. He is receiving 11 pr'()ccssion of six figures ir-r dress that is obviousiy derii'ed frorn highland Mexico. Tl-re
setting includes a combination of Maya and Mexican architecture. The

:kable for their

we:1pons, spe:rrs and atlatls (spearthrowers) being carried by the apparently

11'figure, made

friendly Mexicirns hirve been interpreted as the introcluctiotr of highlancl

warfarc tcchniqucs to thc May:l. Bc that as it may, the scene does represent
cxactly what lvas h:rppcnitrg at Tikal at this tin-rc. Reprresentatives of a foreigr-r
culture were received in a friendly manner b,v the Maya of Tikal. Yax Ain I
himself may have been one of these people. While the deposit cennot be
directly dated, it is certainly within the range of his 4r years of rule. As notecl,
we know from Stela 5 at F,l Zapote th:rt Yax Ain I (First Crocodile) died in

;and holding:r
magery of thc
-in-the-Underbriclgc spout,
stic blcnd of a
iece had been
Sins

irst Crococlile
L

Ar) 4zo, suigestillg the date

of his ton-rb.

suggestcd

Teotil.rrracan

in the Tetitla

Stormy Sky (Siyah Chan K'awil)

The next ruler, thc rrth in succession since the founder, has been called
"Stornry Sky;"

a n:rtnc

dcscribing his patronymic glyph which shon's

a sky band

87

CHAN (IE AND CIIALL[,N(]E

rent by lightning (ill. f o). He is mosf assr-rredly the son of First Crocodile and
rulecl both as ahau :rnd kalor-nte of Tikal. His rr.rle is most noted for the creation of Stcla 3r which shows thc king's carvcd portrait on the front (l//.5r),
wlrile the extrcmcly long arrd informative text on the reverse (ill. 3;) providcs
the sirrgle most dctailcd lincage accollnt from the time of the founcler r-rntil his
o'uvn rule. Unfortunately, the account does not provide the cntirc lineage for this
long pcr:iocl of alrciut r6.; ycar:s ancl rr rulcrs. Thc phonetic reacling of his name
glyph is cyr"ritc cliffcrcnt from our subjcctivc intcrprctetion of a "stormy sky"
Phonetically it reads Siyah Clran I('ar,vil, for whicl-r an extremely loosc translation rnight lre "Sky-born I('ewii."i Two ir-rteresting featur:cs c:rn bc noted on the
c:rrn'ing of Stormy Sky's image on Stela 3r. One is that his u:rrrc glvph is incorporated into the heaclclress thi:Lt he wears. Thc cithcr is that an ancestor figure
hovers over the main figure peering down from the sky. This ancestor figr-rre
bears all the attributes of Storrny Sky's father, First Crocodilc.

Jo Claimed

t.o be the son

Ydx Ain l, Stormy Sky,
ctr Siyah Chan K'att'il , was
the rrth succe:ssor in the

of

line of Lords

of Tiktl.

Stelire associated with Stormy Sky's n:rrne include Stelac r , z,;-8,3 r and now
also 4o. Tl-rere are two clates associated with his accessiorl to powur, t,nc in AD
4r r6 to the title of ahau, and the other irr so qz67 to thc titlc of kalomte. since
his f:rthcr:, First Crocodile, diecl in el 4zo, Stormy Sky became ahar-r of Tikal
ninc ycars bcforc his father's death, but dicl not become kalomte urrtil sir ycars
after that cleath. This suggests that a son did not :tltonl.rtically and immediately succeed to a title following the cleath of thc fathcr who bore ir.
A clate associated with Storrny Sky's cleath \\ras paintcd orr thc walls of the

tonrb believecl to be his btrrial in the North Acropolis (Burial a,9, iil. t2).A
single clate pilintecl on a torrb nall in AD'1.i7 was i:rsslrrred to niark the d:rte of
intermcrit, but turned out not to be the case. The discovery of Stela p in ry96
sr-rggested new dates for his demise and neu' detail for the succcssion of his son
l('an Ak. Thus u,e knorv that Siy:rh (Stormy Sky) died on r9 Fcbrr-rary, el 456
ancl u':rs r-rot fin:rlly ir-rterred ulrtil 9 August, ao 458.8 Thcrefore, the painted
clate in tl-re tomb, at 9 March , AD 457 lies 383 clays after the actual death ancl
5r5 days before final intennent. One carr only wondcr about the stages of
funerilr,v rites that fcll bcn'vccn thcsc clatcs, arrcl whether or not thc same interval applied to the deaths of all rulers. ln tl-re absence of better infcirnation the
:rssrlmptiolr is gcncrallv made that the date of the death of one ruler conforms
fairly closely to the accession date for the next in line. Given his datc of accession in AD 4rr and death in eu 4,56 Siyah Chan I('irivil held powcr in Tikal for
4.i ycilfs.
5

88

Slor

CH AN GE

AND

CHAI-I,T.]NCiE

;t Crocodile and
ted for the creare

front (ill. 1r),

jl provides
ounder unrrl his

',iLl.

lineage for this

ling of his name

a "stormy sky"
ly loose translabe noted on rhe
: glyph is incorancestor figure
ancestor figure

28,

jr

and now

rwet, one

in

AD

kalomte. Since
ahau

of Tikal

r-rntil six ycars

r and immedi:

it.

re

walls of the

q8,

ill.

1z). A

rrk the date of

'ela

4o

in r996

;ion of his son

rruary

el

456

:, the painted
ual death and

the stages of
inter-

re same

brmation the
rler conforms

late of accesr in Tikal for

1'

Stormv

S4

recorded

t;;;:,,;:,:;,;:;::,,,i:,,1i:::::"J.n":::i:,:,:f+on

the f,ont of Steta 1,,

CI.iAN G F, AN D CHA I-I-!,N

C]E

In life, t1-re rr-rle of Siyah Chan I('awil ccintinued to foster the Mexican influencc thirt was so:rpparent ili hrs father's tiue. Figr-rres <tn the side of Stela 3r
flank thc ruler in Mcric:rn battle dress, and arc identified as his father, First
Crocodilc, holcling the shield and spearthrowers of warfare. Texts for this time
period say rl-'lat Tikal cemcnted a friendly relationship r,vith its northern neighbor LJax:rctun. It was a pericicl of great positive activity at these two sites, with
Tikal enrerging as ;r pt'e-emincnt power ovcr the region.e
In clcath, this rulcr fr-rrther prcsented his dcvotion to thc Mexican style.
Buriirl 48 wi:ts placed on the sacred north-south axis of the Nortl-r Acropolis in
frorrt of the small ten.rple callcd Structure 5D-26, in a locatiort that would be
buriccl more than two centurics later by the constrltctiolt cif 5D-3,3-rst' a gret.lt
molllllreltt clestinecl to ntark a major turning point in Tikal's history. The tomb
chambcr was small, much smallcr than his father's tomb. The wirlls r,vcrc
painted with strar.rge, rathcr ilbstract figures as well as the aforementioned date
in hieroglyphs. This is rr ycars irfter thc cledicatory clate ot.t his most farnous
rronllrrlent, Stela 3r. It is al1 but the last of scveral urajor br-rri:rls of rulers to be
placccl on the s:lcred axis of the North Acropolis. Subsequerit burials occur
beneath ten.rples on thc North Terrace, fronting the Acropolis or elsewhere in
the Lost \Mcrrld Pyramid group.
Stormy Sky himself, like a number of his predecessors, was not burriccl as an
intact corpse. The head ancl hands are missing, and thc presence of clrgartic
material indicates that his body w:rs wrapped in cloth as itt a bundle bLrrial.
Poigr-rantly, a single blaclc cif obsidian was placecl whcre the head should have
been. The significance of this substitutiolt is r.rot known. He was fliukcd by the
skcletons of two young adolcscent males, apparent sacrificial victims scltt to
ec( onrpJny rlr.' g.t'..tt wr rri.r'.
Apart from thc painted datc, the eirst ancl west walls wcrc decorated with
paintecl glyph-like emblcms, forty-fivc of them in all. Mar-ry forms can be recognized, br-rt thcy do not form i'r cohereut tcxt. Coggins suggested that thcy rnay
rcpresent a ritual chant, possibly part of thc funeral ceremotty.l0
Amor.rg the gr:rve goods werc 3o ceramic vcssels, including several that were
striccoed and p:rinted in the TcotihLlilcan style so well known from First Crocodilc's torlb. Thc r-rsr-ral spondylus shells and stittgrey spines are preseut :rlong
with grccn obsidian imported from Tcotihuacan, arid more bird rcm:rins. ln all,
the contcnts are qurite similar to thosc cif Burial ro, bclieved to be Storrny Sky's
fatl-rer. Onc notirble gravc object was a magltificent carved bowl of alabaster
with :rn inscription, es yet ulttranslirted, aroltncl the or,rtsidc of the bowl. The
forrr.r and contcnt of the carvccl and stuccocd vessels in thc tonrb show a continucd central Mcxic:rn influencc but:rlso a definite trer.rd towarcl Mayrnizetion.
Almost r4o years remaiu from the death of Stormy Sky until the er-rd of the
period c:rlled the E:rrly Classic. During this timc there are sir knor,vtt, uamcci
rr-rlers at Tikal :rs well :rs evidence that others whose names are unknown also
exisred. Of the six only two are known by burial, wl-rile the rest emergc from the
hieroglyphic recorcl.
9o

;z

Plan of Buria

in the North Acr

thought tr.t be th,
Siyah Chan K'dt
burial is located
north-south axi
AcroPolis.

There is on

period. This j
south side of
than the time
on style. The
Court r durin

ual has been

tiny chamber
located preci
south of the l
of the south
the North A

and the grave

a daughter o

far to the

so

Chapter Fou

CH A N (I I,] A N D CH A I,I,I-]NC

I-]

Mcxican rnflu-

siclc of Stela 3r
his father, First
xts for this timc
northent neigh: two sites, with

35

Mcxican style.
'th Acropolis in
that would be

-3J-rSt, a great
;tor1i Tl"re tont-r

-he

r,valls lvcre
nentionecl clatc
s most fat-r-rous

ts

of lulers to be
I bLrrials occur
rr elservhere in
ct buliecl as at'r
rce of orgar.ric
br-rnclle
Lcl

burial.

shoulcl have

flankcd by the
,ictinrs scnt tc)

.;z Plttn of Bttrial

qS fottntl
in the North Acropctlis antl
Lhought to be the tomb of
Sit'alt Cltdn K'atuil. Tbis
buridl is locdtetJ ctn tlte slt:retl
north souLlt axis ol tlte Nortlt

Acropolis.

ecorated r,r'ith

ns can bc rccthat tl-rey rnay

eral that were
First Crocoprescnt along

emains.

In:rll,

Stornrl, Sky'5

I of alabaster
lie bowl. Tirc
how lr continyanizatiotr.
hc end

of the

town, namecl
nknown also
erge from the

There is one other buri:rl of relrrted interest bec:rnse of its location irncl tinre
periocl. This is Burial r77 four-rcl in Court r of the Central Acropolis on thc
sollth sidc cif thc Clreirt Plaza. The style of cer:rnric dccor:rticin is slightlv latcr
th:ur the tirre of Storn-il, Sky, and Coggins has suggestecl a date of att 47.5, b:rsccl
on stylc. Thc burial consistecl of a snrall cr1'pt that h:rcl bccn br-ri1t into thc 1i11 of
Court r durirrg a major architcctr.rral cxpr,rt'ision of that courtyard. The indiviclua1 has been iclentifiecl as probably fcrnalc, young, and n:rs placed seatecl in a
tiny chamber facing west. The most interestir-rg feature of Burial r 77 is tl-rirt it is
locatecl precisely on the sacrecl north-south axis, ever'r thor-rgh it is far to thc
south of the North Acropolis itself. The cr1'pt hacl been coverecl ovcr i,lt thc fciot
of the sotrth st:rir of Structnre 5D-7r, a ritual three-clocirwav palacc that facccl
t1-rc Nortl-r Acropolis olr the oppc'rsite side frorn thc bur:ial. Both thc loc:rtion
ancl thc gra\rc contcnts suggest that this wes e relativc of Storr-ny Sky's, perhaps
a daughter or younger sister, givcn thc honor of burial on the sacred aris, but
far to the south which has been suggested earlier (cltrring the L:rte Preclassic,
Chapter For-rr) as a dircction [rertit'icnt t() women.
9r

CHANGE AND CHALLINCF,

Troubled times: the Early Classic Dark Ages

From the beginning of thc written recorcl with Stela z.9 attributecl to Hr-rna1
Balanr in,+o z9z until the death of Stormy Sky inlu 456 is a span of r64 years.
Despite an ir.rcornplctc record there is sufficient information to infer the patterns of devclopment at Tikal, including the growth of a Tikal Maya style in
art :rnd ccramics, followed by infl,rence of Mcrican art motifs ancl styles of
warfarc, and fin:r11y a trend towards the Mayilnization of thcsc styles under
Stormy Sky Duritrg this same period warfare had beccime more prevalent with
growing rivalry between sites. Following the clcath of Storrly Skti the rrth
ruler in thc sr-rccession, therc is a period of t7 years whicl-r spilns the next rr
rulcrs ending with Rulcr zz, wl-rose nilmc is Lizard Heaci (E Te II11) ancl who
r,vas interrecl in Burial r9-5 on the North Terr:rce.
This period is one of increasecl u'arfarc and a developing arrimosity tow:rrds
Tikal on the part of another gre at ciry to the north, Calakmul. Therc is a saga
of allianccs and enmities whrch led to a rrumber of defeats for Tikat. Sucl-r
defcats are not recordecl at tl-re city itself and mllst be eitl-rer infcrred from texts
at other sites or frorn other kinds of eviclence at the sitc. The very lack of texts
is one result of thc turmoil, since corrcluering enerrics tended to destro,y, dcface
or otherwise elirnin:rte the record cif :r defeated city This undoubtedly accoLlnrs
in part for tl-rc relative lack of a written record at Tikal for the r37 ye:lrs rhat
bririg the Early Classic to an end. The sparse record providcs us with the nanrcs
of seven of the rr rulcrs of this periocl. The record is found on 16 diffcr:cnt
stelae at Tikal,12 including one Lrclonging to thc rTth successor whose own
name is not known. The namcs of the seven known rulers, in chronological
orcler are: Ycllow Peccary (l('an Ak),.fagi-rar Claw ll (Chak Tcih Ich'ak ll),
Lizard Hcad I (E Te I), Curl Head (no May:r reading), Jagu:rr Claw lll (Chak
Toh Ich'ak lll), Doublc Bird (Yax I('uk'Mo'1r), and Lizarcl Head ll (E Te II). An
outline of this tror-rbled period of ncarly fourteen dccades folloir,,s.
Yellow Peccary (K'an Ak)11

YelLcnu Peccttrt,

The rzth sllccessor is mentioricd on two stelac (9 and r3) both lcicated close to
the front of temple Stmcture tD-;+ wl'rerc Fii-st Crococlile was buried. I('arr
Ak's riame glyph show.s the head of a pcccary with a Aarz cross in its eye and a
trcfoil clevice above thc eye which icientifies the beast positively as the peccary
as opposecl to other wild porcinc species that livc iri the Tikal cnvirolrmcnr.
.Jones interprctecl the erodecl "father" glyph in Stela r3 as reilding Stormy Sky,
rnaking Yellow Peccary the clircct line rzth succcssor. The iconogr:rphic style of
Yellow Pcccary's two monllmcnts bears no rescmblance to thc carved r.vorks of
his fathcr, specifically Stcla 3r. Howerrer, this perception was completely
clrarrgecl by the drarnatic discovery in Jr-rly ry96 of a new carvccl stela., Stela 4or-t
(ills.5 j and ;4) . This stela u'as declicated by l('an Ak and contair.rs r stunrring
uew series of datcs for the hves of both his firther, Siyah Chan I('awil ancl of
hin-rself. New facts ar"rd dates in the lives of both rulers were rc','calcd:rs

i3 Drauing of
or K'an Ak, the
1a Tht comPle
'suegtsts
tltat

O)

tl''

CHANGE AND CHAI-LENGI-

ibutecl ro HLrnal
ran of 164 years.

to iufer the patal Maya style in

fs and styles of
:se styles undcr
: prevaler.rt

with

y Sky thc rrth

ans the next rr
b II11) and who

mosity towards
There is a saga

or Tika1. Sr_rch
rred from terts
:y lack of texts
destroli deface
tedly accounts
r37 years that
vith the nanes
,n 16 different

rr whose

owr.r

chronological

bh Ich'ak II),
law

III (Chak

(E Te

II). An

:ated close to

buried. I('an
its eye arrd a
; the peccary
:nvironntent.
Stonny Sky
rphic styie

of

works of
completely

ved

la, Stela 4o1-t

s a stunning
'awil and of

revealed as

;3 Dratuingo.f thefrontof SteLaqomadebyFadericctFahsenshotringthepersonagectf YellouPeccarl,

or K'crn Ak, the tzth Lord of TikaL and son of Stormy Sky.
51

The co_mplex text from the back

suggesl-s

that the monument

of

Stela qo deaLs ruith the succession history ctf the-period.lts style

by the sarne hand as Stela. 1r. Stela 4o ruas carued in AD,+65.

wLts curueLl

CIIAN

G L,

AND

CFi At,L}'-N CE

I('an Ak acceclecl to po\\rer ln

describecl above. Thc tcrt goes o11 to say that
fitl:rl itrttrrnrent arld
Tik:rl ciu z4 August et 45s" 'l c1ai's follor'ving his f:rtl-rer's
-I"he
clecliAk otr zoJ''e 'ru '168't6
t1-,",,1-," St.in 4o itr.lf *,"s cleclicatccl by I('ir'
stvics
thc
:rtld
Stela
of
ir
c:rtiot't cli.rte is set at onl,v zJ )rears after the cleclicirtion
them' This
ilrc so clctscly sharecl as to srlligest the s:lnrc hand c:rrvit]g

is

inscriptiorls referring
.rrr.r.r.,.ly heipful in r-rnclcrstan.litig tl-t" successiot-t as thc
illfornl:rtiot.t n'ith fclv
to I('an Ak on Stelire g ancl rj ^...h,-'.t arlcl offer iittle
Stela
ot-r
ir. Some change irl
clates, irr starl<.or-rrror, to the historic record
descer"rt lir.re i,s intact' From
mallner of presetttatior.r took place evcn thciugl-r thc
ifr en 47517 but tro othet'
.1"r. on st.in !, we knou, that l('an Ak was still rr-rirng
"
clate s for l-ris reign arc sccLlre'
linc sorr of Yellorv
\Xlhile the i4t1-r n-rler is firmli' est:rblishecl :rs a clirect
in bcn'r'eetl is lcss
rr-rler
Clirw II, thc iclentity of the Lrth
Peccilr,v, namecl
Jagurrr

clear. There ilre two colltcnders'

The r3th succcssor

shoulcl l-rave
of the ir.npor:tirnce in the calenclar of tl-re uumber Il, this
a ritu:.rl feature of
bcen an important position in the dyrrastic clescenclancl"
Yet thrs rr-rlcr renlait'ls
rvhicfi thc Maya.tould surely hirvc beetr:lctitely ilware'

Because

obscure witl-r only one associatecl monument'

yellolv Peccary (the rz.th n-rlcr) as reigning king of
Stela 3 refcrs to a s611 of
clalv II (the
Tikal. The unread name is or-rl,v knorvlr not to bc that of .|agu:rr
bctn'cen tl-re
,ath r.tl.r; arld fr'rrtherlnore' the cl:rte at 'rrl 4881s falls ne:rtly
rcference
This
ll.
claw
aguirr
and.f
knor,vn cliites of the reigr-rs cif Yelloil,Peccary

to tl.rc detailcc'l
on stela 3 coLrlcl b" to th. unider-rti{ied rStl-r ruler. Accorcling
c|fficult successigt.t cif this
rcconstrLiction m:lclc by Geneyieye x4lchelle fclr thc
His fir'e sotls al1 served
pnr, nr the Etrrly cl"ssic, I(',ar-r Ak rvas a prolilic father.
the olcler brother of
rv;rs
likely
as rulers of Tikal, and of thcse, the r3th ruler
Cl:rw lI, u'ho is ktlowu to comc ncxt'
Jaguar

II)10
Jaguar Claw II (Cbak Toh Ich'ak
positiolr is clescribccl
Therc is no cloubt surrouncling the rzlth succcssor wl]ose
ktlcxv that he wrrs
\vc
orr Stclac 7, r5 ancl 27. Fron.r.a.l.I.rf thcse monuments

Jdguar

Clttu II

li.,r-gin,rl4g52l.Asnotecl,tlrcMayaclotrothavcirfficansofclerlotir-rgtlrerewas likcly brokerr shortly

use of a llarre. Althor-rgh the -Jaguar clarv lineage
\vith the revival of l-ris
after the reign of 1og.ra, Claw I, it is nor.v re-cstablishecl
of successicin
continLlity
1:rmc qeilrly .",],.rry rrld a half 1atcr. Tust Ior,v thc
" whilc the line:lges chatlgecl remains clnc of the rnysteries of
r,v:rs rn:rintainccl
Trkal politics.
Lizard Head I (E Te I)
in rc:rclir-rg ar-i croclecl text' it
Althor-rgh problcmatical bccause of the difficr-rlties
the r-5th rulcr' The tlamc
is lilcely that Stela E fron-r the Great Plaza reprcsents
hcilding the Mi.rl'a /e
frog,
or
lizirrcl
glyph shorvs thc l-reacl of :r sauriatr, either

94

sign in its moutl

looted vessel fr<

merc two years

interpreta.ttion

Peccary, irnd rul

The succession

fr

While the onlY

date for any kn
period spans or
rr-rlcrs at Tikal.
A pirinted in
the r6th ruler
virlr-re is yet Pr(
ru1er."

The rTth ruJ

This stela is fra

Tcrrace near te
last in a series <
irnd elaborate

Despite ther

othcr events t
strange doings

The rSth ruler

A blend of arc

reveals a fascir
knowt-t as "'W(

the power of
name glvph

cc

Hcr role was i

thc tomb of a

The imPorr
of the wt
and 25, both

age

br-rrred. Adiac

of a woman
located

ir-r

the

olis, burial P
royal grave.'
Lacly Tikal a
vcry few mo
one in the E
.e.n 5o'1.26 Th

CHANGE AND CHALLF,NGE

d to power in
interment and
i8.16 The decland the stylcs

:hem. This is

sign in its mouth. The same name glyph was found in a painted inscription of a
looted vessel from the correct time period. The date on Stela 8 is et 49722 a
mere two ye:lrs after the date recorded for the reign of Jaguar Claw II. The best

interpretation is that thcse two men were brothers, both sons

Pcccary, :rnd ruling in sequcnce of their ages.

of

Yellow

.ions referrirrg

tion with few

me change in
s

intact. From

but no other

Lizard Head I

The succession from r6th to rSth rulers

While thc only known date for the r5th ruler was scr at AD 497,the next firm
date for any known successor is in the rergn of the rgth ruler at el 527. This
period spans only 3o years but accounts for the reigns of threc largely unknown
rulers at Tikal.

on of Yellow
,etween is less

A painted inscription found on an unprovenancecl vesscl appears to refer to

the r6th ruler at Tikal, inch-rding the ruler's namc.23 However, r-ro phonetic
vah,re is yet proposcd for this ltame. Michel refers to him as the "black pot
ruler. "

should have

ral feature of
ruler remains
gnrng king

of

'Claw II (the
between the
lhis referencc
, the dctailcd
:ssion

of this

rns all served

er brother of

is describcd

,that he was
loting the reoken shortly
revival

of

l-ris

rf succession
mysteries of

:oded text,

it

r. Tl-re nanrc
the Maya /e

The rTth rr-rlcr is likely the 6gure shown on Stela 6 with a date of en 5r4.2a
This stela is fragmentary but was originally placed at rhe east end of the North
Terracc ncar temple Structure 5D- jz. The carving stylc shows that this was thc
last in a series of similarly carved stelae depicting the rurler holding r prominent
and elaborate staff.
Despite thesc glarir-rg gaps

of knowledge in the succession there are some

other evcnts that are known cluring this same timc period that hint at thc
strange doings and interruptions that plagued this chapter of Tikal's history
The r8th ruler

A blend of archacokrgical evidence, hicroglyphic texts, clatcs and iconography

reveals a fascinating and unresolvcd mystery revolving around a woman. Once
as "\(/oman of Tikal" or simply "Lady Tikal" she is another example of
thc power of womcn that prevailed throughc)ut the history of this city. Her
rrame glyph combincs the sign for "woman" and the emblen-r glyph for "Tika1."
Her role w:rs important enor-rgh to involve two carved stelae in association with
the tomb of a very prominent male in Burial r6o.
The inrportance of the man in thc burial hinges on thc identity and parentage of the woman associatcd with him through the inscriptions on Stclae z3
ancl 25, both located neal: thc pyran'ridal structurc under which the malc was
buried. Adjacent to thc pyramid was an added platform that covercd the br-rria1
of a woman (Burial r6z). This small temple and its associated stelae were
Iocated in the distant forest far from the city center, far from the North Acropolis, burial placc of kings, and yet the male burial is clearly as rich as any
royal gravc. The stelae both refcr to the woman.2-5 Stcla z3 was dedicated to
Lady Tikal and was probably cornmissioned and erected by her. It is one of the
very few monLlments at Tikal dedicated directly to a woman and thc only
one in the Early Classic period. The monumenr srares that she was born in
.a,o 5o4.26 The stela sr-rfferccl severe defacement, 1ikely at the hands of Tikal's

knowrr

'Xloman

of

TikaL

(]H AN G I.] AND C]LIALI-

T.,N

(]

T.

irrvrrclcrs. Flanking figr-rrcs on the siclcs clcpict:r n.ralc ancl fernalc, probably
pitrcltt figures for thc rlaiu figure o1r thc front. The tert rllso inclucles rr probablc
accessiot.t clatc at AD irr. These datcs suggest that a rnember of the reigning
lir-re:rge (fcnrnlc?) tvrts seatecl at thc age of six,vears rrs an ahaLr, but r-rot necessirrily as a kine (or cluccn).
Stclr z; rvas locatecl abclut zoo n-i clistirnt frorl stmctur:c 7F-1o u'hich covers
thc ro,val burials. It hacl been brcll,v mutil:itecl and fragnrentecl. Flankilrs portraits of a nralc iurcl fctr-rale are b:rrcly visible on thu sidcs ufiile rhc nrain ligurc
is too baclly disfigurecl to clisccrn its sex. Of thc lcngthy text o1r the rear onl1'tire
clcdicatioLr date relri.lins tclling us thet this stcl:r:rt least rvas placecl in eo -5r7.
This muv also be the clatc of placen-rent for Stcla z j :rs r,r'c11.
It ts the tonrb in Bnrial r6o that flrcs thc irlagination in this gror-rp. T'he main
figure is clclr-ly au aclult malc acconrpaniecl by rich burial goocls. Thcsc are
highlightccl b1'a n.tosltic mask (i//. y6), an artif:rct n.raclc of greenstonc, shell ancl
bitunrct't that l.ras conrc to herald the high qLrality of rrrtistic:rchicvcrnent at
Til<al. A ntrt.uber of fcattlres in the tomb lead to this nr:rn's iclentification as
"Lorcl Quetzal" (l('uk'AhLru). Gravc goods inclr-rc'lccl the skelcton of a cltrctzal
bird laid betrvecn bis legs. Also thc hookecl bill on the heaclclrcss of his rrask

taken by L,dtt'ard Crotl<er t.uho ,tssistetl itt

tIte t:xL:ttttrtticttt. Bottcs, idtlc

'ttttl

prt:tlomintnt rcd cinntl.,rtr dre t1'pit:tl of

rol,aL btrri,tl.
16

(right)

The ntort.u,n'\' mt.sk frott Burittl

of i;tde, shr:ll, ttncl bitumen.

L6o tt,ds m'ttle

Probabh' that of the r8th nilcr of '7'il:.dl,

thc buridl dttt.es tct tbe e,trltt 6tlt ct:nturt'.

rale, plobably

probablc
,f the reigning

des a

ltot necessar-

>

which covers

Flanking porre main figure

rear only the

:ed in eo 5r7.
nrp. Tl-re main

ds. These are

one, shell and
:hievenent at

rntification

as

of a quetzal
s of his mask
:r

tus BuridL r6o,

ho assistetl in
md
re tl,pical of: a

sk

from BuriaL
dnd bitumen.
ler of Tikal,
6th centurtt.

CHANG

-h,

AND CIIALLl.,N

GE

resentblcs the s:,tnrc bird..fust as First Crococlilc had:r crocodile skcleton irr his
tomb, reflccting his natle, thc lord in Burial r6o nray havc usecl tl-re cluetzll
(k'uk') as his ni,rmc emblern. The idcntity of thrs man is not known. Hc nray
have marriccl irrto tl-re faguar Claw clan througl-r his q'ife (\(/oman cif Tikal?)
i'urcl have bccu a fore igner to thc citi'. |1. may irlsci have servcd as a nrler
- thc
missirtg rttler r 8 woulcl fit into the timc schenre. Coggins suggestccl that having
r.vcalth aucl pou'cr thror,rgh marriirgc lvith a rncmber of tl-re dircct ciynarstic lir-re,
that 1-re lvas bur:icd by hrs rvife with the cerenrony duc his st:rtiori bur at a location removecl from the city cen[er, perhirps at the insistence of other mcnbers
of the f:rn-rily.27 His denrise by nrr-rrcler has even bcen suggcsrecl. F,r,cnrually this
uoblc wonan l-rilcl herself br-rried (Br-rrial r6z?) in the sarrc locality, adjaccrrt to
hcr hr-rsbirncl, but rvitl'ror-rt cerenrony. It is of note that this groul-r is locirted in
the far solltheastern cluarter of the city, :r location u'hich fones has arguecl rvas
on a tradc rotlte entry to Ttkal. lt ntay have helc'l sonre spccial econ,rntic ol pcrsonal sigtrificance to the "roval" merlbcrs of thc faniily u'ho havc not left thcir
clear nrark as rncmbers of the Jagr-rar Clau' lineagc. T'he nronuments that
accompall,Y thc grave site were probably clcstroved durir-rg a r:aicl upon the city from C,aracol perhaps, rvhich lics in this clirection - ancl tl-rcli subseclucntly rescr
with rcvcreuce in their c1:rrn:,rged condition. The precisc expliurarior.r of the
rolcs of these obviotrs mcrnbers of thc royal family rerr:rins unr:csolvecl.
Onc final
surrouuds this mini-saga. Thc stela numberecl r4 rvas
'ttystery
fottnd se t on thc North Tcrrace. It wrrs a bcltton fragnier-rt r,vith c:rr.,,ing or.r all
f<rur siclcs that seem to n'ratch the stylc of Stel:r 2,5, but hacl beerr rcser backwards r'vith the glyphic tert facing olrtwarcls. It is possible that this rs the
nrissiirg base of Stela 2.5 transportcd by someone all the way fronr Tikal's
tt,tltllc:ltl qtlilrlef lt.t.l< to tltt'.'iti Lcr)[Ll for I \'L'rento11i;11, lr1;1 ittc,,r'rcr't,
sctting. Thc suggestion of long tnemory and:rtteltpt at repar:rtion is strolts.
Despite all thc unansrvcred cluestions this cluster of eviclencc, Stelae 23, z5 ancl
14 as wcll as Burial r6o (iLL.55) irre rrolv al1 associatecl with the rSth rtrler of
Tikal.

t,.{)l

wo

q
Cl'rrn-)

Ctrrl LL-,tJ

98

Curl Heacl

Thc rgth rulcr bears thc name of "Ctrrl Hcacl," u,hich was establishecl by Jones
fcir lack of :rtry other rcading iurcl h:rs rernilinecl in the literatlrre so f:rr. M:rrtin
ancl Cr.be fccl tl-rat thc Curl Hcad glyph is :r gencric titlc and that the true
name of this ruler is I(alonrtc B:rlarnrs ("Ruler" Jaguar) . I(nor.vn fron-r botl-r
Stelae ro and rz, this personage's only securely knowlr cl:rte is Ar) j27 which has
been tal<en as thc clate of clcdicatron for both stelae as rvell as for hrs prolrable
datc of accessiort to powcr. There is a cluestion as to his clairr of legitirrac,v to
thc Jaguar Cllaw line:rgc. He n.ray indeecl have been a usllrper. Both nronunrents
stocicl ou the North Terracc fronting t1-re Grcat Pl:rza.r and erhibit the ver,y cleep
relicf that hac'l come to bc fashionable ar rhis time irt Tikal. C)n Stela ro (itt. ;7)
thc kirtg stillids f:rcing the front witl-r heacl turned to the vicrver's left:rrrcl holcls
his right harrcl aloft displaying a now croded objcct in thc fashion of Srorury

The lord ltnc.

Kalonttc Btrlttm

.;7

It tuas cttn,ecl in
Ittte part of the
the t,iett.,er's left.
Sky's gesturc

chopping" of

referencc to a,
rrrr-rl and Tikal

Jaguar Claw III

A parentarge st

Claw Ill, mak

Head. There i
back on chror
frorn ir vcry in

skeieton in his
ed the quetzal

rown. He may
ran of Tikal?)

saruler-the
thar having
dynastic line,
but at a iocather members
ed

ventuall,v this

adjacent to

:y,

r is located

in

ls argued was
nomic or pcr-

rnot lefr rhcir

lunents th:lt
pon the cit1, )quently rcset

ration

of

the

rlved.

rered 14 was
an'ing on all
1 reset backLt this is the

[rom Tikal's
rt incorrect,
on is strorrg.
re 23,

z5 :rnd

r8th ruler of

;7 The lorcl knoun ds "Ourl. Heatl" or

Kalctmte BttLdm displal,s his gLory on Stela ro.
in the daep relief styLe of the
pdrt of the EdrLl'Clas,sic periotl facing
lltc rit ttr'r': l, ll. t l,, d.t!,'is ttt ;t7.

l.t tuas carued

Late

red by.fones

far.

Martin

hat the truc

L

from both

whrch has

rus

plobable

gitimacy to
ll0nLlnlents
re ve ry deep
a

rc (ill.

y)

t and holds
of Stormy

ski"s *.rrt,.e or.r Ste]a 3r. The tcxt on Stela ro also refers to a.,cutting ancl
chopping" of the seat of title that refers to calakmul. This may be a definite
refercr-rcc to a skirmish in the growi'rg animosity berween the polities of
calakmul anci Tikal which took place r_rndcr this man's rulc.
III (Chak Toh Ich'ak III)2e
A parcntage statement or stela r7 statcs that the father of ruler 2r was
faguar
CIaw IIl, rlaking him the zoth ruler arrd her.rcc nexr in successior.r after Curl
Hcacl. Thcre is no stela lirmly associated with thrs rulcr, which leacls us to fall
bilck on chronologl' to scek possible ir.rformation about him. A cluc cories
frorr a very important a'd beautifr-rlly carvcd monumenr, Stela z6 (ilt . y g) .
Jaguar Claw

Called the Ret

the temple of Str
Reconstructing t
chapter of Tikal
Caracol resulted
re-assembled

an<

SD-l+. Much lat

time more piece
increasing violet
and cohesion of
evidence of this

carved monumer
and tenuous, all

Double Bird (Yax

Double Bird is rr
acceded on the e
Jaguar Claw III

that a successio

reported that Fir

we know from

ing that known

tior-rships have h

Double Bird's dr
ahau of Tikal.

Double Bird's

ing to note thal

Copan, one of

"double bird"

<

founder of Cop,
-;8 Texfs on the sides of Stela z6 are carued in carefuL reLief, but the incompLete sttlte
preseruation preuents positiue identification of the ruler who ordered it tct be made.
Prctbably it tuas commissioned b1t Jdguar Clatu lll.

of

The carving that remains on Stela z6 is erquisite, in deep relief and well prescrvcd. It is a grcat pity that so much of the stela is lost - only a basal fragment
has survived. No dates have survived on this monument. Records from other
stelae suggest that thc fragmcntary inscription deals with a parenta[ie statement
preceding the announcemerlt of accession to power of the next in line. Thc next
available date at Tikal is from Stela 17 associated with the ncrt, the zrst ruler,
named Double Bird (see below). The earliest date on Stcla 17 is el 53730 and is
interesting as the date of Double Bird's accession. This same date would fit well
for Jaguar Claw III as his probablc death date in the same year. Such a reconstruction is made by decluction and not from any direct evidence.

Bird's accession

have emerged b1

expressing tl
assumed the nat
in the zrst ruler
species, but the
this personage.

of

The inscripti,
However, most
interesting bits
calied "Flint M<
city of Caracol
date on the stel

erection of the

CHANGE AND CHALLENGE

Called the Red Stela, Stela z6 was excavated by Edwin Shook in r958 inside
the temple of Structure sD-l+ above the tomb of First Crocodile (Yar Ain I).
Reconstructing the history of this strange location from what is known for this
chapter of Tikal's misfortunes, it is assumed that a major raid, possibiy fr:om
Caracol resulted in the breaking up of Stela z6.Later, the recovered pieces were
rc-assernbled and buried with ceremony under a masonry altar in the temple of
SDS+. Much later, in Postclassic times, the altar was itself desecrated, at which
time more pieces of the stela may have been lost. These events testify to the
increasing violence of the latter half of the Early Classic period. The power
and cohesion of Tikal was coming under dire stress and test, and the physical
evidence of this stress is apparent in the destruction of the public record of
carved monuments. This evidence for the reign of Jaguar Claw III is secondary
and tenuous. all that remains due to the violence of the times.
Double Bird (Yax K'uk'Mo')
Dor-rb1c Bird is reported on Stcla 17 as the 2rst ruler of Tikal, assumed to have
AD 537. The same inscription reports that
accedcd on the earliest stela date
^t
Jaguar Claw III was his father. This is the first time in the Early Classic period
that a successiori from father to son is dircctly recorded since Stormy Sky
reportcd that First Crocodile was his father some ro rr.rlers in the past and now
we know from Stela 40 that I('an Ak claimed Stormy Sky as his father extending that known father:-son connecrion onc more generation. Succeeding relationships have had to be inferred from the dates and the succession statements.
Dor-rble Bird's datc of accession to power is recorded at AD j3Z presumably as
ahau of

Tikal.

as yet, and it is interesting to note that a highly similar narne glyph for the founder of the city of
Copan, one of Tikal's allies represents an intertwined quetzal and macaw. This
"double bird" combinatiort is translated at Copan as Yax I('uk' Mo'. The
founder of Copan diccl in AD,{l j, one hundred and two years prior to Double
Bird's accession in Tikal. Indicatior-rs of a strong alliance between the two cities
have emerged by this timc. A sharing of a ruler's patronymic would be one way
of expressing that alliance and the suggestion here is that this ruler of Tikal
assumed the name of Copan's founder in a gesture of solidarity. The two birds
ir-r the zrst rulcr's r-rame glyph are not clearly enough preserved to identify their
species, but the probabrlity seems good that we have another Yax K'uk' Mo'it-t

Double Bird's name has not been translated in Maya

nplete state

of

c be made.

and wellpre-

basal fragment
rds

from other

tage statement
Lline. The rrext

the zrst ruler,

to
:

53710 and is
would fit well
Such a recon-

this personage.

The inscription on Stela 17 is very long, with a total of ro8 original glyphs.
However, most of it has bcen lost to defacement and erosion. One of the most
interesting bits of information left to us is the statement of conflict at a place
called "Flint Mountain." \7e know that this connotes a regiou in or around the
city of Caracol with which Tikal engaged ir-r a long and severe conflict. The last
date on the stela is el 55731 and this is taken to be the dedicatory date for the
erection of the monument. This is r katun, or zo years to the day, after the

Double Bird

CH

AN (] [, A N D CHAI-I,I.,N (i !,

of Doublc Bird to power in Tikal. It is also thc last clate to bc

rccorded at Tikal for the next ccntury and a quartcr. This long block of timc
u'ith rto rccorclecl clates is knciwr-r as thc "Hiatus" and is discussed in the ncrt
chaptcr. The Hiatr-rs spans the ch:rngc from thc Early tci Late Classic and so it is
very irrportant to the history of Tikal, as w.cll :rs ro the lorvland Maya ir-r
frcccssion

gencral.

The fin:rl date on Stela 17 is

likcly the date of Double Bir:d's cleath.

'or
Horvever, the great corrflict bctween Tikal ancl Caracol intcrvenes in the record.
It is froni the record of Caracol tl'rat we find the claiur that they defe:rred Tikal
irt eo 562r2 some five ycars later. Apparently this was a verv protractecl war, ancl
thc consequcnccs for Tikal werc severe. The w:rr apparelitly began under tl-re
rulc of Dor-rble Bird. The event in which Caracol won againsr Tikal is the first
recorcl iri t1-re Maya lowlands of a "star war,"l-l a war r,vhose timing is c'letermir.recl bv the positions of the planets, espccially vcnus. It is ironic that Tikal
wits the victilr in this llonlentoLls event silrcc Tikal itself wor-rld enaitgc actively
in nrany "stllr wars" ir-r its futurc.
Lizard Head II (E Te II)11
The zzrrd rttler of Tikal has been iclcntifiecl irs lyir-rg irr Burial r9,t on tl-re North
Terr:rce, bencath ter.nplc Srructurc iD-3z.His nan-re glyph has been describcd
as a jawless rcptili:rn hcad lvith t1-re tc sign irr its mor-rth and is repeatccl after thc
r 5th ruler. The tramc occrlrs in pairrted texts on two polychronrc tripod plates
rlccompirnyirrg the br,rrial.
Lizarcl Head's succession folloivs thc death cif Doublc Bird sometimc afrer
his cleclicatorv stcl:r in,+r 557. Thc clcfeat of Tikal by Caracol in er 562 may
hirvc prornptcd Doublc Bircl's clcath, ancl hence thc succession of Lizard Head.
His tomb under 5D-jz follows rhe parrern of the prcvious North Terrace
temple burials established by First Cr:cicoclile and Storrrrv Sky with a placcment
progrcssior.r fron-i rvest to cilst thror-rgh time, but not il-l an unbr:oken succcssiorr,
since tcn rulers intcrvene bctween Stormy Skv and Lrz.ardHeacl.
Liz.ard Head's rame has beerr rcportecl from a number of other painted
vessels, ttot frotn his torrb ancl thcse n-ray bc references tci thc Tikal rr-rler in
solltc other coutext fronr outsic'lc the citv The cer:rmics ancl other contents of
his grave compler arc from the beginnirrg of thc Ik ceramic phasc but show a
continuing interest irr srucccicd and paintecl objects (iLl. 1il. Ncu' kinc'ls of
objects cmergecl fr:on-r this romb, objccts of pcrish:rblc mareri:rl that h:rd been
treateci with:r stlrcco/paint surfacing. Thesc inciuclecl fotrr carved {igurirres of
the cleity I('awil (ilL.50), whose nanrc is usecl by many Tikal rulers; a wooder.r
yoke (from tl-re Maya ballgame); and sruccocd gourcls. The fragiliry of s.ch
itcms makes their archaeological recovery quite rarc.
While the contents of Lizard Hcad's tomb tell us little abor-rt r,vho hc was arrd
who his par:cnts werc, they clo tcll Lls that the Early Clirssic periocl at Tikal had
rcachecl a clirnax of artistic style and that tiris stvle was distinctive to the citv

@l.IV andilL6r).
r02

N
mog

19 (aboue) Buri,
Temple yD- jz o
attributed to the
Head ll. The bu
wooden and stu

6o

(right) Four:

in the tomb

as a

preserued suffici
here. OriginalLy

thelt are now cd

poILrer.

last date

to

of time
in the next
rssic and so it is
lrland Maya in
g block

;sed

Le

:s

defeated Trkal
racted war, and

iming is deterrnic that Trkal

/'[\

Bird's death.
in the record.

egan undcr the

likal is the first

til

/t

be

l5

/d"*\
_ rln:o
rt.--ato
x
\

17
IJ

25

.-/

engage actively

_2

C}
j

on thc

North

been described
reated after thc
e

1,
ffi

\"j,

rl

tripod plates

\ar

iometime after
in eo 562 may
ILizard Head.
\orth Terracc
rh a placement
:en

\45

l
\

succession,

IM

other painted
Tikal ruler in
er contents
Lse

of

but show a

New kinds of
that had been
:d figurines of
ers; a wooden

grlity of such
ho he was and

I at Tikal had
ive to the city

59 (aLtoue) BuriaL 19J was discctuered beneath

Temple .1D-32 on the North Terrace and is

attributed to the zznd Lord of Tikal, Lizard

Head II. The burial contained mctny cctmplex
ruon,len and slu,,o,'d oblccts.
6o (right) Four ruooden figurines uere found
in the tomb Lts A set. Three ctf them were

l)reserued sufficientLy tct dispLay ds shoun

here. OriginaLllr identified as the four chacs,
they ttre nou cdLled k'awils, the deities ctf
potaer.

CHANGF- AND CHALI,F,NGE,

Name
Yax A

(First
Siyah
(Storn

K'an I
(Yello'

Chak

(Jaguz

ETcl

(Lizar
r6th r

],

,t'

rTth r
NUK

(Lord
Kalon

6r

Reconstruction dratuing b1t H. Stanley Loten of the North AcropoLis and Great PLaza
with the Central AcropoLis in the backgrottnd. The time period is in the earl1, 9th century.

(Curl
Chak

(Jaguz

Yax K

(Dout

The Iater half of the Early Classic at Tikal saw a shift from artistic influcnce
from the Mexican Highlands back into a distir-rctive Maya style. However, the
influence of warfare that came from the highlands had a disastror-rs cffect. Thc
animosity bctween Tikal and Calakmr,rl shiftcd thror-rgh a series of alliances
alternating with attacks upon a variety of cities, almost all of which is known
from outside Tikal. This great metropolis fell silent as it suffered a major
defeat.
ro4

ETcl.

(Lrzar

CHANGE, AND CHALLENCE

Table

Chronology of Early Classic Til<al kings

Timc span AD 4o2 * AD .562 (r6o ycars)

Name
I
Crococlilc)

Yax Ain

(First

l('awil
Sky)

Source

el 4oz(?)
AD.+zo

kalor.ntc
clied

Stel:r

4rr
426
ru 456
AD,+57
lo 45 8

ah:ru
kalomte
diecl
torr-rb painting
buried

Stcla

Al)

(Storrny

s,o

Ak
Pcccary)

(Ycllow

r3th ruler (no

(.f

8
468
Ar) 475
eo 488?
eu

45

ao

narne) ro 488?

Chak Toh Ich'ak

Euent

Siyah Cl'ran

I('an

II

RulerNo
rorh

3r

Stela 5, ElZotz.

aheu

Stel:r 4o

Stcle

clcclic:rted Stela

ruling
cliecl?

4o

rrth

3r

Stcla 3r
Stcl:r 4o
BLrrial 48

r2th

4o

Stcla 4o
Stcla 9

Stcla;

accession?

Stcla

r 1th

AD

49j

ruling

Stela 7,

AD

qc17

ruling

Stcla

r,5

r4th

aguer Clarv II)

E Te

i{

Date

ith

(Lizard Head l)

il

r6th ruler (no

name)

no

datcs

rTth rr.rler (no

name)

AD

tr4

el 5rr?

I('uk'Ahau?

"bJack

rulirrg
accession irs

al'rau?

pot"

r6th

Stcla

rTth

Stel:r

z3

Stela

ro

rgth

Stela

17

zoth

Stela

17

zrst

8th

(Lorcl Quetzal?)
AD

527

:rccession?

AD

,sl7

prob:rble

Yax l('r-rk'

AD

(Double

AD

517
537

Stela 17

562 ?
Ll:rte

Burial r95 (5D-3.)

Balam?

Italomte
td Gredt I'Laza
,ly

9th century.

(Curl Head)
Chak Tbh Icl'r'ak

lll

deatl'r

(Jaguar Claw III)

stic inflr-rence
However, the
rs efTect.

The

L,

Te

Mo'?
Bird)

I1?

(Lizard Hcad

el
II)

no

.tcce

ssiun
clcdication

:rcccssion

Stcl:r 17

Crr:rcol Alter

zztrd

of aliiances

ich is known
)red a maior

ro5

tl

Preclassic

A rchitccturr

bc oveilookr
plexiry. This

initial
(8oo

scttle

nc-ao

arc cliscussec

A najor

classic perio

ambitions o{
archite

ctr_rre

u'ork forces I
strLlct projec

the Lost

Wor

enlivcnccl thi

creating sLtcL
last phasc of
strlrcture in :
bcing slightly

nrillennium, i

approachcd tJ
The Classir
:rnalysts this

ness devised

pagoda-likc r

covcrecl cxten
clccoration. B,
impressive. T
cnrphasizing c

6z lor s(t)erLtl ct'nttrries t.ltc .,ost \,/or.rLl I't,rdntid tt,ts the

t:al.l.ast slructur( at Tikal,
ttr-trtlt sidc follcttt,irt.g(,xc,tt,,ttrutr,rn,!
1,.111i,,1 rJ,.r,rtstrtction.

seL,n

/tr:rc frctm tbt

are scldorn si
contcr - that
Jain architectr

to clccorate

an

opposites. Tht
broken into ve

ture (ill. e4S.\

CHAPTF,R SF,VF,N

ARCHITE,CTURE AT TII(AL

Preclassic through Early Classic

here

from the

Architecture at Tikal is a sr-rbjcct worthy of a voh-rn're of its own whicl-r cannot

be overlooked here. The subjcct is divided ir.rto two parts becaLlse of irs complexity. This chapter deals in a cursory fashion with styles and shapes fron'r the
initial settlement in the Middle Preclassic until the end of the Early Classic
(8oo nc-en 55o). The even lrrore compler br,rt better known Late Classic styles
are discllssed in Chapter Twelve.
A major spurt of physical and conceptual growth occurred in tl-re L:rtc Preciassic period at Tikal both in terms of the size of the population and in the
ambitions of architcctural size. For the first tin're we find monlrmentality in the
architecture at a level that demar.rds recognition of a high civilization. Large
work forces had to be free frotn thc pursuit of food procluction in order to construct projects on the scale that was achieved both in the North Acropolis and
the Lost World Pyramicl grollp. A populatron of several thor-rsand musr have
enlivened this city in order to producc an independent kingdorn capable of
creating sr-rch grand architectural towcrs. The Lost World Pyramid, up to its
last phase of constructioli in thc Early Classic period, rcmained the highest
structure in Tikal until thc cnd of the 7th centlrry AD, at over 3o m in height
being slightly higher th:rn Structure 5D-zz on the North Acropolis. For half a
millelinium, it was this structure that lirst broke the horizon for visitors as they
approached the city of Tikal from any direction (ill. 6z).
The Classic style of Tikal architecture was born cluring this period. To somc
analysts this style has appearcd severe by comparison to the baroqr-re ornareness dcvised at other Maya citics such as Palenque with its florid arcl-res and
pagoda-like roof lines. Thc distinctive style of thc Pr-ruc region in Mcxico
covered exterior wall spaces with masks in a litany of prayer Lry architectural
decoration. By ccin'rparison, the Tikal style is indeed severe, but not one bit less
impressive. The architectural style of Tikal plays with light and shadow,
emphasizing change of plane rn both horizontal arrcl vcrtical surfaces. Corncrs
are seldom single sharp angles. Instead the plan lirre has an inser - a falsc
corner * that emphasizes the real corner with a brackct on both sicles (l//. 63).
Jain architecture in the roth to r,+th centuries in Inclia utilized the sarnc clevice
to decorate and ernphasizc corners. Vertically, thc change of plane toycd with
opposites. The slope of a terrace that characterizes the steppecl pyramid was
broken into vcrtical parts, representing clcments from a sirnplc thatched structwe (ill.64) . Where the basal platform of a house would be, riow rhere was ar.r
ra7

6 j (Left) The atJdition of shadow pLanes

through the use of corner insets can be seen
on the multiple plcttform corners of TempLe
II. This feature is most comm()n tuith tem'ple
structures and may be d functional identifier.

6q (lteLou) A group of thatched hotrses in

San Jose, Peten, shotuing the use of rock
pldtforms as the house base, u prdctice that is

seueral miLlennia olcl. Also note the

horizontul, functional tuaLl diuiders shotuing
through the daub.

6; (right) The interior rooms in Structure

5D-61 from the CentraL Acropolis shotu the
effect of a pLastered, finished roof uault.
66 (far right) The use of side insets, on the
ctthen.uise plain sides of tempLes, credtes .tn

interpLay of horizontaL and uertical Lines dnd

plttnes ltroducing d compLex shddc,ttu dnd
light pattern that adds liueLiness to the

structure.

inset, as if tht
hang breakin

these features

tive house ar
meanir-rg (lll.

utilized clean

shadow over
masks and s(
devised durir
embellishmer

recognized al
larger geogre
ltLt.67).

During tht
masks were

ou) planes

ts can be seen
rs of TempLe
n with tempLe

cnal itLentilier.
td houses in
;e

of rock

ltrdctice thdt is
e the

iders showing

n Structure
'tlis shou the

'tof uault.

nsets, on the
ls, credtes dn

tical lines and

adotu and
to the

:s

if

the step werc rea1. Above that is a recessed panel, and therl an overhang breaking the sloped line of thc platform surface. The Maya introduced
rhese featr-rres as colnpressiol'ls of the vertical profile of the most ancient prirnitive hor-rse and thus created a series cif shadow-lines that had iconographic
rrleaning (ilL. 6l). These rwo dcvices, the vertical ancl the horizontal line breilks,
utilized cleiur lines of architecturai constfllctiotl to create a play of light and
shadow over the surfaccs of a temple or palace, in aclditron to decoration with

inset, as

masks and sculptr-rres (ill.66) . The horizontal and vertical line breaks were
devisccl during the Preclassic period and remairted throughout time, with
embellishment, a de{ining fcature of the Tikal style. This style has come to be
recognized as the "Cetttral Peten sty1c" it-t architectufe, characterizing a much
larger geographic area than 1r-rst Tikal itself, wher:e it was appirrently invellted

(ill.6t).
During thc Preclassic and also into the early part of the Eariy Classic period,
masks werc used to adorn the facades of platforms, as on the supportive

:t.tl

t::

l::..

, #1.{"1rr..
I {,! .'.11 .1, { ..a:
..,,r',,r.,r..,,.,,.rr.,,r,,.::,::.,ir,,,,,,'..,,,,,.,,,,,:,

iliK

:,,l.::l$,
:r,s*:r$t$r$i$*::.,i,tl',:.$,16;;,:::l1.,

,,,,

..

6, (lalr) AIthou
ruor ItLlest lt:rttp

slt,lt,'I ttrtPlc I i
rutt,rintrl Iht Ii
cxuttltlif't'tng tlt
,rrt ltitt'L tttre fr.tu

ail

T/.'ls rc.onst

tlt'L'rtr,rlit'a Ptne
Tarrrltla ll sltott'
stt

tl t'

r' r t

r,t / i r t tt

ptrts of' ltLtliic

nr tn t'l I t t' I c s s t'

l,tl

pvmnricl of tl'

cst of tt lllcs. L
utilrzccl r'ertic

zoncs rncl thr

surfrrcc rtf tht
tion bclolr, tl
(.lrrssic Pcr:ior

'.{

rirt::Yl:l:.:,
::

\r,
a*
:$

g.lil

67 (left) Although neither the earliest

n<tr tdllest temple buiLt in this uerticaL

style, Temple I in the Great plaza hds

n m.tinr'd tlt,' liktl 'pin-up"
c.r,' m pl i lf i nq t lt,, sp,.ri r st.vl,. o
fi
I
artki!,'rlutt lorrnrt, J a! tltis citv.

68 Tbis reconstruction of

decora_tiue panel on the upper zone ctf

Temple ll shous that euen though
such decordtion ul.ts lintited tct lertain

f.trt; oI puLlii
nonet

h e le

buil,ltns. i/ r,.rs

s cl.db orate.

pyramid cif thc Lost world strucrure, and this usc

seerns ro go back to the earli_
est of rinres. U'iike orher parrs of thc Maya
lowla'cls, thc aichirccture of rikal
utilized verrical surface decoratior-r onry on the sr-rpportive
platforn-rs, the
zones a.id the roof combs of rt.,-r.t,-rre (ilLs.a,i
'pper
trg). Decoration or-r
the
surface of thc walls of a tcmpre" or paracc was very "na
r:lre at Tikar. Mask dccoratio' below the level of a structurc's uppcr ror-r. f.lr ir.,,o airur. in the Late
Classic Pcriod, when the Tikal style ir b.rt clelined
:tncl at irs
mosr ausrere.

69 (left) The upper zone

tnd ruo[ ;t,tnL, oI Tcmplc
lV is likely the physicol'ly

largest spreaJ

of

decoration n 7-ikal. Tht

seated king facing east in
the center of the roof

comb is bdreltt uisihl.p

ARCHITECTURE AT TIKAL

Architecture and style at Tikal

An architectural stylc goes much beyond such cluestions of surface treittlrent.
A brief outline here of the variability irr architcctural styles at Tikal may be
useful to the reader at this point, since it becomes increasingly importanr in the
progression of the city's history.
The story of architectr-rral dcvclopment of the ancient Maya reaches f:rr
beyond tl-re limits of Tikal. Thc forms :rnd variations of architectr,rre had their
origins in the lowly Maya house, a thatched-roofcd structure macle of pcrishable rnaterials, r-rsually known as wattlc-and-daub in tire Old Wcrrld. The Maya
version of wattle-and-daub was a simple building with walls of sticks, woven
together by vines and then covered by mr,rd and stucco, ancl final1y whitewashed
(see ill.64).Thc roof was the most complicated affair. A series of beams and
trlrsses were held togcthcr by vines and then covercd with a series of layers of

palm thatch (ill.7o). The type of palm r.rsccl varied by region. In Tikal it is
called "guano" palrn whrch has nothing to do with bat dung (the other
meaning of the word), but is simply a local variant of the fan palm (l/1. 7r ). The
elements that makc up a stone stnlcture are all derived from the basic wattleand-claub house. The way in which these elemcnts are used varied from region
to rcgioir. Thc Tikal variety of style is one of the most elegantly simplc in the
Maya area.
Structures built entircly of stone, mortar, ancl lill comprise only a srn:rll
portion of Maya architccture, since the thatchecl pcrishable br-rilcling was
nun'rcrically far more corrrnon in encient times and is still with r.rs today In
theory, the perishable versiolt was devcloped around the same timc as agriculture was introduced in the area, around r5oo BC or earlier. Its fonn has changed
little, and can still be seen today in al1 parts of the Maya area. It is the stone
structures th:rt evolvccl differently in different areas, which brings r-rs to thc
qucstion of local style.
A major distinction is made betwecri pldtforms and structures. \7c have used
both words up to now without an explanation. Some pl:rtforms are very large
and were designed to support morc than one structure. The North Acropolis,
for example, embodies a number of sr,rch platforrns, car.rsing it to be raisecl
above the surrouncling tcrrain, and justifying the usc of the term "acropolis" or
"high place" borrowed from the Classical worlcl. Other platforms are relativcly
sn-rall and are designed to support and raise a single structure. A structure may
have more than one elevating platform, stacked in diminishing sizc, creatini
the effect of a pyramid. This was the case with the Lost World Pyramid and
with all buildings clescribed as pyramids at Tikal (pl. VUI).
On the other hand, strllcturcs have a number of separatc components when
the profile is considered. At the base there is usually a "building platform"
which is conccptualized as an integral part of thc whole strllcture) and cliffercnt
from othcr larger platforms described abovc. The br,rilding itself is vcrtically
diviclccl bctwcen a lower and upper z-one. Thc lower zone includes the building

rtz

7o

(righr)

The

structure requir
house roof is a

ancient techniq

uines, and entir'

Local products t

system is still u:
house was unde
the Tikal uillag

7r (beLow) The
thatching can

uarious stages

i,

as

it

was being

walls, while t

that supportl
which the M

between the t
of a pressure

architecture I
key stone of t

The three
lower zone w

itive perishaL
ing's base; tl

ARCHITECTURE AT TII(AL

7o

tce

treatment.

Tikal may be
portant in the

a reaches far

their
of perish-

rure hacl
rde

ld. The Maya

sticks, wovct-r
whitewashed
rf beams and
:s of laycrs of

In Tikal

it

is

Lg (the other
t

(ill.7r).The

basic wattleI from region

srmple in the

only a small
rurlding was
L us today. In
re as agriculhas

changed

t is the stone
lgs us

to the

We have r"rsed

very largc
h Acropolis,

Lre

to be raised
lcropolis" or
are

relatively

lructurc may
iize, creating

?yramid and
onents when
rg

platform"

rnd different
is vertically
the building

(right) The truss-and-beam

stru.ture required to create

house roof is a cctmpLex and uery

ancient technique. Tied onLy with

uines, and entirely created from
IocaL products of the forest, this
qtstem is still used today. This
house was undcr consttuction in
the Tikal uiLlage in r9 s9.

7t (belctu)

of roctf
in ils

The process

that;hing can

L.,c

secn

uarious stages in the Til<al uilLage,

it tuas being buiLt in t959.

ds

walls, while the upper zone is an erterior reflection of the stone corbeled vault
that supports the interior. This vault is a "corbeled arch," not a true arch,
which the Maya drd not achicvc. The difference lies in a "key stone" set
between the two srdes of corbeling. The Greeks and Romans realized the role
of a pressure receiver in this position while the Maya did not.lnsteacl, Maya
architecture relies r,rpon the cantilever principle with a capstonc instead of the
key stone of the true arch.
The three vertical components of a structure the building platform, the
Iower zone wal1s, ar"rd the upper zone in turn reflect the same parts on a prirnitive perishable structure: namely the stone platform that served as thc br-rilding's base; the stick and plaster walls, and the thatched roof, respectively.

ARCHITECTTJRE AT TII(AL

Bccause tl-re prototype roof was necessarily slantcd, the stonc version is usr-ia1ly
also slanted. h'r the Tikal style the dcgree of roof slant (in thc upper zonc) is
very slight, and son-retimes cven verticai. The Tikal architects wcre always
frugal in their interprctation of life forrns. At otl-rer regiorii,rl style sites, such as

roof sllrrr is very steep, morc ciosely reflccting the sl:lnt of a

thatched roof.
It is common for the Llpper zone to be decoratcd at Tikal while the lowcr
zone very rarely supports decoration. This is an item of styie which separates
the Central Peten style of regional arcl-ritectr-rre from other regious, where
decoration of the lower zotre is comrnot.t, especially in the nor:thern Maya
regions.
On the roof of the structure there may be another lcvel of decorative con-

Palenqure, the

struction called a "roof comb," which itsclf may be plain or decorated. At

Tikal thc prcsence of a tall roof comb is usr-ral1y an identifier of the fr-rr-rction of
a "temple," although its use is not restricted to thcrn. There arc other identifying fcatures to help distingr-risl-r between structures functioning as temples,
palaccs, or something else.

This question givcs rise to another archaeological problcrr in identifying the

fur.rction of a structnrc. At Tikal there is a gradual met2urorphosis thrcir.rgh
time in thc sl-rape of temples. In the e:rrliest stages of developmcnt the buildings
that we call ternples are wide and low in proportiort, with threc fror-rtal doorways. The simplest st:rtement, always subjcct to exceptiolls, is that by the Late
Classic period (and wc will talk about this much more irr a later chapter)

temples Lrccame taller: and narrower in proportion, with a single frontal

doorway. Thc effect of elcvating the tcrnple strllcture so that its sitrgle doorway
appcars to be located in thc heavens to the viewer on the gror,rnd below was a
style that was initiated in Tikal and limrted to a rathcr narrow distribution of
imitators in the central Peten region (see ill.57).
Structures that are called "pa1aces" are even more compler in their variation
of form. Because of the Maya habit of razing old structures to build ttew oncs,
little is known about palace strllctures in the Preclassic period. Remnants of
the basal platforms tell r-rs that they cxisted, br-rt dctails above this vertical lcvel
arc scant.
Palaces have bcen re-namec{ as "range-type structurcs" itt att effort at obiectivity which recognizes that most of these buildir-rgs have numerous roon-rs that

of ways.l The Central Acropolis of Tikal is a complex of

range-rype srructures that grew from the Late Preclassic r-rntil the collapse and
abar-rclonmcnt of the city. Most, br.rt not all, of its buildings are of the palace
type, although there arc very many cliffering fr"urctions involvcd, reflecting the
daily life of a royal couft. Only a handful of these buildings h:rve been identificd by function with any confidence, and only one served as a family residence. This one, Structure 5D-16,was the clan hottse of the f aguar Claw family
as described in Chapter Five.
More common than the elaborate stonc structures that make Tikal so
are ranged in a variety

rr1

spectacular are
called because tl
constructed enti
materials as des,
a simple house 1
plest level is a lc
cal evidence or

increases to in,
plaster finish. \

times had ston'

thatch. For a h
These were the

very poor for th

ranking officer

7z (aboue) Arcbc

excaudtes house :
uisible surface dit

d\Pedr on the Ti
excauations in th
" inuisible" strucl
feature of the cit

73 Qighr) The sr
TemPIe I (Structt

elements of this

oarallel structurt
ihe intcrior of rl
AcroPolis is in tl

ARCHIT-h,CTURE AT TII(AL
ersion is usLlally
e

upper zone) is

lts were always

rtle

sites, such as

; the slant of

while the lower

vhich separates

regions, where

rorthern Maya
lecorative condecorated. At
the function

of

other identifyng as temples,

identifying the
rhosis through
t the builc'lings

frontal door-

rat by the Late

later chapter)
single frontal
ingle doorway

below was a

listribution of
heir variation
rild new ones,
;

Remnants of
vertical level

fort at objecrs rooms that

a complex of
collapse and
the palace

rf

reflecting the
,e been idenL fanily resiClaw fan-rily

ke Tikal

so

spcctacular arc the much sn-raller and barely noticeable "housemounds," soca1led because there is seldom standing architecturc. These buildings wurc noI
constructcd entirely of stone, but incorporated varying amounrs of perishable
materials as described earlier. Depending upon the wealth of the house builclcr,
a simple house platform can have irs own range of complexity. At the very sinplest level is a low, crucle platform of carth and stone ofren lcaving littlc physical evidence on the surfacc (ilL. 7z). From this lowest levcl the cornplerity
increases to include sevcral tiers of platforms with well-faced stones and
plaster finish. 'Walls were sometimes built with low stone footir-rgs, and somctimes had stone constrLlction right up to the vault, which was srill madc of
thatch. For a house structure, the vault was always of perishable material.
These werc the houses of the people, ranging in cost of construction from tl-re
very poor for the peasant farmer to quite elabor:ate for the wealthy merchant or
ranking officer in the hierarchy of thc society.
7z (aboue) ArchaeoLogist Bennet Bronson
excduates bouse structures thdt had no
uisibLe surface dimension, a.nd thus do not
Ltppear ctn the TikaL ruins map. Test
excauations in the forest showed that such
"inuisible" structures tuere d common
feature of the city.
73 (right) The smaLl ballcourt adjacent to
Temple I (Structure :Dl4 shouts the
eLernents of this type of buiLding: two
parallel structures with sloping benches on

tbe interior ctf the "court." The Central

Acro1tolis is in the background.

ARCHITECTURE AT TIKAL

There exist other kinds of specialized structures whose functions are identifiable by their eclually specialized shapes. Eramples ir-rcludc the sweat bath
with low roof, fire pit and benches. Ballcor-rrts are a common and specialized
type of structure requiring the special features demar-rded by the balJgame - a
major feature of Classtc Maya ceremor-rial life (ill. Z). These features include
sloping side benches that bounce a struck bail back into the court, and scoring
markcrs which may or may not stiil be present. At Tikal the greatest number of
cxamples of these special function structures are known from the Late Classic
period. An Early Classic mural showing ballplayers was found near the Lost
World compler by Laporte, associated with the ravaged palace compler in
Group 6C-XVI.

Twin-pyramid groups are another architecturally specialized, loca1 feature

of Tikal and will be reserved for later description due to their importance to
Late Classic growth of the city.

VIII, IX

pLatforms creates the pyramid effect, which is most easily seen

on Temple I ruith its nini platforms and elegant prol)ortions. From below the temple

VIII A series of stacked

itself appears to be in the heauens.

After excauation and partiaL restoration, the palace compLex of Jaguar C'Laut I is
reuealed to be a nobLe and rc.,yal househoLd nou, knotun prosaicaLly as 1D-16.

lX

:tions are identhe sweat bath

rnd spccialized
e

balJgamc

latllres inch-rde

rt, and scoring

test nulxber

of

re Late Classic
I

near the Lost

ce

conplex irr

l, local feature
importancc to

VIII, IX

st edsill, seen
the tempLe

'Claw I
46.

is

WAR

Tl-rc prevalenc

of the cin, for

arircterizeci
of th
cffcct on thc v
mishes in thc

ch

cluctior-r

the

atr-ictttt'tt

cl

morc 1:tropcrll
n-rattcr of cle
cluring the tin
i.r

colltctllpofi

rnent :ls Pi'trt

have becr.r affr

actun iu the r

chrractcr Firt
Thc role ol
ancc :rttd ettn-

rootccl

ir-r

fan

ing rvouett

marriagc-bas
clid not preve

:rrnred confli
ships that lecJ
The tradrt

,to 5;o arld r

upon local e
rlajor clcfeat
Caracol,

wct

of

def,

clair-n

Caracol I'vhi

:incc r'r'ith Cl

Vith this,
unleiltsl no

ye:rrs. Nor v

ruler. Bccau

Reconstru,

Stelt t 6. but :

CHAPTE,R EIGHT

THE HIATUS:
WAR AND OUTSIDE DOMINANCE
Thc prevalence of wilrfare at Tikal is a featurc throughout the ilost of the life
rs
of th. city for which records arc available. Virtually the entire Cliissic period
irltrclcharacterjized by cscillatitlg warfare . Rcse:lrchcrsl havc arguecl tl-rat the
import'rut
en
atLdtLhacl
thc
as
ktlowt-l
cluction of the Mericilt.t spearthfowcr
effcct cin the w:ry warfarc *as .o,-rd,r.tcd nt Tikal. Before its introcluction skirlirrritcd
r.r.rishes ir-r tl-re forcst with sl-rort-clist2:rllce spears and hancl-l-relcl we:rpolls
(or
the ilmciunt of damage sr-rffered by the opposing forces. The spearthrciwer
thrusts a
n-Iorc properly clart-tl-rrowcr) changed a11 that ancl m:rcle long-distance
Tikrrl
to
irrtroducecl
been
had
r',-'0,,"r- oi d.o.1ly rlccllracy. This instrulnent
or'vl,l
dr,rring the time of Jaguar claw I. The person:lge kt-iown trs spearthror'ver
-f
tl-re instruo .or-,i",-,'porary :lncl possibie relative of .rguar: Cla'v I, eveu usecl

nlenrirspar:tof hisnarreglyph (seeilL.43).Thefirstgrcateventthatislikelytci

ancl Uaxhave been affected by this insrrument was thc conflict betwect-t Tik:rl
the
itcrr,lt i1i the micl-4th cclttLlry dcscribecl in Chapter Five in collllection n'ith
character Fire-Born.
gf alliThc role of warfare cle:rrly escalatecl frotll this carly date. The causes
or dispr-rtes
r,rrce and cr-rmity rlre presLlmecl to risc frorrr eithcr ecouomic sources
of marrydcvicc
rootccl in far-nilial clisscr-rt. Alliance wils often acl-rievcd by the
hacl sr"rch
ir.tg women of one city's royal family into th:lt of ancithcr city. Tikrl

of its neighbors, near .rtd far. Thcy

-ilrri,rg.-b"sed allia'ces u,ith a numbcr
ir-i
dicl nc,iprevcr-rt :r brcakclowrr of thc fricndly relationship which often er-rclecl
\i7e
relationtl-rese
kuow a little about
arntecl conflict betr,veen former allies.
Hiatus at Tikal.
the
cluring
continLled
iu-rd
ro
ships that lecl up
classic pcriod falls between
Eirrly
the
of
cnd
The traclitioiral .late for the
trilr-isitiou depencled
cr-rltural
Ar) _i.to:rnc1 6oo. At Tikal the cl:rtc of this mi'rjor

A
upon' loca1 evenrs which havc been blurred by the prevalence of warfare .
ltajor defeat of Tikal is recordcd i1 the year,l.r 562 1t thc hands 9f the city 9f
C,lracol, working in colir-rnctior-r with Tikal's agc-olcl enclny C:rlaknlul' This
claim of clefcat of the great capital of the Maya comes from a c:rrvccl altar irt
alliCaracol whilc other inscriptions frcim tl-ris soLltheastenl city tcll us of thc
irncc u'ith Ca1akmul.

finitive defcat, Tikal fcll silent. T1-rere are no knowu cilrvccl mourz5
Llmcrlrs, no ir-rscriptior-rs of any kind recordcd at the city for a periocl of
a
of
glory
for
the
years. Nor werc any strlrctlrres dedicated or lintcls ilrstalled
cultural
r,-,lcr. Bcc,ruse the silence falls prcciscly dr-rring the transition bctwcen
With this

Re

SteLLl

c1e

tonstrttctictn b\''lerrtt Rutledga of H,tsatt' in his glor,t'' ltased uport the image on
z,-rst in the Crcttt Plttzd.
16, but shotun in front ctf his first TemPle Project, ;D-',

THE HIATUS:'WAR AND OL]TSIDI, DOMINANC.h,

r20

periods, thc problern of arralysis of cvents is espccially difficult. Tl-re Hiatus

itself is uniclue to the city of Tikal.
However, the written voice from othel scctors of thc Maya lowlar-rds is r-r<_rt
silent during this periocl. \fhatever horrors were happening at Tikal dicl not

come later, or
subjugation f,

occur in the same way at other Maya cities in thc lowlands. The fact that
inscriptions are lacking at Tikal over this long pcriod of tin're does r.rot mean
tirat thcy hiid not becn nrade. Monuments may well l-ravc been erected with
texts, but are now lost. Christopherjones considers that this was a period of
intense monLlment destrr-rction. \Warf:rre was pr:evalent in the lowlatrcls in
glet.reral although Tikal was a particular focus an uncharacteristic loser dr-rring this silelit tin-re. The abscnce of surliving l.nonLlmcnts and texts is
:rssumed to be thc resr,rlt of domination or thc inrense conflict of the periocl.
The tomb of Lizard Head II (Burial r95) is associated with the transition
from the Early to Late Classic periocls as known Lry the contcnts of thc grave)
althor-rgh the ex:rct datc of the br-rrial is not known. It is qr-rite possiblc that this
rulcr and his br-rrial post-date the defeat of Tikai, ir-i which case Lizard Heacl II
rnily not be of clirect genealogical descent from a Tikal lineage at a1l. He is one
of the earliest rr-rlers of the Late Classic pcriod at thc site. This vagueness and
uncertainty is charactenstic of the change from the Early to Late Classic at
Tikal - it rcmains shrouded in nrystcry.
The Hiatus at Tikal spans fron-r AD 557, thc last recor:ded date on Stela r7,
until AD 682,-r thc first date rccorded for the activitics of the z6th ruler, Hasaw
Chan I('awil. While this niler was not the llrst rr-rler known to holcl sway over
Tikal at thc start of thc Late Classic period, he was the first to resrore a writren
recorcl to the city.
The fact that thc Hiatus of Tikal spans the change from one major cr-rltr-rral
period into the ncxt is surely not a coir-rciclcnce. Or-re has to ask why a unified
cultural systcm like that exhibitecl in the Early Classic pcriod, whrch had
already cndr,rred somc three-and,a-half centLlries, sl-roulcl undergo such profound changes as we sce in the Latc Classic period.
Thc erplar-rirtioti in part for such changc may be that the cultr-rral shifts wcre
l]ot as profourtcl to thc ancier]t Maya as they scern to us. These chrngcs consisr
primarily of the abarrdonrnent of old shapcs and influcnces in the ceramics
thc most plastic medium of Maya art. There are also char.rges in architcctural
fcirms. These shifts of stylc may reprcscnt merely a fading of the inflr-rcnce of
Teotihuacan in the r-nidst of internal conflicts irnd w:rrfarc. By the time of the
Hiatus, the highlancl civilizatiorr itself had dissolr.ed into oblivion. \X/hat
ernerged at Tikal was a very positive Maya form of art and architccture with
little or.rtside inflr-rencc. One could iirterpret the Early Classic period as a timc
whcn Tikal sttccumbed to thc inflr-rence of another culture which it viewecl as
sttperior, adopting its art forms and its mcthods ancl philosophics of warfare.
Tcotihuacan's infh-rence had led to a brief period cif glory for the ciry. However,
the focus of warfare took over the structure of society ancl cscalated throughor-rt the lor,vlands. For Tikal this enclccl in a nasty defeat. While rebirth would

told of a "chr
Mountain" a
of the city of
between the t
Informatio

The record
itself. The on

inscriptior-rs

and Nikolai
from outside

Caracol er
based upon f
provide a tex
rr-rler was ins
under the aur
z5). Furtherr
time in the pr

rivalry for dc
Calakmulbc
where trade

connected th

Iconograp
shared the sz
had dynastic
Jaguar Claw

tion, perhapr
the two citie

based on an,

from Calakr
polities. Eve

explanation
centuries is c

Mear-rwhil

new king ur

CaracolAlt;

according tc
by Tikal too
The installa

texts sugges
their neighb
flank. The g
while not in

THE HIATUS: WAR AND OUTSIDI, DOM]NANCE,

The Hiatus
lands is not

ikal drd not

he fact that
ls not fileall
,rected

with
of

a period

lowlands in
istic loser -

rnd texts
e

is

period.

was a perrod of
come later, one of the rcsults of the inflr.rencc of Teotihr.racan

subjugation for Tikal.

is sparse at thc site
The record of the final battle th:lt led to Tikal's Hiatus
in which Double Bird
itself. Tl-re onset of the strife was recorded on Stcla r7,
,,chopping/cuttir-rg" event taking place at a location ktrown as "Flint
told of a
ir-r the center
Mounrain" at1h" h"nds oi TiLol. This location is now idcntified
corrflict
lor-rg
a
of
of thc city of caracol, and the cvent marked the beglnning
betwcctr tlr,.' lwo cities.
gleaned from
lnformiltion abor:t Trkal's ensuing fortunes and misfortr-ines is
Martin
Sinron
beaten.
inscriptions at other cities that had not been similarly
texts
of
re:rdir-rgs
of
by way
n,-,.1 Nikolni Grubea have provided the sccuario
f

e transition
rf the grave,
ble that this

rom outsicle Tikal (see ill. 7 1) '

of alliance
Carac.l cntered into warfare with Tikal after an earlier period

gueness and

baseduponfanrilralinteractiotl.TheeventsleadinguptothcwarwithTrkal
\7e knoq fo_r example, that ir
or""ia" " textbook diagram of political intrigue.
tl-rc east of Tikal'
ruler was instailed o, ,i" .ity of Naranio, lying 4z kn. to
in en 5465 (Naranio Steltr
under the :,ruspices of the reigning king of calakmul
z5).Furthermorc'conflictwithCaiaknrulhadbeenirlprogressforquitesome

e Classic at

,i-"

rard Head
11.

II

He is one

on Stela 17,
uler, Hasaw
[d sway over
lre a written

rjor cultural
'hy a unified
which had
;o sr-rch pro.l

shifts were

nges consist
e

ceramics

lrchitectural
influence of
time of the

ivion. \ilhat
tecture with
od as a tirne
it viewed as
; of warfare.
ty. However,
ied through-

:birth would

rooted in tl-re
the power play betwcen the tw. cities that may have been
that Tikal ancl
rivalry for dominarlce over trade routes. we have to remember:
alternative places
calakmul both sit astride the per-rinsular divide :rnd thus are
route that
east-west
overland
wl-rere trade routes co.rl.l .ross in the h'rcrative
connected the Caribbean to the Usumacinta dr:rinage'
in common. They
Iconography sluigests that these two rival citles had a lot
j:lguar god ;rrrd both cities
shared rhc same protector dcity in the form of thc
claw at Tikal and Fire
had ciynasti. l.nders with relatecl lineage nAlncs, Jagu:rr
collvergences suggest an cven closer affiliaJogtt", Claw at Calakmul. These
patror-rs of
based on family ties ti-rat may havc once connected the
ir.,

iior.r, p.rhups

was
wor-rld not be the or-rly timc that enmity betwcen citics
yet
available
is
infoflnation
based on an earlier family connection. Not enor.rgh
oppe5i11g
two
the
for
from Calakmul to point to a comlnon dynastic origin-

the two cities.

lt

ties had becn a factor, tl-re most likely

Ooti,i.r. Even if deierioratecl family
warfare lasting a couple of
e"p1o,-rntior-, for a rivalry that escaiated rnto bloody
roLltes.
tracle
of
centuries is commercial: competition for control
Tikai, had installed ir
Mear-twhile, caracol, ,or'u. 7o km to the southeast of
e.n 553 (detes from
new king undcr the aegis of Tikal's ruler of the timein
ruler, Double Bird,
caracol Altar zr a,-rd stel" 6). This must have becl the Tikal
a king at caracol
of
instailation
accorcling ro rhe recorcl of known dates. This
tl-re sa're city'
witb
at war
by Tikal io.k place only thre e years before Tikal was
warfare' The
The instirllarion was litely a iailecl attempt at control without
to the clefectior-r of
texrs suggest that this acr on Tikal's part was a response
to Tikal's eastetn
close
thci, r-,.igi-,bor, the city of Naranjo, lying dangerously
of Tikal' and'
east
km
flank. The geography rs important' Naranjo is only 4z
Caracol'
while r-rot in a straight line, is located between Tikal and

THF,

HIA]'US:

$(1AI{

ANi) OTITSIDE DOX,{INANCE

Then in el 5.566 Tikal cnactecl a formal "axc war" against its fornlcr ally
Caracol.T This type of u'ar, symbcllizecl blr an axc, indicates a scriotls attack
with ir-rtcnt to dcstroy, but r,rnlike a "star war" u,as not detcrnlined by ritual or
astrclromical timing. Thc attacl< was apparently unexpected ancl hurt Caracol.
Thep, jr-rst six years 1:1ter in,+n .562,s Car:rcol rctaliatcd :rgainst Tikal with thc
lirst rccordecl "star r,var" known in the Maya lowlil-rds. This diitc is taken as the
dilte of Trkal's fall to Car:rcol. A "star r,l,ar" is a full-scale r'vilr plannccl in :rccorcl:rnce with spccific itstlonontical evcnts, r-rsr-rally the first appearance in the
rnorningskv of thc planct Venus. The l-reliacal rising<,rf the brillient "star" in
the pre-clar,vn sky was considered by the Maya :is a highly o'i1 portent. As suci-r
it was iln appropriirtc heralcl of u,arfare, at least on the part of thc attacker.
Cirracol's act of aggression initiatcd a type of intensive wer that rvas to be
repeated a nurnbcr of times in the fr-rture, betweeu rnany diffcrerrt citics in thc
lowlarrcls. Noting thc clates of thcse particul:rr colrllicts betwcct't Tik:ll arld
Caracol we can see that they are a prclude to the encl of t1-re Earl,v Classic pcriod
:rs il cultural marker, but the cor-rflicts continLle on an accelcritted scale during
thc Late Classic. It rvould be easy to intcrpret r'r':rrfare as the stittttllus of changc
that brclr-rght about the encl of thc Early Classic,:rncl just as easy to see the samc
cause as slowly burlcling up to the collapse of the Classic culture in thc lor'v-

ELI

lands ils a wl-rolc.

Altar z. r ar C:rracol rccords the defcat of Tikal, and tl-ris cli'rim coirrcicles with
tl-re Hiatus at Tikiri, irnd thereforc bears credencc. Althciugh erocled, thc text on
this important aitar includes a rcference to C:rlakr.nul, the northern cilpital

74 This ditrgra
made bt Simo

llre:rdy knorvn to have been ir.r conflict n ith Tikal for sonrc time . The reft:rence
on Altar: zr sllggests th:it Cillakmul r'vas bchincl or at least in sr-rpport of this
plrticr-iiar irnd scminrrl "star war" agaitrst Tikal. Calakmul hacl n'orr a politicirl
vicrory in the stmggle for: Caracol's allcgiance, probably in hurt retillii'ttion for
the sgrprise "?1xe war" that Tikal had cnacted against the dispr-rted cit,v, its
forrner ally Furthef reference to an ahau of Calakmr-rl, ar.rd his persotlal
emblen glyph, is found on Caracol Stela 3 :,rt the date of er,, .572,e c<lr.rfirmirrg
that the shift rn :rllegiance by Caracol from Tikal to Cirlakmr-rl was con-rplcte.
All of thcse evcnts werc critical to both kincls of ch:rnge thilt u'ere,,ccurrirtg itr
tl-re lor,vlancls: in the cr-rltural lanc|.narks that distingr,rish the Early from the Latc
Clirssic; and itr the shifts of the polttical landscapc.
Further, in eu 58810 the birth of a Lorcl of Car:rcol is rccordecl ou Pancl r at
Nilrirnjo, suggcsting a frierrclly affilirrtion betwecn these cities b,v this trme.
Th:rt a former ally of Tikal ctisplayed frienclship with an encrny of Tikal indiciltes a chirnge in the rclatictnship bctr,veen these uearest neigl-rbors. Tl-ris nrinor
evcnt did rrot bode n'ell for Tikal. It indicatcc'l a tightening nrilitary presencc,
slowly but surely cncircling the Crty of Lords, in a classic milit:rrv l'rrttccr rllove menr. Simon Marrin's eloquent illustration of thcse relationships shows graphic:rily what was h:rppening ilt this ttme (ill.71).
Irrscriptions falling betwccn AD 593 and 67zII occtlr :1t sites both to the west
ar.rd to the east of Tik:rl and thesc indicate tl-rat business as usual rvas being

conclucted

towards the
period. Don
laboration,
rently availa

ln

l.t:672

scape, leadit

At this date,
fron-r Tikal,
attack. As it
theless, a h
poir-rting tol
entire poiiti
Punto de C
Pilas polity
realizing th

defccted fro

the Early

new kingdo
respective s

group coitr<

THL, HIATUS: WAR AND OL TSID[, DOMINANCI.

forrncr ally
erious attack

.s

d by 1i1u,.,1 o.
hr-rrt

CALAKMUL

Caracol.

(u

'ikal rvith thc

s

taken as the

rned rn accor-

lrancc ir.r the

iant "star" ir-r
'tent. As sLrch
j

EL PERU

attacker.

rat
Lt

r,vas

to be

cities in thc

:n Tikal

arrcl

)lassrc period
scale

1us
)

of changc

see

'e

duling

the samc

in thc low-

cincicles

with
oli

7q This cliagrarn of the interaction betrueen rnajor

rnade bt, Simon Martin andNikctlai ()rube.

sites

of

the I'eten including']'ikttl uas

d, tl-re text

thern c:rpital
fhe refcrence

pport of this
on a political

etaliation for
ruted citli its
his pcrsonal
,e confirmir.rg
'as complete.
occurring ir.r
:rom
the Late
on Panel

r at

by this tin-re.
rf Tikal incli;.

This minor

1fy presellce,

pincer move;hows graphh to thc rvest

al rvas bcing

on a frier.rdly basis outside Tikal, wl-rile thcy rem:rinecl hostile

towarcls the grcat city. Notably, Tikal rcrrains in silencc durir-rg tl-ris cntire
period. Dor.ninatiori from Caracol, or possibly from a numbcr of sites irr ccilcondr-rctcd

laboration, including Calakn'rul, seems as good itn explilnatictn as allv cLlrrcntly availaLrle for this silence.
ln to 67212 thc site of Dos Pilas raisecl a new presencc in the political lanclscape, leilcling to rnore speculation about wh:rt l-racl been happening at Tikal.
At this date, Dos Pilas recorded its own defeat by a "star war" eveut lar,rnchcd
from Tikal, showing that Tikal hac'l revived enough to effect this aggressivc
attack. As it happened Dos Pilas rvas a new site with roots in Tikal, blrt ltevertheless, a hostiie rival. The evidcnce substantiates this kind of connection,
pointing towards ar.r origin in Tikal for the founders of not just Dos Pilas br-rt its
entire political enclilve includirig three other sites: Agr,ratec:r, Tamarindito, ancl
Pur-rto de Chinrincl.li One intcrpretation of the connection betweeu thc Dos
Pilas polity and Tikal is that collateral membcrs of the royal farnily at Tik:rl,
realizing th:rt tl-rey could never aspire to rulcrship of t1-rc cclttral capital,
defectecl frorr-r the city ilrrd established a new base to the west tr-rwi:rrd the errcl of
the Early Classic period. Evider"rcc that this spliritcr hegemony cstirblished a
new kingdom at Dos Pilas or-rt of Tikal is for-rnd in tl-rc cl:rtes themselvcs and the
respcctive sitc cmblem glyphs. The datcs for the beginnings of thc Dcis Pil:rs
llrorlp coincide wrth Tikal's time of intensc conflict with surroundir-rg powers.
rz3

TFIF,

HIATIJS: \fAR AND OUTSIDI] DOMINANCE

Also, Dos Pilas itself irdoptcd thc Tikal emblem glyph as its or'vt-t, irs if c:rlling
itself "New Tikal". To or-rr Western way of thirlking this sr,rggests most
srrongly t|at a clisgrr-rr-rtled member of the Jaguar Claw clart at Tikal clefected,
realizing that hc/she had ltttle hope of power :rt the ceutral capital, already
under serious political ancl military siege. This personage (or personages)
claimecl the cmblcrn glyph of the mothcr site for him/her:self arrd proceeded to
estabhsh new allegiances, particularly with cities already hostile to Tika1.
The site of Dos Pilils had colle into existence about en 625,14 some 47 ye^rs
beforc it recorded its owt'r defeat by Tika1. Its establishrnent apparer-rtly
occurrecl under thc ar-rspices and sLipport of Calaktnul, illready well into conflict with Tikal at this tinre and a1l too reacly to assist defcctors'
This assurnecl clissension and defection from r,vithin the royal famiiy must
have beel a blow to the current ruler already uucler severe siege by sLlrroundin!
sites. The pirircy of the Tikal city emblem glyph probably would nevcr have
sr-rcceeded without the sr-rpport of a powerful ally Iike Calakmul'
Thesc events have been argr.red convincingly by Schele, Grube, ancl Martin.
By eo 5S8 Tikal for.rr-rd itself threateled by Caracol in the southeast, by
Naranjo to the nearby east, by the giant Calirkmul to the north, and evcn by the
Dos Pilas l-regemony to the west. Tikal was virtr.rally sllrrounded by enemies.
The bcleaguered city's best allies lay filr aw:ry, Palenque to the far west :rnd
Copan to thc far south.
Wc knou,that the leirder of the attack on Dos Pilas in AD 672-was Shicld Skull
I (N6 Bak Chak Ir-5) of Tikal, the z5th ruler ir-i Tikal's successioll,:rrrd this event
fcll within Tikal's periocl of silence . The record of the event is at Dos Pilas. Thc
last n-rlcr with a written fecord at Tikal was Lizard Hcad II, the zznd rr-rler'
This leaves a gap of two unknown rulers, the z3rd artd z4th in tl.re successiou.
As Ger-rcvievc Michel has notcd, this is a very mttrky period with few clrcs to
the identity of tlrese missing rulcrs.
The clues that do exist come frorn pilintecl inscripticllls on ceramic vessels,

Tikal and two of unknown provellance. Thesc refer to a minor lord

i,vho livecl at Tikal uuder the reign of Lizard Head II.r6 This mincir lorcl, a sahal,
r,vils named "star Jagr-rar"17 attd he may have become the z3rd ruler. This
person's Son was called "Long Snout"18 arrd he rnay, in turn' have become the
missing z,1th ruler. Thesc obscnatiot'ls, howevcr, arc speculatior-i fillir-rg in a
cloucly gap. Because of the warfare and defc:rt of Tikal the rr.rlers of this period

one from

could have been ittterlopers from Caracol, unrelated conquerors from Calak-

mul, or even suppresscd descend:lnts of thc Jagr.rar Claw family itself. We

simply clo not kr-row. The passage :rnd transformation from the Early to the
Late Classic at Tikal was a difficr-rlt time.

JAGt

The Hratus c
beginning of
came to an el

K'awil. At th

loosely as "St
Bearer." On
erecting his 6

long silence
decades of t

Classic is der
existed betw

glory effecte
Texts at o
years of an

cession, was
Skull." Ther

to him direc,
Shield Skull

Shield Skull
Bone Chak,
long period

military fror
tell some ol
takrng capti

cult for sevt

troops so fa

victory at'
Calakmul,

Therefore,
ranks of all
Texts der

of
rz4

Pacal o{

r, as

CHAPTER NINE,

if calling

uggests most

ikal defected,

pital, already
: personages)
proceeded to
o Tikal.

RETURN OF THE CLAN

JAGUAR CLAW _ THE GENIUS OF
HASAW CHAN K'AWIL

;ome 47 years

It

apparently
vell into con-

family must
'surrounding
[d never have
and

Martin.

outheast, by
even by the
I by enemies.
far west and

Ld

Shield Skull

Lnd

this

'os

Pilas. The

ever-rt

e zznd ruler.
e

succession.

few

clr-res

to

The Hiatus of silence at Tikal spanned the end of the E,arly Classic and the
beginning of the Late Classic periods at the city The literary darkness finally
came to an end with the raising of monumcnts by the z6th rr-rler, Hasaw Chan
I('awil. At the tin're of this writing the narne of this "great man" is translated
loosely as "Standard Bearer of the Great Sky," or possibly "Heavenly Stanclard
Bearer." On r5 March tn 6921 this great rr-rler endcd the silence at Tikal by
erecting his first pair of monuments, Stela 3o and Altar r4. However, before the
lorig silence was ended some important events took piace during the first
decades of thc Late Classic period. This overlap of the Hiatus into the Late
Classic is dcscribed in this chapter because of the father-son relationship that
existed between an early lord of the Late Classrc and thc sr.rbsecluent return to
glory effected by Hasaw Ch:rn I('awil.
Terts at other sitcs as wcll as later texts at Tikal tell the story of the earliest
years of ar-r early ruler of the Late Classic period. This ruler, the z5th in the sr-rccession, was called Nu Bak Chak 12 with the modern nicknamc of "Shield
Sku11." There have been no inscriptions found yet at Tikal that are attribr-rtable
to him directly.

amic vessels,
a minor

lord,
1

lord

sahal,

ruler. This

:become the
n filling rn a
,f this period

from Calak-

ly itself. We
Early to the

Shield Skull (Nu Bak Chak Ir)

Shield Skull's Maya name has been translated by Schele and Grr-rbc as "Oracle
Bone Chak," a translation sti1l subject to revision. This king not only had a
long period of rule, he fought for the revival of Tikal on both diplomatic and
military fronts. Texts from Piedras Negras, Yaxchilan, Palenclue, and Dos Pilas
tell some of the story. He engaged in battle wcll t<-r the west of his base city,
taking captives in Yaxchilan in August ro 659.4 This rnust have been cluite ciiflicult for several reasons the great distance from Tikal; the logistrcal needs of
troops so far afield; and the unsettled state of affairs back home in Tikal. This
victory at Yaxchilan was recorded at Piedras Negras, at the time an ally of
Calakmul, while Yarchilan was under the domination of Piedras Negras.
Therefore, Shield Skr,rll's attack on Yaxchilan was in line wrth thc cstablished
rrrrks ol rlliarree rnd errmity.
Texts describing the camp:rigns of Shield Skull against Yaxchilan and those
of Pacal of Palenque against thc sitc of Pomona (near Palenque) suggest an

ShieLd Skull

rz5

r{-L.TtJRN OI-

1H!, CLAN IAG IJAR CLA\v

alliance between these twci inrpor:tant

rulcrs

uvulr rl comprrnior-r-:rt-arms kincl

cif r:clationship. Tlrcsc wcstcrn birttlcs rcpresented the height of allegi:rnce

bcnvccri Tikal ancl P:rlencluc. On r 3 Atrgr-rst en 6-59,'t just sir days after thc Yaxchilar-r skirnrish, Shielcl Skull's arrival at P:rlenclue was celcbratccl on a panel of
the Tenr;rle of the Lrscriptior.rs itself. This locirtiou wes olrc of Palcncluc's n-rost
irnportant sources of public recorcl, tcstifying to thc significance that P:rc:rl

Heauet

(Has

p1accd r"rporr Shicld Sku11's frienclship.

While P:rc:rl of

P:rlenclr-re

was sLlccessful in his locirl c:rnrprrigns lgrrinst

Por.nona, Shielcl Skull went on to b:rttles against Dos Pilas, a pr()tcct()rrte crf
Cirlaknrul, ancl tl'rc c'lcfcctor group fron-i Trkal. Orr 8 l)ecember el 6726 he lecl a
b:tttlc r,Lgainst Dos Pilas. Two subsccluent b:rttles eng:igecl con.rbinecl fclrces of

Dos Pilas urd C:riakn-ru1 rrnd encled in trn"'o defeats for Shield Skull cin
zo Decembe r AD 677 and or.r 3o April xt 679;respectivcly During this last skirrnish Shield Skull either cliecl or was taken cilptive and this is the last firm date
associatccl u'ith his lramc. tWc know tl-rat Shield Skr-rll's srlccessor was Hasaw
Ch:rri I('aivil, his son, ancl we glless that the succession in ,,to 682 nrust havc
occurrecl shortly after Shield Skull's cleath.
There:rre a few other n.rentions of Shield Skr.rll's narnc from later texts:rt
Tikal r,vritten by his son Hasaw Chan I('awil, which lcrid a curior-rs r-rote to his
iclentifica.tion. Hasaw rcfcrs to his preclecessor with t1-re terrr "father" in a
lir-rcagc sttrtcment :lnd even n:lmes "Lady .J:rguar Throne" ils Hlrsalv's mothcr
ancl Shielcl Skull's wife. This has all the :rppearancc of il vcry clefinite 1ir-reage
stxtelnent. Hor,vevcr, Shicld SkLrll is also rcfcrrccl to in the s:1ne text as the "nran
frorr the $.est," :urcl there can bc rro clor-rbt from his history that he spent a great
clc:rl, if not most of his tirnc away, far to the west of Tikal.
The tomb of Shielcl SkLrll is iclentified irs the indiviclual irr Buri:rl 23, bene:rth
the temple Structure tD-j j-rst, on tl-re North Tcrracc and fronting the North
Acropolis bccirusc of thc constrllction datc of the tonrb. This builcling domrnatccl tl'rc Grcat Plaza when it was corlstrLlcted by Hasaw Chan I(':rwil, chiurgirrg thc cosmic configr-rration of the Creat Plaza forever, and leading thc way for
the future development of the Cre:rt Plaz:r's triad of Great Tcnrplcs. Thc building of hrs father's nremori:il and his re:lction to the politic2.r] evcnts that lccl to
his fatl-rer's death are part of tl-re story of Hasaw Chan l('awil, which folloivs.

rz6

There are no
be raised at
Maya lowlar
fortune for J
structed fror

wrthin it.
temple

Be

br-ri1t

and its temp

Sky's temple
lcvels of ter
Templc zz, t
Until the

configuratio
the dead, a

Templc zz. I
was lower in

Hasaw Cl

place to beg
was excavat
most sacred

builders ha<
Skull's final
temple was

3r. This stel

Caracol. N<
both thc ten

Hasaw Chan I('awil (Hcavenly Standard Bearer)s

Tl-rc z6th mlcr irr thc Tikal successior-r can be characterized as the "grcat rnan"
irr thc history of the city. He :rcceded to power on 3, May Au 682,e :r tirnc of ycar
whcn thc hcat is burilding and the clor,rds form in the east every day, hcr:alcling
the coming of the sLlrrrmer rains. He was inaugul ated et this tirnc into thc role
of kirlon.rte of the citli the highest rank of rr-rlcr. Not for ilnother ten years clicl
the king erect e car\red moullncut i.vith tl"rc iriscriptions that ended the literirry

to be buried
pit inside th

hiirtus of thc citl: Dr-rring thcsc ycars he was extremely br-rsy re-builcling the
prcstigc that had bccn lost during the years of domination. One of his activitics
was thc collstruction of Structurc 5D-11-rst, which covered his fatl-rer's tomb.

know whicf

razed as wa

cache dedic
the mighty r

At the sa
Stela" that I

3,r and Has

pletely bury

RETUI{N OF THE CLAN IAGUAR CLAW

t-arms kind

allegiance
ter the Yax-

n a panel

of

au enlv St andard Be arer

(Hasaiu Chan K'awil)

nque's most
: that Pacal

gns against
tectorate of
5726

heled

ed forces

of

d Skull on
his last skirLst

firm date

was Hasaw
z must have

lter texts at
s note to his
[ather" in a
rw's mother

Lnite
as

[neage

the "man

;pent a gre:1t
I

z3 beneath

g the

North

lding domiawil, chang; the

;.

way for

The build-

that led to
;h follows.
s

''great man"

time of year

heralding
into the role
ry,

did
literary
I the
en years

building the
his activities

ther's tomb.

to
There are no firm dates for this building proiect, the first trr-rly great temple
the
for
architecture
of
style
be raised at the site and the first to herald a new
of
Maya lowlands (l/1.75). The raising of this building signified the reversal
can be reconfo.t.rr-r" for Tikal and the evenr was sr,rrrounded by ceremony that
enclosed
caches
it
and
beneath
deep
burials
structed from the stratigraphy of
earlier
an
existed
there
began
within it. Before Hasaw's constructiot1 project
tomb
latter
This
temple built over the tomb of Stormy Sky, one of his ancestors'
Stormy
or-rdlt, temple were centered on the sacred axis of the Nort6 Acropolis'
stair
on two
the
flanking
masks
with
Sky,s tempie was beaurifully decorated
of
grandeur
the
obscure
levels of i"r.n..r, but was still low enough not to
Acropolis.
Temple zz, thehighest structufe looming above the north side of the
until the higher building was created above 5D-33-znd, the architectural
of
configuratior] of ,h. North Acropolis served as its own cosmogram, a realm
point'
high
its
own
on
the dead, a realm of kings rullng as lods' focused
in state'
Temple zz. The originaltemple of 5D-33, below which Stormy Sky lay
was lower in height br-rt on the same sacred axis as 5D-zz'
Hasaw Chan I('awil char-rged all that. He selected the site of Temple

3l as the
z3
Burial
burial.
father's
hls
place to begtn a ltew cosmogram and began with
the
become
deep into the bed rock of the very ridge t6at had
in,
""."uuied
most sacred place rn Tikal, a little south of the tomb of Stormy Sky. The tomb
builders had to excavate down through the existing temple to create Shield
new
Skull's fir'ral resting place. Part of the ritual of the construction of the
stela
temple was rhe sacred burial of stormy sky's most important monument,
ihi, stela had been desecrated during the occgpation of tl-re usurpers from
3r.

caracol. Now it was reverentialiy placed into the old temple itself, treating
both the temple and the old stela as if they were themselves deceased ancestors
a
to be buried Lrrd", the new architectural wonder. First the stela was set into
pit ir-rside the back room of the old temple. The roof of the temple was then
a
razed as was customary for temple renewal, covering the stela as if it wefe
of
Constrr-rction
it.
above
cache dedicating the new strucr;re that would rise
the mighty new temple proceeded above the revered ancestral cache'
At the same time a similar ceremony was conducted for Stela 26, the "Red
don't
Srela" that haj declared the glory of either the zoth or 2rst ruler, we still
Stela
Sky's
Stormy
of
that
know which. This stela had suffered the same fate as
comwithout
time, but
3r and Hasaw tended to its reparation at the same
honoring and restoring
was
He
temple.
the
razing
or
burying tl-re stela

it.t"ly

rL7

RETURN

OI--

THE CLAN iACitJAR CLA\V

the glorv of the defi:Lccd ilnccstors, whether they lvere direct lir-icage ancestors
or rncrely prcdecessors in thc holy succession. It was a time of rcnewal and restoration for the City of Lords.
lvith the ternple c:rllcd 5D-j3-rsr, built as a rncmorial above his f:rther's
tomb, Hasaw introduced a new style cif architecturc to the lowland regiol. A
high, sciaring scries of steppecl platforn-rs supported a temple strlrcrlrre with a
singlc doorway. Thc visual effect for thc viewcr on the plaza floor was to
emphasize the vertical dimcnsions sr-rch thirt thc templc seerned to be lifted ipto
the heavctrs. Frcim the time of Hasaw's accc-ssior.r to powcr until the estimateci
time of his gr:rrrdson's death is a span of rr8 years. During this pcriod, this ner.v
Tikal temple style, introdr-rced by structr-rre 5D-j3-rst, develciped :rnd flourisl-recl, markirrg the city's peak of achievernent.
Lr the short period of a mere four years, thrce polrtical evcnrs took placc in
the Maya lowlarids that were to shapc Tikal's frlture. These werc: rhe accession
to powcr at Tik:1l of Hasaw chan I('alvii in er 68z, alreacly noted; the cleath of
Pacill of P:rlenque, Tikal's great ally, late in the ycar of eo 683;r0 and finally, the
accession to powcr of a young man named "Fire Jaguar Claw" as king of
Calakmul on 3 April eu 686.1r These evcrlts representcd the appearance of the
stron[iest power irr the Late Cl:rssic period at Tikal; loss of a powcrful ally in
the west for Tikal; ancl the rise to office of a virulcnt rr-rlcr-king :rt Tikal's most
powerfr,rl rival city The st:rgc was sct for major upheaval in the Maya lowlancls.
Hasaw's first rlrajor construction ancl rouncl of ccremonies honored dcath
ilnd restoration, but his second wclrk focused ori the honor: of tirlre. On
r5 M:rrch to 69212 a ncw architectural group was dedicated with the inscription that brokc the silcnce of the Hiatus. This inscripticin is found on Altar r,1
acconrpanying Stela 3o in thc twirr-pyramid group known as ,,M Group,, or
Circir-rp 3D-r. Olre of Tikal's many twin-pyrarnid irollps, this one fcillowed an
carlier scqueltcc of structurcs thet marked the ericl of the sacrccl katun, the
2o-year period in the May:r caleridar. curiously, Altar 14 which bcars thc
irnportant date is carved with a giant al-r:ru face in the style of Caracol, a stylc
that presurlably was introducecl tci Tikal under its period of domination. The
curiosity is that the rcstorer of the :rncient family lineagc wor-rld still utiiize this
forcign symbol of defeat. The Tikalenos may have become eccLlsrorred to this
"sty1e" during the iong Hiatus.
The chronology of Hasalv's life and the extraordinary events that colored it
are kttowt-t from a variety of sources, not all of thcm from Tikal. The ccinstructiorl of Ternple 5D-33-rst arid of the twin-pyramid M-Group have alrcady becl
melttioned. Other major monLlments that were br-rilt or plannecl by this unusual
n-rler includc tl-re Grcat Ten'rp1es nr-rmbercd I and II, facing each other across the
Grcat Plaza, ancl crealing the most recognizcd landmarks of Tikal; anorher
twin-pyramid ccirrfigur:ation called N-Group, with signi{icance that will be
cxplaincd below; and Structr:re 5D-57, a decor:ated palace in the ccltral
Acropolis which iikcly servcd as his perscir-ral house and the location of the

roval court of Tikal during his reig'i. There are

clor-rbtless

many orher

71 (tight),Structure ,1D-1.3-ist tuLts the lirst tempLe built in the TikaL style dnd the first
temple of Hasatu Cban K'dtuil, designed to L:olier the tomb of his fatlier, ShieLd SLutL.It
is on the Nor/:lt Terrttt'.e, facing the Clredt Plazd.

alie ancestors
rewal aucl res'c his father's
lr.rLl

resitln. A

tuctule

u'ith

;r

floor rvas tcr

be liftecl into
rhe cstiuratccl
:iocl, this no,v

:d ancl flourtook place irr

thc accessi on
; the clcrrth

of

rd finallr,', the

" ls king of
rrance of thc
verfLrl all,v

in

Tikal's nrost
ya lor.vlands.

,norccl death

rf tinrc. On
L

tl're inscrip-

on Altar r,1

I Gror-rp" or
follor.vcd :rn
J katun, tl-re

:h bears the
'acol, a st,vle
ination. The
ll utrlize this
rrnccl to this

rl; 1.

:t'

'^.!j:,;'l'
li . -

at colorecl
1C

it

COltstl'LlC-

tlreacl,v bcc-n

this urrusual

lr across thc
ral; anothcr

hat u'ill bc
rhc Ccntr:rl
Ltion

of the

nanv otltcr

:l

the first

,:ld

.\kull. It

1..!

.:

,r._'

R!,Tt.r1{N OF THL CLAN IAC tJAt{ Cir.A\Xr

monrimentel architectr-rral achievements thirt were built by Hasar,r,, but to cl:lte

they rerrri,rirr unider-rtified. Each of tl-rese builclings plavcd a role in thc clcvelopment of Tikal as :i 1e:rding capital in the May:r lowlands. The effcct of these
public works corrbincd with Has:rw's rrrilitary conquests changcd in a positivc
l'nanner both the physic:rl appear:1nce of thc cit1, anc1 its rolc irr tire context o{
the politicirl larrclscapc of the times. Thcsc ch:rnges were pivotill to the history
of the city and Hasaw's rule c:,rt'r bc characteriz-ed as the most ir-nportant of the
cit1"s knolr'n 3r rulers.r-r Thc last king to have had such a profouncl effect on
the fortur-res of the city \vas JaaLrilr Claw I who br-rilt the farrily clan house in thc
Central Acropolis that was to bc occr-rpiecl until thc very ab:rnclcinrncrit of
the city Hasilw's knolvr.r \\,orks, thc six m:rjor br-rilclings described above, all
survivccl L1nti1 the collapse as wcll.
A number of specilic, significant events that mrlrked Hasau,"s life are kncxvn
from a variety of sources. Tl-re evcnts inclr-rcle cert?rin import:rnr ccruuronics,
constnlction prcljccts,:rnd r,vars. Thc seclr,rence of thcir occLlrreltce has been
recolrstrllctccl from hieroglyphic tcxts most of which were not contclnporaneous with thc cveut recorclccl. Rather they arc rctrospective, tellirrg of evcurs in
thc past, in some cases:rftcr his cleath. Thc prim,rry s()urccs include the long
tcxt on Lintel j of Tcnrple l, the templc that was cleclic:rtcd to the rtrlcr's
rnenrory irrrcl hoursecl his burial chan-iber; and frorn objccts th:rt werc included
in l-ris tomLr. The events ilre clcscribed l-rere in thcir seclLlence of occurrence,
which is ofter-r different fron-r their sequencc of being recorded.
Hils:rw Cl-rarr I('awil acceclecl to powcr in the role of sLlprelre kalomtc or-r
j May el 68z. Lcss thiur:r ye:lr later, on z8 Atrgust At) 68.1, the greatest rulcr of
P:rleuque, Hanab Paca1, died. Sincc Palenqr,re had bectr an irlportant politrcal
ally of Tikal, the rvestern i,tnchor, as it n'ere, this clcatir must havc l"rad a profor-rncl cffect on the leilclership of Tikal.
In a flash-forwarcl, malty yeers latcr, il king of Copan called 18 Rabbir
recorclecl thc titles of rulers of Copar-r, Palenque, Tikal, and Cal:rkrnr-rl in en
71r on Stcl:r A. Hasaw wirs thc contemporary rulcr king of Tikal at rhc time,
ancl by thcn he was \rery closc to death. Of the for-rr cities citecl irr that frrrnous
Copan tcrt iclerrtifying the conrcrstones of the M:ry:r world, three wcrc frier-rdly
:rncl only was in hostile relatiorrshil-r to the othcrs. That one wes C:rlakmui.

The defeat of Calakmul

It w:rs i,t wilr event that reversccl Tikal's fortr-rnes arrd changecl forer,cr: the politic:rl lanclscapc of the lowlancls. This cver-rt was recorclcd by Hasaw on Lintcl 3 of
his mortr::rry building, Tenrplc I, as having h:rppcned on -5 Augr-rst eo 695.Ia
This war w:rs a major evcnt, following irr thc traclition est:rblishccl by Caracol's
.lttack or-r Tikal r3j )rcars earlier. Detelnincd i1 its tiltilg by the positiol of
the plar-ret Venus, this engagernent was launched agaitrst thc long-establishccl
rival Clalakrnul, rvhich for u:rny katuns had been har:rssing Tikal :rncl cncircling the city with allies. It w:rs undcr thc patron:1ge of C:rlakmr,rl that Caracol

rlo

76 Drau,ing of
of r

Lotuer zone

5D-.17, t: Stalace
C

K'att,il in the

the lctrtl in his

had been able

in

el

.562. Fo

engaged in b
Hasaw defini
onist. The de
mul and agai
The possible

turning r
this defeat of
r-row

u,hole series

Tikal were nc
Thirteen d
that an offic
eo 695.16 Thi
the Calakmu
structure in tl
by Hasaw. Al
itself. Two dr
76), in fr-rll bz
mcmoratiorl
is for-rr-rd orr tl
plate-likc app

RF,TURN OF THE CI-AN JACUAR CLAW

but to date

v,

the deveiopTect

of thesc

in

positive

re context

of

o the history

ortant of the
rnd effect olr
Lhouse in the
rdonment of

:d above, all
e are

known

ceremonies,
tce has been

rtemporane-

of

ever.rts

itr

ude the lorrg

the ruler's

ere includecl

76 Drauing of an orthostat panel ctn tlte

lou,er zone ctf one end uall of Structure
.rD-.17, t paLace buiLt b1t Hdsau, Chan
K'auil in the Ccntrdl AcropoLis. lt depicts
the lord in his bttttle drmor.

occLlrrence,

kalomtc on
Itest ruler of
ant political
e

had a pro-

18 Rabbit

*mul in el
at the time,
tl-rat
',ere

famous
frienclly

1akmul.

Tikal before the Hiatr-rs, so this enmity began in earnest

r3 decadcs Tikal had been in a cr-rltr-rral eclipse,
For
the
intcrvening
562.
engagecl rn both hot ancl cold wars with Calakmul. The evcnt recorded by
Hasaw dclirritively terminated Tikal's periocl of anguish at the hands its antagonist. The defeat was accomplishcd at an unspecified location outside Calakmul ancl against the ruler of that city, one Fire Jaguar Clawr't (Yich'ak I('ak) .
The possrble significancc of this name, Iikely related to that of a Tikal dynasty,
now turning Llp at the enemy city is discussed bclow. From Tikal's point of view
this defeat of a Calakmr,rl rulcr was a callse for cclebration, and it glve rise to a
whole serics of related ceremonial events at the victorious city. The leaclers of
Tikal were not aboLlt to let sucl-r a long-awaited glory pass Lrnnoticed.
Thirteen days after the official conquest of Calakmul's rr.rler, it was recordccl
had

beer-r

able to defcat

in,r.l

that arl official of that city named Ah Bolon was captllred on r8

el
politin Lintel j of
:r the
st

el

695.14

ry Caracol's

position of
-establishcd

I and encirhat Caracol

Ar-rgust

695.r6 This minor event related to the enormously important overthrow of

the Calakmul overlord was recorded on a decorated upper zone of a palace

structurc in the Central Acropolis, Structurc 5D-57, believed to bc a house br-riit
by Hasaw. Although minor, thc ever.rt occurred cxactly r3 days after the victory
itself. Two depictions of Hasaw himself were found on Slructure 5D-57 Qll.
76),in full battle arrnor in both cases. The house was probably br-rilt in commcmoration of the great victory. Thc capture scene with text telling the details
is fourrd on the Lrpper zone of the east end of the buiiding. The highly stylized
platc-like appearance of the armor is rclated to the old-fashioned Teotihuacan

rJI

RFTURN OF THL CLAN IA(iUAR CI AW

style of body

occur at Tika
r 3 days after tl

couched in

a sl

Forty days

three more

Temple

eve

and

seqLlence thes
symbolof the

Ir

name - Nu Bi
observed by th

--)

i
V;'j;'
,/"''.1$

ceremony too
occurred, it is

"i.i'.t,

location. The
Sky." The act
Throne" and'
The next r
tn 695,2t n7

r>

'

Y)

sh

an incised bor
his tomb und
captive was d

d
VA

closely resem
Hasaw had b,

m'

for the earlier

#
'rll

Royal sorrow

Wt

$/

s#?

As tin-re progt

,s

_.1:

. .:a.v
\,. )

AI

\B

sv,

'

irt
/

ty

/
*--@

,fl
LI

] *G,_--

lt

Maya calend

Temple IV, br
The group is
Excavation o

built against

rll

but probably

.offiw]tr)i

dedication of

r^,

bit of

,';*,

evrden

most point o
the closing c
Although it i

--r 'T- 1,ffi

the group, th
AD

7rr

recorr

major archit,
77 Drauing ctf the complex and intricate caruing of LinteL
lord seated ctn a thrctne.

As with al
in TempLe l, shc,,tt'ing the

stela and

ac<

RETURN O}. TH[, Ct-AN IAGUAR CLAW

style of body armor. Thrs rnay well be the last remnant of the highland style to
occur at Tikal. Thc fact that capture of thrs rniscrable individr-ral occurred
r3 days after the main victory coulcl wcll be a ceremonial re-telling cif the event
couched in a sacred time distancc, rather than a reflectiorr cif reality.
Forty days after the captlrrc and killing of Fire Jagr-rar Claw17 of Calakmul,
three more events took placc. These events were commcmorated on Lintel 3 of
Temple I:rnd all took place on 14 Septen'rbcr eo 69-5.18 In their recordcd
sequcncc thcse events were: firstly, Hasaw sat upon the captured palanquin,
symbol of the city of Calakmul, a sacred object which borc its own identifying
narre - Nu Balam Chacmalle (iLl. zZ); secondly, a bloodlettil-rg ceremony was
observed by thc "Ho1y Lord of Tikal" that is, Hasaw;20 and thirdly, a dedication
ccrcmony took place. \X/hile the text cloes not indicate where this dedication
occurred, it is possibie that it was a re-dedication of Temple j 3, or at some other
location. The stela br.rricd there honored Hasaw's direct ancestor, "stormy
Sky." The actor in this ceremony is described as the child of "Lady faguar
Thrcinc" and "Shield Skull" (Nu Bak Chak), known to be Hasaw's parents.
The next recorded event in the life of Hasaw occurrcd or-l 30 November
Ro 695,21 rr7 days after the victory over Calakmul. This cvcnt was recorded on
an incised bor.re corrtainecl among the burial treasurcs :rccompanying Hasaw in
his tomb under Ten'rple I, and n:rmed Burial r16. The text proclaimed that a
captive was clcfcated by a person named "Split Earth," whose placc emblem
closely resembles that of Calakmul. The indication is th:rt a person close ro
Hasaw had beerr dcfcatcd by someone frorn Calakmr-r1 a possible ret:rliation
for the earlier defeat of the latter citv.22

Royal sorrow: the story on Altar V

As time progressed, the ncxt important thing we know about Hasaw's life is thc
dedication of another twin-pyramid group marking the end of katr-rn r4 itr the

Vir
,&'i

t'4,r
#fr'

M
rvl

ffi

rg

W
tnt
tn.l

N
he

Maya calendar. This group was constructcd close to the present location of
Tenrplc Il but well before that highest of a1l temples at Tikal had been built.
The gror-rp is iclcntified on the maps of the site as "N Group" or "Group 5C-r."
E,xcav:ltion of the grorlp showed that the north boundary of thc compler was
built :rgainst the wall of a prc-cxisting causeway which lcd to a point unknown,
but probably to an earlier vcrsion of Temple IV, as we know it.2r This intrigr-ring
bit of evidence suggcsts that when N Group was built it was not the westcrnmost point of thc city center. The twin-pyramid complex was br.riit to celebrate
the closing of katun 14 r-rnder the reign of Hasaw, on r December eo 7rr.2a
Although it is an archaeological convention to consider this date as thc date of
the group, the structures obvior-rsly took time to build, so that its dedication in
AD 7rr rccorded the culminatiotr of thc construction process. This is true of all
major architectural monumcnts.
As with all twin-pyran-rid groups, the r.rorthern cnclosure containecl a royal
stela and accompanying altar. Here, they are Stela 16 depicting Hasaw in full
r13

RETURN OF THE CLAN }AGUAR CLAW

cercmonial livery, and Altar 5 which lay at his feet. However, the contents of the
depictron on the altar are unique among twin-pyramid gror-rps at Tikal, and
indeed of all aitars in the city (iLls.7B-So). The scene on Altar 5 is totally different from any carved before or after. This altar has an importance likely greater
than any othcr at the site because of its multiple roles, recording a complex
scgment of Hasaw's life and carefully positioned so that the location itself supplemcnts the story contair-red. The altar would later detcrmine an axial line
that would define the alignment of Temples I and II in the Great Plaza itself.25
The ring of glyphs surrounding the edge of the altar could not contain the
whoic story that had to be told.26 Therc are supplementary panels within the
backgrour-rd on which the narrative continues. The scene depicts two nlelt
shown either ir-r kneeling position, or standing behind a flat object, facing each
other, dressed in quite distinctive livery, both in the heraldry of their hcaddress
designs, and in the objects of symboLc rank held in their hands. Between thern
is a neat arrangement of human bones, apparently piled in a quadrant and sur-

mounted by a jawless human skull. The tert speaks of a woman who was
Hasaw's wife and it is presumed that the bones are hcrs. The name given for thc
woman is not the same narrre recorded elsewhere in the city as the mother of
Hasaw's son Yk'in Chan K'awil (Ruler B). There is a mystery here regarding
the various names ascribed to Hasaw's wife (or wives, as the case may be). The
inscription on Altar 5 is very compler but Grube ar-rd Schele have worked out a
decipherment of the sequence of glyphs and the strange story which they tcll.
The figure on the left is interpreted as that of Hasaw himself,while the figure on
the right is a nobleman, probably from Calakmu1.27 At the time, Tikal and
Calakmul were stil1 in a state of high hostility, since Hasaw had killed the king
of Calakmul 16 years before. The bones are thought to be those of Hasaw's
wife who had died on z4 May Ao 7o3,28 some eight years before the dedication
of this altar. The interpretation followed here suggests that this woman had
been buried at the site of Topoxte, a small city to the southwest of Tikal on a
lake of the same name. Presumably, this was her: place of birth and her remains
were returned there for burial. This small city had come under the domination
of Calakmul in its campaign of expansion in the region now known as the
Peten. Under sr-rch domination, royal burials were in danger of desecration,
and because of Hasaw's role in thc overthrow of Calakmul, any relative of his
would be a direct target for such desecratior-r. The complcx text of Altar 5 indicates that the lord of Calakmul escorted Hasaw with safc passage into the
enemy-hcld territory of Topoxte in order to collect and retrieve the bor-res of
this royal lady.2e The irnplication is that the lord from Calakmul was also
related to her by blood rather than marriagc, and for this reason co-operated
under truce with Hasaw to save the lady's remains from desecration. All of this
action took place shortly before the er-rd of the katun, so that the dates involved
lcad up to the katr.rn dedication itself (i//. 8r ).

Xl

The mosaic jade uessel from Burial r96 bears .t str()ng resembLance to a similar one
found in BuriaL t t6 (ill. 8f ) but portray s .t tl'oman (Hasaw's wife? ).

)lltents of thc
rt Tikal, and
rotally differ-

likely greatcr:
tg a complcx
on itself supan axial line
iaza itsclf.rj

t cor.rtain the
:ls r'r'ithin the

cts t\vo nlelr

t, facing e:rch

eir heaclclress
,etweelt thcm

rant and surLan

who

'uv:rs

given for thc

re motl-rer of
:re regarding
may bc). The

worked out ir
uch ther'' tell.
the figurc cin
e, Tikal :rrrd
illecl thc king
: of Hasaw's
re dcclication
rvoman had

rf Trkal on

Ihel rcmains
rdomination
nown as the
desccration,
elative of his

Altar

incli-

into thc
the boncs of
rul rvas also
age

co-opcrated
n.

Allof this

ates

involved

similtrr one

The mystery

Altar

5 the nar

ren-roving the b
given elsewhert

tions of these
than one wife;r
'.:l';

ent; or that tw<

::rrst

Iili'i

Grube and
diplomacy of

{i:{ll

bones and the

retrieve thern

major polities
rty and that tr
record this exp
exhibition of a
In addition t
analysis sugge

tremeuts are l;
This same prir
the layout of a
in its phystcal
Twelvc).

The complt

en 7rr. This
noted3l that
liri.

<

r.rnknown dat
incised obsidi
struct the col-l
similar to ot

"!

pyramid grou

number of bo
On the stel
mask, fr"rll hez

very jacle

bea

waistband wi
Hasaw holds
while his hea
typical of the

1'.::I3

i.1i!n..

.:,,"'. -1.i1.

..,I

Xll Rollout scr

group. The Pre:
administratiue
XllI

The Paint
abandonment.
dccurdte.

RETURN OF THE CLAN JAGUAR CLA'W

The mystery of the woman's identity revolves around the use of names. On
Altar 5 the name given initially is Na Tunte Kaywak. Later in the context of
,"-ouirrg the bones a different name is giver-r. Neither name is the same as that
given elsewhere as rhe name of Hasaw's wife (Lady Twelve Macaw). Explanaiio,-r, of these multiple names include: the possibility that Hasaw had more

than one wife; that the woman's Topoxte name and her Tikal name were different; or that two of the names were titles rather than proper names'
Grube and Schele also noted that while we know little about the rules of
diplomacy of the Sth-century Maya, this interpretation suggests that royal
bones and their continuing care was important and that an arrangement to
retrieve them from enemy territory was a possibility' This further suggests that
major polities were in communication with each other even in times of hostilthat truces were negotiable. Further, it was to Hasaw's advantage to
ity
"1J
record this exploit and display it in a public place, a place usually reserved for
erhibitior-r of a bound prisoner.
In addition to the unique quality of the content of the decoration on Aitar 5,
analysis suggests that the surface cor-rfiguration of the figures ar-rd their accoutrements are laid out according to geometric rules of integral right triangles''10
This same principle of artistic planr-ring by geometric rules is important also to
the layout of architecture in Tikai, and particularly to the placement of Altar 5,
(see Chapter
ir-r its physical relationship to Temples I and II of the Great Plaza
Twelve).

The completion of the r4th katun is recorded on Stela 16 at r December

AD 7rr. This date also terminates the narrative on Altar 5. ChristopherJones
noted3l that although the cache beneath Stela 16 had been looted at an
unknown date, Ledyard Smith had retrieved one of the frequently found
incised obsidians from this cache, a discovery that allowed W. R. Coe to reconstruct the contents of Cache 3z from beneath Stela r6, showing that they were
similar to other stela caches at Tikal. During his ir-rvestlgations of twinpyramid groups, Jones penetrated deeper beneath the stela butt and found a
,].,-b.. of bones as additional and highly unusual cache material.
On the stela face itself, Hasaw is shown in full war livery including a back
mask, full headdress, heavy necklace and a pectoral that probably ir-rciuded the
very jade beads found ir-r his burial, a skirt with crossed bone symbols and a
waistband with human trophy heads and high decorative sandals and anklets'
Hasaw holds the ceremonial bar in a horizontal position across his mid-torso,
while hrs head is turned fully to the right side. The regalia and the pose are
typical of the Late Classic period at Tikal.

Xll Rollout scene from d Late CLassic uessel found in Structure tC-49 of the Lost \Yorld
group. The present:ation of tribute in the form of a jaguar skin is typical of
administratiue functions of p aLaces.
Xlll The painting by CarLos Vierra made in 19t.1 depicts Tikal in the years folLowing its
abandonm"nt. Df,sfite neuer hauing uisited the city, Yierra's reconstruction is quite
dcaurdte.

II

78 (abctue) SteLa L6 utas raised by Hasau'

Chdn K'autil in the tuin-pyramitl Group N

in

tn 7rr commemorLttingthe tqth

katun.

The Altar in frctnt commemorates his

decedsed

uife.

79 (right)

DetaiLed drauing of the caruing

on Stela r5. Hasau Chan K'dwiL is
de;ticted in fuLl ceremoniaL dre ss, t.uith
feathered heatldress and back mask. By
this date he had been kdlomte of Tikal for
29 yedrs.

t.

8o (abcwe) Dratt,ing, of the scene

and inscriptictn on ALtttr .;, r'hich

accomtrtanied Stela t6.'l'he

indiuiduuL on the left is thought to
be l'lasatt, tL,hile, the lctnl ctn the right
is

from Calakrnul.

8r (left) Ret:onstructictn dratuing ctf

thc scene on Altar I by Terrl,
Rutletlge. lt is ncttu thctttght that the
scene clepicl.s the e xhumation of
Hasau's clt ceascd wife's boncs
shown betu,een the ttuct Iords.

r)9

RT,TLTRN OF

TH!, CLAN JA(iUAR CLAW

ar::?
--l:ar,ia

Other known dates and events in Hasaw's life

A nurrber of beautifr,rlly carved bones wcrc part of thc fr-rncrar:y celuipmcnt in
Hasaw's tonrb. Or-ie of these depicts a scene in which Hasaw is being transportecl in a canoe with "paddler gods" propelling thc craft. This sccnc h:rs bccn
variously intcrprctcd as a cieath scene ir.r which the king is being taken to the
unclerworlcl or as a celestiill cvent comfilcmorating the Maya clay of creation.
As tl-rere is no evidence that Hils:lw hacl diccl by thc datc carvcd on thc bone , the
lettcr interpreti,rtion seerrs more 1ike1y (ill. S2).
Arrotl-rcr incisecl borre bears the date zz October xt 726.32 The accompanying text honors the death of Ruler 2 at the city of Dos Pilas who r.vas an enemy
of Hasaw accorcling to othcr tcxts of this tirre. Hasirrv n.ray have been celebrating the death of :rn enerny, or, ene[ry or not, of a rclativc.
C)n the sanre bone, :lnother date, :rbout three months later, at z4 -]anr,rary
so 72733 rccorcls the deirth of an important woman, 1-rossibly from the site of
C:rncnen. This sitc is pcrccivcd as hostile, alliecl with the lirrge hegernony of
Calakmul, but oncc again, thc protagonist coulcl have been a relative of Hasaw.
The ending of the next katLu'l occurrccl on r8 Ar.rgust,tl 73r-ra and was commcrnorated by the constnlction of the twin-pyramicl group C<-implcx O, with a
plain stcla. The omission of a carved scene and inscription for strch an important evellt r,vhilc H:rsaw shcir-rld still have been alive suggests that he was too
weak, o1d or ill to attend thc dcdication. This assunrption is sr-rppor:ted by the
fact that the nert recordcd clatc at Tikal is the accession to power of the next
kir.rg, Hasaw's son, on 8 Dcccmbcr,+l 734.t5 Whilc this is three years later thetr
the l:rst recorded event in Hasaw's life, we have to remcmbcr that his last pr-rblic
cl:rtc was that on Stela r6 at the end of the r4th katun, some 20 years earlicr.
The iritcn'cnirrg clates corne from objects in FIasaw's tomb that likely were
alnong his pcrsonai posscssiorrs, not usecl for public display.
The two grilnclcst architectural contributions made by Hasaw to his city
were the construction of Tcmple II arrd the plilnrring of Temple I (p/. 1) . Their
respective dates of construction havc not been sol-,'ed, bLrt both buildings are so
important to the ritual and visual presentation of tl-re city that tl-rey demand
sonre discussion. The two great temples may have been built simultarrcously, or
at lcast partly so, sir-ice they were conceived to satisfy more than one cosmic
rclatiorrship with pre-existing buildings in the city. For example, the two great
r40

8z (left) Dratui

of

seueral incist

the graue of Ha
gods trdnsPort '

underruorld.
83

(righr) Drau

caruetl Lintel z

Tutelue Macdw

ceremonial rob

lintels of TemP

uife fdcetl each

temples facin

center
cosmos

of th
- the

Structure 5t
largest yet bu
tures boundr
j3-rst becaff
ing the heave
their part in

commemora

otl-rer pre-exi
arrd these plz

Clemency

of Hasaw's

r'

o/"-,
(left) Drauing

equipment in

8z

s being trans-

of

icene has been

gods transport the dead lord tct the

undertuorLd.

taken to the
y of creation.
the bonc, the

l accompanyenemy
reen celebratwas an

lt

ctf a cdnoe scene from one

incised bones found in BuriaL tr6,

the graue of Hasaru Chan K'awiL. "Pdddler"
seuerrtL

8t (ri1ht) Drauing ctf the remains of the

carued LinteL z frctm Temple II shcttuing Lady

TtueLue Macatu, Hasaw's utife in her

ceremonial robe. The imagas carued ctn the
linteLs of Tem'ples I antl ll of the Lord and his

u,ifa faced each other.

24 January

rm the site of
hegemony of
:ive of Hasaw.

lnd was comrlex O, with

rch an

impor-

rt he was too
ported by the

temples facing each othcr across the Great Plaza actually delirrc the new cosmic

:r of the nert
ars later than

center

ris last pr,rblic

years earlier.
Lt

likely werc

w to hrs city
(p/.1). Their
ildings are so
rhey demand

[taneously or
r one cosmic
the two great

of the city, replacing the North Acropolis, the olclcr

architectural

the necropolis of kings. Temples I and II form a triad with the temple
Structure.SD-33-rst on the North terrace. This triadic formation was the
largest yet built at Tikal, obscrving the classic configuration with tcmple structures bounding the north, east ancl west sicles of a sacred space. Structurc
33-rst became the ncirtherrl synonym for the North Acropolis itself, representir-rg the heavens whcre the kings resided. Temples I ancl II were constmcted for
their part in such a manne r that their physical position alignecl with Altar 5, the
conrmemorative stone of Hasaw's wife, as well as in specific configuratiort with
other pre-existing structures in the city. All of this had to bc carefully planned,
and these plans were clearly made by Hasaw
Clemcncy Coggins36 first suggestcd that Temple II was constructed in honor
of Hasaw's wife. The name asslllncd for this wife is "Lady Twelve Macaw" the
cosmos

r4r

R},TURN OF THE CLAN IAGUAR CI-AW

name recorded as the mother of Hasaw's son (Ruler B or Yk'in Chan I('awil).
The relationship of this l'u.oman to the names recorded on Altar 5 rernains a
mystery, although the specific alignment formed by Temples I, II and Altar 5
strongly corroborates the interpretation that the woman on the altar and the
woman on Temple II are the same. Lintcl z of Temple II was carved, and the
sr-rrviving rcmnant shows tire ligure of a royally garbed worran, but no text has
survivcd (ill.8j). The carved beam of this lintel r.row resides in the American
Muscum of Natural History in New York. In his excavations of the Great
Plaza, w. R. coe (Tikal Report 14) determined by the stratigraphy that the
beginning of construction of Temple II preceded the beginning of constructiorr
of Temple I by a fcw years. This is significant for a number of reasons. The
dates on Altar 5 indicate that Hasaw's wife had died in en 7o3, 3r years before
the accession of her son in AD 7 34, pres'mcd to be close to the date of Hasaw's
dcath which is not rccorded anywhere yet known. Given this long gap in time, ir
is likely that Templc II, if indeed dedrcated ro Hasaw's wife wor-rld have begun
to be constructed before the even nore monumental work of Hasaw's own
mortuary temple, Templc I (iLL. 8a).
There has bcen much specr-rlation about the date of construction of Temple
L We do not know for certain if it was constructed duririg his final years in
preparation for his death in the Egyptian manner, or if it was built after his
death by his son. The clues provided by the tcxrs, espccially those included on
the lintel suggcst that he prepared his own monumenr. Further, as noted above,
the sequence of evenrs shows placement of Altar 5 first, followed by the constrllctioll of Temple II, and finally construction of Temple I, and that all were
planned by the samc person according to a coordinatecl design that linkcd the
woman to the man for eterniry. Certainly the in-rage of the woman on Tcmple II
and that of the man known to be Hasaw on Temple I were set to face cach other
across the expanse of the Great Plaza throughout time. Seldom in archaeology
does the dry evidence of dates, inscriptions, and tombs give the opportuniry ro
glimpse thc human side of thc ar-rcient royal players. In this case love and loyalty
are testificd in stonc and wooden monuments.
Excavations below Temple II failed ro reveal any evidence thar a tomb ever
existed under this structurc. This ncgative evidence further supports Coggins'
interpretation that the tempie was built to honor the woma', not house her
boncs which lay elsewhcre, as stated on Altar 5. coggins also pointed out thar
ccrtain temples at Tikal likely served as cenotaphs, much like our monuments
to fallen soldiers in public parks. Temple II could be such a monument.
The last resting place of Hasaw was recovered in Burial r16 under his greatcst architectural achievement, Temple I. The possibility exists that thc tomb
was prepared in readiness for death with a tunnel lcft open as access for thc
funeral rites. The great king of Palenque, Hanab Pacal, had readied his own
tomb before his death half a cenrury earlier and one year afrer Hasaw had
acccded to power. Hasaw could have attended that funeral and, remernbcring
5o ycars 1ater, prepared his own tomb in a similar fashior-r.
r42

If

Hasaw

reign of this
cycle of the c

had ruled for

role of "grea

Hasaw's t,
excavations i

axis of the

discovery. Ev

flakes and c<

rnajor burial
located in thr
opened with

after its closi

The stone
chamber. Th
perhaps repr

Parts of the
upon {irst en
the standard
out on a rair

and shells, a
imparts the

exceptionall'
necklace be;
shaped and

originaliy pa
'collar'com1
to two inche
(ill. se). rn t
lidded cylinc

of

a cor-rch sl

organic matt
The jade

binding had
lid of the ves
him as a "fot

meaning "lo
ably a portrr
himself.
A coverlet
mat. The afc
tive feature c

some remarl

RETURN OF THE CLAN JAGUAR CLAW

Chan I('awil).

rr 5 remains a
II and Altar 5
: altar and the

lrved, and the

)ut no text has
the Americar-r

of the Great
aphy that the
I construction

reasons. The
r years before
te of Hasaw's
gap in time, it
ld have begun
Hasaw's own

on of Temple

6nal years in
ruilt after his
e

included on

noted above,

d by the conthat all were

tat linked the
on Temple II
ce each
r

other

archaeology

rportunity to
ze

and loyalty

tomb ever
lrts Coggins'
ot house her

:a

nted out that

'monuments
nent.
Jer his greatrat the tomb
ccess for the
lied his own
Hasaw had
emembering

If Hasaw died in the same year that his son acceded to the throne, then the
reign of this great ruler had lasted 5z years, coincidentally the same as a fr,rll
of t1-re calendar. Comparing his rergn with that of Pacai of Palenque who
had ruled for 68 years and died in his early Sos, the two rulers each fr-r1filled the
role of "great man" to their respective cities.
Hasaw's tomb was discovered in the spring of ry62 as a result of tunneling
excavations into the core of Temple I. The tomb was not located on the central
axis of thc structure whrch commemorated it, an ur.rusual fact which delayed
discovery. Eventually, the presence of dense layers of flint and obsidian - chips,
flakes and cores - in the construction filI indicated the nearby presence of a
majcir burial to the north of the central axis. A sealed capstone was finally
located in thc "floor" of the tunnel. In November r96z,the tomb of Hasaw was
opened with some forrnality and considcrable care, approximately r,zz8 ycars
after its closing (ill. 8 5) .
The storie, when lifted, proved to be the central capstone of a large vaulted
chambcr. The capstone was painted with a large circular spot in red cinnabar,
perhaps representing thc sun disk shinrng forever over Hasaw's mortal remains.
Parts of the chamber's walls and vault had collapsed, obscuring the contents
upon first entry into the tomb. The chamber was large and rich in content by
the standards of previously excavated tombs at Tikal. The single male was laid
out or1 a raised dais "richly adorned with r-rnusual quantities of jade, pearls,
and shells, and surrounded by grave furniture." Aubrey Tirk's descriptionsT
imparts the sense of awe erperienced by the excavators: "The jade, some of
exceptionally fine color and quality, consisted of headdress plaques, tubular
necklace beads, bracelets, anklets, and earplugs. Many well preserved peashaped and baroque pearls were found in the neck and chest area, probably
origrnally part of the jade necklace. Across the lower chest was a surprising
'collar'composcd of rr4 spherical jade beads, graduated in size from one-half
to two inches in diameter and weighing a total of eight and one-half pounds"
cycle

(ill. S6).In addition to a vast array of painted ceramic vessels, there was a
Iidded cylinder vase made of jade mosaic (ill. 87), an alabaster dish in the form
of a conch shell, many shells, slate plaqr-res, stingray spines and the remains of
organic materials.
The jade mosaic vessel was constructed of fitted jade plates for which the
binding had disintegrated, requiring pair-rstaking reconstruction. On the apron
lid of the vessel was an inscriptio n of rz glyphs, naming Hasaw, and identifying
him as a "four-katun" batab. The batab title at Tikal is a substitute for "ahau,"
meaning "lord." The knob handle was in the form of a human head, presumably a portrait made of intricate, tiny fragments of jade representing the lord
himself.
A coverlet of jaguar skin 1ay beneath the ruler, under which had been a straw
mat. The aforementioned incised bones were an unusual and highly informative feature of this tomb, providing both chronological information as well as
some rernarkable rconogr:rphy.

r43

S+ (left) The uieru frctm the rctctm of Larly TtueLua

MLtcilw's lintel in T'em;tle Il framing Tentple I dcross
the Gredt Plaza and to the east.

87 One of the
spectdcuLdr pie
Hasatu's tomb

(righr) Draruing of the contents of Burial rr6,

the tomb of Hasatu Chan K'atuil under Temple l.
81

Nctte the ricltness ctf uessals, jdde bea.cls dnd ctther

treLtsLrres ruhich accctmpdnied the "gredt man" to

of jade.

o:

Attbrey Trik, Field Director at the time

of discouert, of Hasau's tomb,

intricate task of

uesseL m

pieces

on the Lid beart

and so it is asst
image on the li'

tJte underLuorld.

86 (beLctu)

lidded

Luorks on the
uncouering the delicate graue

-g
e'\
:"

goods.

3y'-

decades to co

rA\^
o

for

'@\

'

.:
a/.r^ )
r_x

The cor-iter
influence wil
ar-rother

grandson in

Hasaw made
powcr than I
monumcnt)
Or-re

final{

cal layout of
around the C
tions were sa
II form an a

alignment es
tells thc stor
3-4-5 integra

t'v

known to co
configuratior

politically m

ady Ttuelue
tmple I across

87 ()ne of the most

spectdculLlr pieces from
Hasaw's tomb was this mosaic
li,1d,'J u,'ssel mad, from tiny

{fn

pic,r's oI j,tdc. Thc inscription

on the lid bears Hasatu's name
and so it is ttssumed that the
imaq,' on the lid is his portMit.

The contenrs of his tomb and those details known ro us of Hasaw's life ar.rd
influerce will continue to be a subject of analysis and cliscrssion for many

s"
16\
:

@"

.,tg

&

9za

IM
I

decades ro come. As we shall see, his descendants continued the work he began

for

ar.rother 66 years, based upon the estimated tinre of death of Hasaw,s

grandson in en 8oo. Although he did r-iot build the tallest strucure in Tikal,
Hasaw made more changes and contributed more to style and restoration of
power than any knowrr ruler at Tikal. In recognition of that style, his owrr
monument' Tcmple I, became the symbol of thc city in n-iodern times.
one final fearure abor-rt Hasaw's conrriburion ro Tikal is found in the physical layor-rt of Ternples I and II. Besides forming a new tr:iadic cosrlic grolrp
around the Great Plaza, with 5D-33 as the northern focar point, other conditions were satisfied by their construction. The axial line between Temples I and
II fornr ar.r alignment with the stela fil Altar 5 enclosure of N Group. This
alignment establishes a connection between the temples ald the altar which
tclls the story of Lady Twelve Macaw. Further, rhis baseline forms a perfect

3-4-j integral right triangle with Structure 3D-43, ar-r Early classic ie-pl.
known to contain an important burial. In this way, Hasaw used a geometric
configuration to connect himself and his wife to an ancestor, either a real or a
politically motivated connection (pl. X).

14i

R!,TURN OI- THE CLAN TAGUAR CLAW

Table,l

Chronology of the beginning of the Late Classic at Tikal

Time span,lo 659

Date

Name

r trrl

.lnLl z4rh

RLrlt'r:s

lost rn thc

Hi:rtus:

-,lo

734

j5

years)

Euent

RulerNo

No data

zydlz4h

Nu Bak (lhak I

Ar:gust eo 659
August en f'59
Dcccr.nber eo 672
Dcccr-nbet rn 677

(Shielcl Skull I)

April ,to 679

Victory

ir-r

battlc

r.vitl-r

Yexchilan

Visits Pacal rr Pirlcnclue

Battle against Dos Pilas
Dcfe:rtccl in batlc at l)os Pilas
Defe:rtcd ancl possiblv killccl at
f)os Pilas

The lovc for

sLlggests that

had establish
encc for the "
ture was col

desccnt.'il/itl

Haslv Chan K'au'rl

(Heavcnly Stancl:rrc1

5 t1-r

Bearer')

AD

6llz

Nlarcl'r eo

Acccssiorr :rs I(rkrnrtc of Til<rl

M (iroup cleclcated, AItar r4 encl

692

StcJa

August ar

69.5

August eo

695

jo

Septcnrber

lo 695

Nor.'cmtrer,+o
A4ay eLr

695

7oj

Decembcr eLr 7r

AD 7

j2,

731

(iD

frorr

Cal:rknruI folkxvccl b,v bIoocllerrr rr g

ccrcmony arrcl cleclicr,rtion possiblv of
'lemplc
5l) 33-rst (L.3,Tcnrple I)
Ceptivc of C:rl:rkrr.rul r:rkcn?
(Lrcrsed bonc)
\X1ifc cliecl (Lacly Tu'clvc M:rcerv?)
Srcla 16 :rnd Altar 5 dcdicatecl in

N Group commcmorating cncl of

I(tfun xncl dcccasecl u'ifc
Death follor.ving constmction of
Tcnrples I ancl

II

power, while

in the succer

iZ)

Sat upon capturecl P:rianquin

mcans of spe
Hasaw's ir

Victory against Calakrrul

(L. 3,'Iemplc l)
Oapture of Ah Bolon of
Calaknrr.rl

architectLlre

Hasaw Chan

names not l
Llnclear, spec
z8 in the sr-rc

diffcring intt
ultimatc siler
Yik'in's n:
offcred the li
tional Maya
pir-rg out of
nahual for tl
the father, a
artificial rne
nificant snal
in terms of

rright sky."

nodern tim
record, the

cven thougb

The brillian

this birth

cloud.
Er-rough

hc built
r16

ir

ever

CHAPTER

A FAMILY AFFAIR:

HASAW'S DESCENDANTS
rd/z1th

TheloveforhiswrfewhrchHasawdemonstratedthroughhispublicactions
family man' Consciously or otherwise l-re
suggcsts that he *n, nt'o *os a good
who demollstrated a reverhad established a t.aditior-r throJgh his descendants
ttuy'' Hasaw's new style of temple architec"great man" in

-urty
of
son'and grandson who followed in his line
tf-tt
t'f
continued
was
ture
r.rew heights of glory in its public
descent. Y/ith their *.,iinrl.", Tikal achieved
at the city of both great wealth and
architecture demonstrating the presence
pivotal ancestor was maintained by
power, wl-rile all the time 'iut"'ltt for the
planning'
-.nr-t, of specific architectural
rrrler
was lris son Yik'in Chan I(,awil, the zTth
,.,..",,o,
Hasaw,s immediate
was
father
his
that
states
rn the succession. Yik'in's own parentage record
(her
other
"Lady Twelve Macaw"
H.saw Chan I(,awir ""J r-,i, mother *o, ih.
yik'in,
tl-re line of descer-rt is briefly
llames not withstaJi;rt. Following
lacking about one king, Ruler
specrfically b..oirr" information rs stiil

ence for the

unclear,

z8inthesuccession.Alsothesuccessionisconfr"rsedbytheeristenceofmany
diffcringinterpr.tatio,-',oftt-'.namesoftl-reremainingfewrr'rlersbeforethe
ultimate silence descended r-rpon Tikal'
Eprgrapher Steve Houston lras
Yik,in's name has not been easy to tratrslate .
of the Night Sky'" Giver-r the tradioffered the likely translation of "Darkness
tionalMayahabitofr."-i,-rgachild,especiallyaroyalchild,bythefatherstepfor a "sign" of a soul spirit or
ping out of the irir,f-,J"g q.rl"rrers and iookir-rg
how Yik'rn got his name' Hasaw'
nahwdlfor the n.* f-'"ing, we can speculate
would not likely have settled for
the father, although i,-,nluntiu. in cha.a.t.r
\while
the sighting of I jaguar, a sigartificial means of naming his royal heir.
certainiy have been convenient
nificant snake, b";;;f]y;r a crocodile would
"
he saw: the "darkness of the
what
for
in terms of pr"r,ig", H^1"* r1"a to settle
of the naming cannot be lost in
night sky." fh" norr"r,y, n' *tll as the beauty
brrth date in, the hieroglyphic
modern times. Although there is no recognized
bo'n during the dark of the moon
record, the name ,.,ggl"' that Yik'in *n'
"dark."
at Tikal wor-rld not normally be considered
even though ,r-r"
Therefore,
"igiirr.f
landscape.
the
The brillian.. of ,.n,, nlo,-'e is enough to illuminate

thisbirthmLlsthavebeenintheseasonwhenthenightskywasobscuredby
cloud.
Enough is knownaboutthereignofHasaw'sfirstsuccessortoir.idicatethat
Much of
puL,li. works on a g'a'-td scale than did his father'
he br,rilt even

-or"

r47

A FAMILY AFFAIR
this he did in honor of his father. It is likely thar the rule of yk'in chan K'awil
represented the peak of the Late Classic achievement and wealth at Tikal.

The other
tains quite a
n'rent. This

Nig/rt SA),
(Yik'in Chan K'atLtil)

Yik'in Chan K'awil (Ruler B, and Yaxkin Kan Chak)

There are numerous known dates at Tikal associated with the reign of yrk'in.
The following is a sequential reconstrucrion of what we know and can reasonably guess for the life of the ruler who oversaw the peak of Tikal's glory
Yik'in acceded ro power in the role of chacte of Tikal on g December
AD 734,1 the same year assumed to mark his father's death. This accession was
recorded in twcr places, on stela zr and Stela 5. The formcr (i//. ss) is an
extremely fine example of the delicacy of srone carving which marked this
period, but unforrunately it is only partially preserved. The dates on a srela
which was placed before a ma jor srructure usually include rhe dare of dedication of the strllcture itself. In the case of Stela 2r, the structlirc is Temple VI, the
Temple of the Inscriptions, whrch associates Yik'in with this very important
temple. In turn, the temple associates him with numerous later inscribed dates
which deserve separate description below rn their chronologicai sequence.
However, the dedication date or-r Stela zr is the nexr known evcnt in his life.
This date is zz .f uly ro 7362 ard by association it is also assumed to be the date
of construction of the Tcmple, if not of the roof comb to be discussed later.

Hasaw, and
to power. Tl
event descril
the fact that
son of I('an
to his past b
br-rilt Ternplt

an event ilr
immediate fr

The lintel ol

An irnposinl
thc southerr

ally constru,

text

associa

doorway of
component

88 The intricate caruing on Stela zr

is

preserued, but onLy a part of the

stela suruiues. The inscriTttion records
tbe accession date of Yil<'in Chdn
weLL

K'awiL in .+o 77q.

cides with a
Yrk'in. The l

sirnilar devi
example of

depicted are
iconographi
Structure

into smaller

stories show
over the ravi
new structul

know was th
a view must

to be a marl
Yik'ir-r. The

orrly

guess.

retreat housl
rounds the s
cot'itaining a
thc shield cz

when Yik'in
multiple imr
yard (ill.9z)

'{

A I,AMILY AFFAIR
r Chan K'awil
at

Tikal.

:ign of Yik'in.
id can reasons

glory

8 December
accession was

(l//. ss) is an
r marked this
tes on a steia

The otircr tcxt which mentions Yik'in's accession date is on Stela -5 and contains cluitc a lot of other information about him, including his parentage statement. This stela was located in front of Temple -5D-33-rst, built by his fathcr,
Hasaw, and it was set in placc on ro June AD 7 44,3 ten years after Yk'in acceded
to power. The date has other importance. It is the r3-katun annivcrsary of the
event described on thc adjacent stela (Stela 3). The srgnificance of this lies in
thc fact that the earlier date, at 6 March an 488,4 was placed by the rSth ruler, a
son of I('an Ak, and an illustrious ancestor of Yik'in. Thus Stela 5 links Yrk'in
to his past by both placc and time. It serves as a monlrment to his father (who
built Templc a3), his grandfather (buried under Tcmple 33) and the date marks
alr event in his more distant ancestry. The samc stela records Yik'in's own
immcdiate family history, but lamentabiy, not the date of his birth.

rte of dedicabmple VI, the

ry important
Lscribed dates

:al sequence.
,nt in his life.
to be the date
Lssed

'

zr

is

the
ords

later.

The lintel of Structure 5D-52-rst

An imposing tiered palace, often called thc "five-storied palace," [onrs part of
thc sor-rthern boundary of the Central Acropolis (iLLs. 39 and 9o). It was acrually constnrcted as two separate buildings at different time periods. The only
text associated with this architectural complex comes from the middle
doorway of the first story of the smaller Lrppcr building. This is the earliest
componcnt of the five stories and the hieroglyphic date at z6 Jr-rne ,+o 74r \ coincides with a date from the Templc IV lintels and therefore must bc attribllted to
Yik'in. The palace litrtcl shows a dwarf in attendance to the figure of the king, a
similar device to that dcpicted on Lintel 3 of Ternplc I, perhaps another
example of Yik'in's imitation of (or homage to) hrs father (i//. 9r). Also
depicted are two long-necked water birds now recognized as cormorants, an
iconographic motif that was quite popular in the Early Classic period at Tikal.
Structure 5D-52-rst contaius two ranged roorns which wcre later divided
into smaller chambers. Neither the original first story, nor any of the two later
stories show evidcnce of family residence. The strr-rcture faced south or-rly, out
over the rilvinc which includes the Palace Reservoir. \(/l-ren built by Yik'in, thc
new structure blockcd a fine view from the south sidc of 5D-57 which we now
know was the house of Hasaw, Yik'in's fathcr. This apparent ritual "killing" of
a view mLrst be considered with anthropological care, as it supcrficially seems
to be a mark of disrespect, or disregard for his father's housc on the part of
Yik'in. The fr-rnction of the new building must be the kcy and to this we can
only gr-ress. The attributes of the building suggest a temporary residence or
retreat house - a housc of neditation.6 The upper zonc decoration which surrounds the sr-rrviving ends and rear of the building consisted of simple panels
containing a stylized eye of l(inich Ahar-r, thc sun god, whose image is borne on
the shicld carriecl by Yk'in on the lintel within the new building. Therefore,
when Yik'in completed this new burlcling, the old house of Hasaw looked upon
multiple images of the eye of thc sun god lying to the south of a small courtyard

(ill.

9z).

89 (left abot,e)
ctnt:

of' Yik'in's

Ttt,ct ttrctre stot

stt'LtctLtr( tL',ts t
9o (left bcLotr,)
the good state

st or1, ,tntl llte t

9r (right) Dr,t
Structt.trc.;D-5
dltentletl

b1' d

aortnoritn[ j
I it'ert'.

rL]l

9z (btlou,) Dt

tl)(

t.tpper zon(

design mcr:' be

Kiniclt Ahttu

t'

sltiald on Lintt

i i';

srFF-s-'.-i',
'.::,.:.!:...
:.:..:1
.,r, - .,1:.i;t*i*
',F..n,
"-.""
.,rrS-i,-,.
-."i
plr
;-iJ
-,..
#-,
..;;.(
.9rt._i:]!!w..::..r*{..t,r-'.-.
].ld***s

fa :'

rJ,

89 (left aboue) The first stor1, of Structure 1D-52 was

one of Yik'in's building projects probably in AD 74r.
Ttuo rmore stories utere later ddded.ln r9y9 the
structure utts ouergroLun by forest.

belou) The north side or rear of JD-iz shows

the good stata of mtlsonry 'preseruation ctf the /trst
storlt 114i the decoratiue panels in the upper zone.

9o (Left

9t (right) Draruing of

the suruiuingpdrt ctf I'inteL z,

Structure 5D-.t2, first storlt depicts the lord Yik'in

attended b1, a dwarf and in the presence of a
cormorctnt, which ma1, haue been part of his personal
Liuery.

9z (belou) Detail of one of the tJecoratiue panels on

the upper zr.tne of Struc.ture 5D-12. The squared corner
design ma.t be an abstrdction of the eye of the god
Kinich Ahau whose face {llso appears on the Lctrd's
shield on LinteL z of the same building.

S:,!

li4

.6ilr

9q Drtttt'ing o[

ctrptttred ptLanq
Tt:mpLe I portr;n

Yik'in's greate
Thc construct
project rvhich
Temple
ar.rd

clcriver

flonr thc

scconcl :rnd th

scene featurin

turecl

palanclr,

rcsr-ilts

of tlvo

statcment thal
1j4,,a1111,,',

r,erif

stories told or
the life of a ro

93 (left) The lar

bttil.t to con1yner,
Ncz.r.'\Vorirl.

lt

s'

,1
t't

I;

9q Dratuing of the caruing on Lintel 3 of TempLe IV, shotuing the

Lord seated on a

.nl)tur.ed paLanquin in uictoric.tus glory. The scine ret'lects a similar one on Lintel
TempLe I portraying his father, FIdsatu, in a simiLar situation.

j of

Yik'in's greatest project: Temple IV

The construction of Temple rv (iLl.93) is physicaliy the largest consrructio'
projcct which is associated with Yik'in's Lfe. The information provided by the
Temple clerives both from its physical placement in the sacred space of the ciry,
ancl from thc detailed texts on two carved wooden lintels which decorate the
second and third doorways inside the temple itself. These lintels each depict a
scene fcaturing images of Yik'in himself, showing the lord riding upon captured palanquins from two different cities and representing the successfr-rl
results of two different "\/ars." The tert on Lintel
3 QlL.9a) also includes the
statement that the king is the son of Lord Hasaw ar-rd hrs wife, ,,Lady Twclve
Macaw," verifying the parentage sratcmenr menrioned carlicr on Stela The
5.
stories told on these lintels provide a fascinating, albert stylized, gLl-rpse into
the life of a royal leader at the peak of Maya glory in the lowlands. These texrs
3 (!eft) The Largest construction project of yik'in chan K'awiL was TempLe
possibly
buiLt to commemordte his father. It remdins the talL,st pre-Columbinn str'ucture in the
Netu'X/orLd.

l\

A FAMILY AIJFAIR
are histories, possibly colored by propaganda, the tale of events as the king
wanted them remembered, and therefore they are structured through a series of
dates. This series is a great boon to the archaeology of the city, ranking in
importance with the inscriptions on Stela 3r and Temple VI.7 Thc progression
of evenrs is listed here in their chronological order which requires that the readings move back ar-rd forth between Lintels z and 3 of Temple IV
The temple itself stands c.64.6 m (z:'z ft) from the base of the great supporting platform to the sr-rrviving top of the roof comb, n-raking it the tallest surviving New'$7or1d structure. By comparison, the Tigre Compler at El Mirador is
55 m (r8r ft) and the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan rises a little over 6r m
(zoo ft) . In both cases the actual nass of coltstruction was greater than Temple
IV due to the size of ground dimer-rsions, but Temple IV remains the taliest. The
pyramid is formed by seven stacked terraces of diminishing size, with a central

grand stair leading to the temple. The proportion of the temple building is
somewhat longer and squatter than on Temples I and II, and 5D-33-rst, the
prototype. There is however, the single doorway which was introduced as the
signature of Hasaw for this style of temple architecture. The massive roof
comb suffered loss of detail as a result of the early clearing done by Maudslay,
but the heavily sculpted figure of the seated king can still be discerned, facing

r51

and design th

the doorway,
Ridge that br
that the early
ing from the

distance are t
not a separat
mark visrble

friendly neigl
A single pl

like the huge

east-facing C
The lintel datr

The earliest

3. This recor

\7akah, thor
another wesr

The subject t

of

eastward over most of the city (see ill. 59).

The temple plan is the same in concept, if not in dimension, as Ternples I and
II, with stepped-up rooms from front to rear, with an exterior single side-inset
which disguises the presence of a third room (see Chapter Twelve) . The view
from Temple IV encompasses all the other Great Temples, III in the near

qr-rin

ground; II and I in the distance, Temple V off to the right or south' visible
behind the massive South Acropolis (see ilLs. j and t9).
Reconstruction of the Lost World Pyramid has exposed this giant construction to view of Temple IV today. One realizes that from this vantage point,
lookir-rg east, all of central Tikal was visible in ancient times when the foliage
was under control, and not coverirtg the plazas as it does today. Spaces that had
been designed to be open are now hidden by the rainforest.
Inside the temple there were three doorways separating the three narrow
rooms, each narrower than the one before from front to rear, in the fashion of
the Great Temples of Tikal. The lintel over the front doorway, now gone, is
assumed uncarved. Those over the secorrd and third doorways now reside in
Basel, Switzerland. A cast of Lintel 3 can be seen in the National Museum in
Guatemala City These great ntasterpieces of Maya art, including the lintcls of
Temples I and II, must now be viewed or-rtside the realm of their creation. The
lintels had been carved from the wood of the zapote tree, apparently outside
the temple and installed after the artwork was rendered. Impressions in the
plaster of the lintel beds high above the doorways teIl us that the wooden
beams were wrapped in reed mats for protection and tied with ropes for transportation. These reconstructed details of the intricate engineering that was
required to raise this exquisite temple or-rly reveal traces of the energy, thought,

temples face
the east (Ten

the

There exists

and the scen

father Hasai
and one sho

phy remain

west. Additi

protector

is

are visible.

jaguar identr

(or perhaps

appear to dt

on Tcmple I

palarrquin)

event celebr

tifying a pal
imagery pat
qLlestion the
are recordec

like son.
One day

the capturet
sanctificatic

A FAMILY AFFAIR
ts as the kir-rg
ugh a series of

ty, ranking in
te progression
that the readlreat supporttallest surviv-

ElMirador

is

ittle over 6r m
r than Temple
he tallest. The

with

central

'le building is

D-33-rst, the
rduced as the
massive

roof

by Maudslay,

:erned, facing

Iemples I ar-id
rgle side-inset
ve). The view

I in the near
south, visible
ant constfucantage point,

:n the foliage
aces

and design that resulted in such a magnificent architectr-rrirl achievcment. From

the doorway, far beyond the tcmple realms of the city, one can see the Pine
Ridge that borders the great Bajo de Santa Fe to the east of Tikal - rhe route
that thc carly pioneers of the city followed on thcir w2ry to settle this city, trilveling from thc cast, the direction of the color rccl. Beyond that in the hazy
distance are the Maya Mountair-rs, today rn the neighboring country of Belize
not a separate political entity when Tikal was first settled, just a physical lar-rclrnark visible in the distant countryside - on the far: srdc of Tikal's sometimes
frit'rrclly ncighh, rr. Narrrt jo.
A single plain stela ar-rcl altar stood at the base of the stair of Ternple IV just
like the huge plain stela and its altar found at the base of Temple II, also ar.r
east-facinli Great Ternple.

that had

three narrow
he fashion of
now gone, is
row reside in

lMuseum in
the lintels

of

:reation. The
ently outside
ssions in the
the wooden
pes for trans-

ing that was

rgy, thought,

The lintel dates and their evenr:

Tlre earliest lintel date for Ternplc IV is z8 Jr,rly eo 7438 and cornes from Lir-rtel
3. This recorcls a "star war" event, waged against a city called Yax Ha Lil'in
'Wakah, thor-rght to be either the site known today as El Peru or possibly
alrother westcrn site whose location was only cliscovered in February 1997.e
The subjcct of the text accompanying this datc is the seizure of the royal palanquin of the concluered city, an action performed by Yik'in, Lord of Tikal.r0
There exists a very intcrcsting parallel here betweeri both the subject mattcr

and the sccncs shown on the can'ed lintels of Temple I, the work of Yik'in's
father H:rsaw. In each case there is onc lirrtel showing a jaguar protector deity
and onc showing a plumed serpent protcctor. Despite the fact that the two
tcmples face each other, one facing to the west (Temple I) - thc other facing to
thc east (Temple IV) - thc rclative positions of the jaguar and serpent iconogrephy remain the samc: serpcllt irnagery on the east and jaguar imagery on the
west. Addrtionally, there is a difference in thc jaguar imagery. On Tcmple I the
protector is a very large and clear figr:re of the animal. Even traces of the tail
arc visible. On Temple IV the imagcry is of a very large hunan figure wearir.rg
jagr-rar identifiers - spots on thc visible arm and 1eg. Another possible difference
(or perhaps it is incomplete ktrowlcclge) is that both lintels on Temple IV
appear to deal with the victories and capture of enemy palanquins. However,
on Temple I, Lintel 3, we have evider-rce only for an identical event (cepturc of
palancluin) at a different city (Calakmul). For lack of the con-rplete tcxr, rhe
event celebrated on Lintel z of Templc I is not known, br-rt thc clements identifying a palanquin are certainly present with a great deal cif plumed serpent
inragcry paralleling that on Ternple IV, Lintel 3. While there is no reason to
qLlcstion the tnrth of the events rccorded on Temple I! the likclihood that they
are recorded ir-r imitation of those on Temple I cannot be igr-rored: like fathcr,
lil<e son.

One day laterll some kind of damage or destrr-rction was perforn'red against
the captured palancluin from El Peru (or thc new site).It may have bcen a desancti{ication cercmony designed to dissociate thc holy object from its placc of
r5

A I-AMII,Y AFFAIR

origin. Thc tcrtr-ral phrase errds with the arrival back home of thc Lord of Tikal
(Yik'in).
About six morrths later,12 another ceremony was recorded r5 days ilftcr a
neilr totel solar eclipse at Trkal. The action seems to bc the placing of an offering in il cacl-re plate by Yik'in, but its timing is relatccl to the cor.rquest which is
the main tl'reme of the narrativc on Lir-rtel 3 of Temple IV
One day latcr, on 4 February AD 71113 a new "star war" event was rccorded
on Lintel 2.. This timc the place of attack was thc city of Naranjo to the east of
Tikal, ancl the object of att:rck the patron god of Naranjo. Again the action
involvecl thc royal palanquin of thc attacked city. The capture of Yax May I(an
Chac Sak Chucn, a known king of Naranjo, and his palanquin wcrc rccorded.
The actor, oncc again, was the chacte of Tikal, Yik'in.
Tl-rrcc years after the capture of the palar-rquirr of E,l Perr-r (or the alternate
site),1a yet another cerernony w:rs pcrfcinned by Yik'in iu commcmoration of
what must havc been the most significant achievement of his reign. This ceremony invoked a "rencwal" of the god of the captureci palar-iquin which is now
idcntified as the "god of thc chacte" of Tikal. The implications, both religious
ar-rd politic:rl, are astounding. By right of capturc, this inanirnate obiect,
viewed :,rs a god of a foreign capitill has, through ceremony, bccome a god of
Tikal. The tert dcscribes how Yik'in was carriecl on the palanquin with its own
llArle, and how he danced in the Great Plaza at Tikal. Probably these are anniversary celebrations of thc capture of the palanquin and concluest of the
distant city; accompanied by declication of this holy oblect to usu in its new
home at Tikal.
Tlre follolvitrg year, on 7 March AD 74715 we are told that Yik'in conclucted a
vcry similar event but this tirne celebrating the anniversary of the capture of thc
palanquin of Naranjo. This trrrre the ceremony inch-rdccl a serpent vision expcrienced by the king, like the one dcpicted at Yaxchilan.16
\ile can only guess at the meaning of thc parallels between the texts.on the
lintels of Templcs IV and I. Like Templc I, Temple IV could be the mortuary
strllctllre for Yik'in, as is believed by many scholars. Nevertheless, hc was
clearly emulatirrg his father in at least onc rcgard, the recording of conqucsts in
the most striking manncr. Terr-rple I! t1-re tallest strllctur:e to have ever been
built in Tika1, was carefr-rlly placed in space, not only facir"rg Templc I, residence
of the god-ancestor Flasaw in such a way that no intervenii-lg strllctlrre (either
before or after) obscured the view from dclorway to cloorw:r1', but also in a way
that fulfills truly rcmarkable geometric rclationships to earlier import.rnt
temples. The gcometrv of Tikal architecture is described in Chapter Twclve.
The dates recordcd on the Ternple IV lintcls span a period of a little uncler
four ycars. We do not know the date of construction of the building itself,
altl-rough :r suggested date bascd upon a varietl' of sourccs is in the year AD 74r,
coincident with the known datc of construction of another br-rilding raised by
Yik'in in thc Central Acropolis, Structure 5D-52-rst, describccl earlier.
Howevcr, the questior-r always arises at Tikal concerning thc relative dates of

ri6

constructl(]r

The reason
Maya built a
Egypt, the c
few mor.rths.
conccrning

the huge bu
the dates of

completion.
constructior
against a lat
not actually
thc lintels w

Thus

Yk'in,

end

but

CoLumn ALtt

Pl,aza tn ry6

This small t
placed on

Structure

51

altar was pr
classic activ

from some
stood

ar.rcie:

hallcourt m
another sin

is finely de

A FAMILY AFFAIR
Lord of

Tikal

days aftcr a
g

of an offer-

luest whrch is
was recorcled

to the east of

in the :rctior.r
fux May I(an
ere recorcled.

the altcmate
rmoration of
;n. This cerewhich is now
,oth rcligious
mate object,
rme a god

construction for a Great Temple as opposed to the dates recordcd on its lintels.
The reason for thrs problem is qurte an intercstit'tg question about l-row the
Maya burlt and completed a temple on these proportiot'rs. Like the pyran-rids of
Egypt, thc construction ;ob was clearly a vcry big one, not accomplished in a
few rnonths. The same interpretative problem exists for both Tcmples I and IV
concerning thc dates recorded on the wooden lintels ar-id the probable dates of
thc huge building's construction. L'r both cases there is a good argumcnt that
ti-re dates of events on the lintels are a few years later than the probable cliltes of
completion. This suggests that the lintels were installed several years after tl-re
constrllctiol-I. Conversely, what we know of the construction sequence argues
agair-ist a later installation of the lintels. This wor-r1d mean that Templc IV was
not actuaily finishecl r-rntil some littlc time after March, AD 747, assuming tl-rat
the lintcls were carved bcfore their installation.
Thus ends the hieroglyphic record from the largest monument raised by
Yik'in, but by no means is it the last we hear of him.

of

with its own

are anni-

Lese

quest
se

of

the

in its new

conductecl a

9;

CoLumn ALtdr r , found in

the West Plaza in a secondarJ,

aptlue of thc
vision expeI

position u,as probdbl-y d

hnllcourt ntot kt't nnd,lcpi;ts,t
minor uictory of Yik'in Chan

textS.on the

K'aruiL.

he mortuary
:less, he was
conquests in
ve ever becn
e I, residence
rcture (either

also in a way

:r important
er Twelr'e.

r little under

rilding itsclf,
year AD

74r,

ing raised by

ibed earlier.
.tive dates of

carved monufftent was excavatcd in the tWest Group

Plaza in 196z during rny own excavations irr that zone to the west of Tempie II.
This small but exquisitc monument was for.rnd in a reset positicin, horizontaliy
placed on a grand formai stair leading to the remains of a well-elevated palace,
Structure 5D-r.t, which marked the north side of thc'West Plaza. Thc small
altar was probably placed in such a prominent public position dr,rring thc Postclassic activity at the site. Clearly it did not belong thcrc ancl had been dr:rgged
frcrnr some other location in the post-collapse frenzy to observe badly r-rnclcrstclod ancient ritu:rl. Most observers agree that this monument originated as a
ballcor-rrt marker, probably coming from thc ballcourts in the E ast Plaza, where
another similar monument was found. Nearly intact (l//.95), the sculpture
is fine1y cletailed, showing a seated, bound prisoner. There are sculpturai
Column Altdr

t A smali

r57

A n_AMILY AI,FAIR

parallcls with Altar 8, also showirrg a bcir.rnd prisoner and dating to Yik'in's
twin-pyran'rid group (Group 3D-z) of slightly Iater date. It is suggested that the
salne artist carved bcith monuments.
The inscribed date is ro Dccember en 74817 and the text recorcls the capturc
of a noble by the name of Chac Toh Waybi \fluk Tzukls (no trarrslation),
thought to be from Naranjo becausc his name also appears on llore than one
cer:rmic vesscl from that site at the same time pcriod.
Grou'p.;l)-z The twin-pyramid gror.rp which marks the end of the r6th katun

(el 75r) is known

"Complex P," or Group 3D-2. This groLlp, including the

Altar
carved Stcla zo and
8, was discoverec{ by E clwin Shook in t 9y . The group
is located on thc wcst sicle of the North Zone also idcntificd on the lnaps as
Gror-rp H. Tl-ris very important architectural featr,rre of grcatcr Tikal is located
at the confluence of t1-re Maler iind Maudslay Causeways. These causeways
may also have beeri built by Yik'in, but abor-rt this we have no information. The
position of thc twin-pyramid group on the wcst side of the large pyramid
Temple Structllre lC-+l is significant. The big temple-pyramicl we see toclay is
surely late in date arrd thc placement of the twin-pyramid group ncxt to it suggcsts that an earlier temple alrc:rdy existed at this location. Excevetions concluctecl in r978 did demonstrate tl-rat thcrc is r vcry irnportant Early Classic
component to Structure lC-+l.In terms of thc cosmic layout of the city this
spot is the northern apcx, the ultimate location of "heaven," just as the north
side in a twin-pyramid group is whcre the king resides in heaven, and just as the
North Acropolis represents thc heavenly resting place to the north of thc
central sacrecl space of the Great Plaza. For the site as a whoie, Temple 3C-43 is
as

96

Temple Vl

could weLl be

hc rrltirnatt' rtortht'rrt poirrt.

Stela zo shows thc ruler in fr-rll profile, facing to his rigl-rt, very like Stela zr,
also raised in Yik'in's honor. Instcad of the usual ceremonial bar, Yik'in holcls

haue been ada

in his right hand a vertical staff ending in a three-bladecl weapon while his left
arm supports a small shield. He stands bcfore a throne bearing the face of a
jagr,rar wearing !'r "tie" knotted under its chin. Thc ruler holcls a bag in his left
hand probably holdir-ig incense or tobacco. His large back-rnask is topped with
a bent human lcg as on his earlier Stela -5. The iconography of this detached
human leg rnr-rst bear somc meaning to his conquests.
Toward the north end of the Maler Causeway, which leads to thc North
Group, there is a very large rock sculpture, the only one of its kind known at
Tika1, carvcd into the exposed and hardened bcdrock. TI're scene depicts twcr
figurcs, one a prisoner. The accompanying inscription, although eroded, sug-

Mendez Car
found durin

gests

th:lt the actor/victor is Yik'in.1e

project of

Pr

temple diffe
doorways ar
tecture befo:

measures r2
of the longe

historical re
room templ
cant archite
the East Pla

r58

Temple VI: The Temple of the Inscriptions

palace coml
Temple VI (

The Temple of the lnscriptions was dccmed to be a Great Ternple at the timc of
discovery because of its imposing size and connection to the central zone by thc

In front o
,//.8s). AIth

rg to Yik'in's
estecl that the
[s

the captr-rrc

tmslation),
.ore thelr one

c r6th katr-rn
the

LnclLrc'lrne

7. The

group

the maps

as

<al is locatcd

ie catlscw:l),s
'nretion. The
rge pt,ramicl
l sec today is
rext to it sLtgrvetions conrarl,v Classrc

the cit-v this

thc r.rorth
ncl just:rs thc
as

rorth of thc
nplc 1C-4

j is

9(, Temple Vl, knotun as the Temple of the Inscriptions, u,as dedictted b),Yik'in and
couldtuellbehisburialmonument.Theroof combuiththeinscriptionsisthoughtto
hdue been atltled after Yik'in's death.

like Stcla z r,

Yrk'in holcls
rvhile his lcft
:hc face of a
ag in hrs

lcft

topped li,ith
his clctached

o thc North
rcl knor.vn at

clepicts tr,vcr
e

roclecl, sug-

t thc time of
lzonc b1'the

Mendez Causewa,v. This was thc last cliscovered of the largc temples of Tika1,
for,rnd during exploration in t 9 57 by Antonio Ortiz, forcman of the excavation
project of Pennsylvania. Although measuring more than z5 m (8o ft) ta1l, tl-ris
temple differs quite markedly frorn other Great Temples at Tikal. It has three
doorways and is proportioned in thc squat wide fashion characteristic of architecture before thc reign of Hasaw (iLl. 96). However, the remarkable roof corrL-r
mcasrires rz. j m (ao ft) in height and the central panel at the rear contait-rs one
of the longest inscriptions at the site. Since inscriptions ere our tnain soLlrce of
historical reconstruction of the city, this panel is very i11po.rant. The tworoom temple faces west into a large walled coLlrtyard, devorcl of other significant architecture. The Mcndez Car-rseway leads from the southeast corner of
the East Plaza down a iong inclinc interrupted by t1-re presence of G Group, a
palace complex, and ending along the north side of the courtyard that fronts
Ternple VI (ill. 97).
Lr front of the Tcmple stairway and facing wcst are Stela zr and Altar 9 (see
ill. 88). Although half-missing, enough text rcmains to know that Stela 2r was

ri9

A FAMILY AITFAIR
lnscrlptlon,
story of the

of early settlt
itself may be
The earlie
those small

r,

archaeologic

founding of
remarkable.

The next

<

Middle Prec
date of r56 n
lis was alrea,
lowed by a
review of th

Just what tht

The next

various stela
available to
unknown ev,

The rema

Yik'in, inclu
97 Shadetl ared indicdles a group of building projects attributed to Yil<'in tuhich are
cctnnected b1, the Mendez Causetual'. They include Group G nedr the upper (Left) end of
the Cduseutd)4 ancl TentpLe Yl at the bottom of the Causetady (right).

figure in Har

life, meaninl
fall only thr
Ain II, or Ru

ro
of Yik'in's monuments, and its locatiori indicatcs dedication of the temple
before which it stands. Thcrc is also reference to Yik'in ir-r the greet inscription
of the roof comb. Tl-rere is a possibility that the roof comb was added at a later
date by a later king, but nevertheless collstructiorl of the monuncnt is essociated with Yik'in. Because of the architectural integration of the Mcndcz
Causeway and the palace Group G, these features can :rlso bc associated with

one

this ruler.
The mystery of the dates from Ternple VI
The recorded dates inch,rded in the massive inscription extend over a pcriocl of
r9o5 years, reaching back into what must have beer.r mythological tirne for thc
Maya who carved the text.zo Further dates concern later historical cvcnts that
remained in the oral tradition or were contemporary.
The chosen location for the temple may well relate to thc carlicst mythologi-

cal dates. Christopher Jones2r has argucd that Tikal was first settled in this
rcgion ancl Patrick Culbert has dernonstrated that one of the earliest cerarnic
deposits of trash camc from the immediate region of Temple VI. Lr this
t6o

Tl
zr in fr

766.27

Stela

roof comb

it

tive possibilr

himself in tl

little doubt t
of Yik'in's p
Yik'in's n
his father's'
and Temple

for the citir

'

II. There is

structure 3(
paralleling
and 5D-33-

detailin Ch
In summ

include Ten

A FAMILY AITFAIR

ubich are
(left) end

of

rf the temple
inscription
Ced at a later
Lt

nent is assothe Mendez

ociated with

period of
time for the
a

I events that
t mythologi-

:ttled in this
liest cer:amic

VI. In this

inscription, were the Maya trying to reach back in time to recreate an entire
story of the settlement of the site, skipping most of the middle parts but telLng
of early settlement and then relating this to contemporary events? The location
itself may be ar-r attempt to raise a monument at the point of first arrivai.
The earliest date at rr39 BC22 is a time when Tikal could have been one of
those small villages described in Chapter Three, although it is earlier than any
archaeological evider"rce for humans on the site. If this is the true date of the
foundir-rg of Tikal, tl-ren its maintained memory until the Sth century is truly
remarkable. The alternative is that the date is a mythological guess.
The next date is 457 BC,z3 which falls during the Tzec ceramic period of the
Middle Preclassic, and Tikal definitely was occupied at this time. The third
date of :r56 scza is during the Late Preclassic, by which time the North Acropolis was already an established and sacred entity.25 These early dates are all followed by a Tikal emblem glyph, strongly suggestittg that they represent a
review of the eariy historical events in the settlement and growth of the site.
Just what these events are remains a mystery.
The next five dates on the Temple VI roof comb are also found carved on
various stelae set on the North Terrace of the Great Plaza and so were readily
available to Yk'in. What these record are some tun-ending dates and other
unknown events falling between AD 5r4 and 528.26
The remainder of the text is historical in nature and deals with the life of
Yik'in, including his mother's name, the Lady Twelve Macaw (the romantic
figure in Hasaw's life) as well as Yik'in's claim to be in the fourth katun of his
life, meaning that he was over 6o years of age. In this series, the last two dates
fall only three years before the succession date of Yik'in's son, known as Yax
Ain II, or Ruler C. The last recorded date in this historical series is r5 February
to 766.27 There is an exact ir-rterval of 3o years between the date on Yik'in's
Stela zr in front of the temple and the final date on the roof comb series. The
roof comb itself could be an addition erected after Yik'in's death. The alternative possibility is that Yik'in made the addition himself very late in life, placing
himself in the chronological flow of the entire history of Tikal. There remains
little doubt that the temple itself and its accompanying stela and altar were one
of Yik'in's projects.
Yik'in's monumental architectural projects were prodigious, exceeding even
his father's work in sheer quantity. The constructiort of Temple VI on the east
and Temple IV on the extreme west of the city created a ne% expanded cosmos
for the city Temples VI and IV face each other in the manner of Temples I and
II. There is a known geometric relationship between Temples IV and VI with
Structure 3C-4 in the North Zone28 as well as the formation of a new triad,
parallelingthe triad formed by Hasaw in the GreatPlaza with Temples I, II,
and 5D-33-rst. The role of geometry in city plar-rning is discussed in greater
detail in Chapter Twelve.
In summary, known works of Yik'in's architectural contributior-rs to Tikal
include Temple IV, Group 3D-2, palace Structure 5D-52-rst, Temple VI, and

t6t

A FAMII,Y AFFAI]T

possibly the roof con'rb attached to it. Associated by inference, we must also
include the Mendcz Causeway, Group G palace complex, which may have been
Yik'in's private palace quarters, and possibly the Maler Causeway, inclr-rding as
it does, the giant rock sculpture attribllted to Yik'in, as well as the E,ast Plaza
"tnarket place."

3r'
/i

.,

'ru

The burial place of Yik'in

The questi<-rn of this great ruler's place of burial is complex and unresolved.
Either of the Great Temples whicl-r he built, Temple IV and Temple VI, rnight
l-rave been raised for mortuary pllrposes. In the absence of excavation there are
ariuments against botl-r. The only cast-facing Great Templc that has been
archaeologically tested is Temple II where no burial was discovered. On the
basis of this single example it is risky to conch-rde that al1 threc of Tikal's eastfacing Great Temples (II, III, and IV) scrved only as colnmelnorative cenotaphs
to ancestors, and yet this possibility is real. While thc inscriptions on Temple
IV are a celebration of Yik'in's own exploits, the location and position of the
monument were set in such a manner that homage to his deceased father
(Hasaw) was integral to the building's existence. \We still do not know if any
tomb is covered by either Temple IV or Temple lll.
The identity of the personage in Burial r96 is important because its contents
clcarly belonged to a member of the royal family. This burial was discovered by
Nicholas Hellmuth bcneath Structure 5D-73, a very curious structurc in its
own right . Located immediately south of Ternple II, the structurc is a pyraruidal series of platforms with no buildirrg at thc summit. Comparable in height
to many temples in t1-re North Acropolis, the mystery of why a pyramid containing a lavish royal tomb would be raised with no masonry building at the
summit is unanswered. The contents of the tomb ceramics and stylistic
designs of non-ceramic objects - place the tomb as nearly contemporary or
slightly later than that of Hasar,v (Burial r r6 under Temple I). This would place
the tomb at about the right time for Yik'in's burial. The grave included one
adult male laid centrally, face up, with his head to the west (i//.98). The grave
goods were superb and on a par with those of Burial r16. They included some
truly remarkable polychrome vessels and a jade carving of a baby jaguar, in
addition to one item of special interest. This is a lidded cylinder vessel of jade
mosaic (pl. XI) which is rn apprrent cornpanion piece to the one described
earlicr from Hasaw's tomb. The piece from Burial r16 has a male human head
as a handle to thc lid, and an incrsed inscription which identifies Hasaw's name.
Conversely, the vase from Buriai r96 has no inscription while thc human hcad
on the lid has features which rnatch those of Maya women, especially the l-rair
design. A protuberant device ertending from the cylinder vessel's exterior wa11
has been interpreted by some as phallic, but its complerity of desigr-r suggesrs a
more abstract concept. The two vessels (from Burials rr6 and 196) look like a
pair manufactured simultaneously of a male and female couple. The male
r6z

sr.-*s".
W'r;r-.

so@
#i
gV^
L

"
q9

^ t.))

o"

-44ffi

ffi,tr*^
42' YC

@'?'

';6

A FAMII-Y AFI,'AIR

we must also
tay have been
;

including

as

he East Plaza

sa[')sq$

I unresolved.

rle VI, might

:ion there are

ft

/*

_1

/t

/i

sffi88.. tt

E g"*o;

%*j
l0-

ryS's;e"

cenotaphs

q
15

(beloru) A closeup of the remains in BuriaL

t96 shorus the richness of jade jeuelr)' utorn b)'

99

gffi
,vF' .*.

eased father

if

98 (left) Drdruing of BuriaL t96 discouered under

Structure yD-73 just south of Tem'ple ll in the
Gredt PLaza. ClearLy a roydl burial, the male
personctge is sctmehou reLated to both Hdsdtu
and Yik'in.

tht: Lctrd.

on Temple
'sition of the
Ls

know

\\\

'\rL#;l

5lr"*.i"'

Tikal's e ast-

-_5

..4
-.

f*'t$ 56
ov@

52-"'

rat has been

ered. On the
ve

any

t*
.t . iit:'t':S

$;T

i.

.,

f[+q.1";s: .f

l its contents
Iiscovered by
ucture in its

r+'

is a pyrami-

ble in height

,1,1

yramid con-

'i_

r,;1..

@r1,',

\w
m

ilding at the
stylistic
)mporary or

,.+":t,*)

ar-rd

would place
ncluded one
'). The grave
rluded some
ry jaguar, in
essel of jade
re described

ruman head
saw's name

ruman head
ally the hair

:rterior wall
;n suggests a

) look like a
:. The male

lM

A FAMILY AFFAIR
version was placed in Hasaw's tomb (l//. 87) . The second vessel with female
head likely represents Hasaw's beloved wife, to whom considerable amenriorl
had been paid following her death, including the construction of Temple II.
Yik'in may have placed the vessel bearing his father's image and name into his

father's tomb but retained the representation of his mother for inclusion in
another grave. The fact that this second tomb was buried beneath a structure
adjacent to and facing Temple II, the mother's monument, is compelling. The
question still remair-rs of who is buried in Burial r96 (ill. gq). Could it be Yik'in
himself, as some have suggested or could it be another brother of Yik'in's, one
who never ruled?2e Finally, Burial r96 could be Ruler 28, who followed Yik'in in

Yik'in Ch
(Darknes

succession.

Related to the mystery of Yik'in's burial place is the question of the author-

ship of Structure lC-+l in the North Group. The triadic relationship of this
structure with Temples IV and VI is a strong indication that this northern
building was part of Yik'in's greater architectural scheme. However, we know
very little about the date of this large Classic period temple other than its geometric relationships to Temples IV, VI, and I and that an important Early
Classic structure forms its base.
The second from last date or-r the roof comb of Temple VI is connected to an
event which has a particularly relevant reading made by Schele and Grube.3o
The date is rz February to 7663t and the reading says: "Smoke entered the
waybil shrine taken by the z8th king in the succession." Tlwo points are important: smoke entering a shrine describes a ritual found to be associated with
death in other contexts, and Yik'in was the zTth ruler in the succession, not the
z8th. The z8th ruler was his successor for a brief time and we do not know who
he was, perhaps Yik'in's first son - and perhaps also, the personage in Burial
196 under Structure SD-ll in the Great Plaza. The implication here rs that the
whole inscription on the roof comb was added by the zBrh successor who
recorded the life of Ylk'in and only alluded to himself in this last phrase which
deals with a death ritual connected to Yk'in's burial.
The very next available date in the history of Tikal is eo 76832 two years larer
from Stela zz, and this is a retrospective date telling of the succession of
Yk'in's son, Yax Ain II, to the throne of Tikal. The interver-ring rime was presumably filled by the unknowr-r zSth ruler, but the record is incomplete. The
mystery of the location of Yik'in's burial remains, but beneath Temple VI is the
most favored location. Like Temple I, Temple VI faces wesr, toward the direction of death and the underworld. Yik'in is known to have emulated his father
in many respects, including the formation of a new and spatially erpanded
cosmos for the city. For these reasons, Temple VI is the better candidate for the
location of his burial.

164

z.8th Rul

(Dark

SLr

A FAMII,Y AFFAIIT

I with female
lble attention
of Temple IL
name into his
: inclusion ir-r
lh a structure
npelling. The
ld

it

be

Yk'in

:Yik'in's, one
wed Yrk'in in

Table

Time span

Name

AD

734-^D 766 Qz years)

(Darkness of the Night Sky)

LTth
8

l)ecembcr.ro 734

zz luly

of this
his northern

nship

to

ortant Early

and Lintcls z arrcl 3 of

Tcnrple IV
On Lintel 3, Temple IV:
"star war" against El Peru
On Lintcl j, Ternple lV:
captured palar.rquin from

7'13

z August ,to 743

rnected to an
tnd Grube.30

Fcbruary eo 7'14

Fcbruary

: entered the

impor-

ociated with
sion, not the
rt know who

el

74,1

r 3 July

re is that the

eo 746

de.lic.rtiurr,'f

he

p.rlrrtquin

frlrrr tl lcltr :t. :t.n.',1 elrjecl

of Tikal

ccessor who
rhrase which
7

,o years

El Peru
(Jn Lilrrel 3, Ternple IV:
ceremony at Tikal, cache
commcrnorating conquest of
El Peru
On Lintel z, Templc IV
another "star war" evettt
ag:rinsr Naranjo
Placement of Stcla 5 before
.5D-33,, on Stela 5
On Lintel 3, Terrrplc IV:

ro June ao 744

rge in Burial

of Tikal on Stcla zr :rnd

dedication of thc builcling(?),

know
r Ar-rgust eo

Acccssion to power as chacte

Stela 5
Stcla zr, dedication datc/als<r
d:rte of Tcmplc VI(?)
On Lintel r, 5D-52- rst:

36

z6 June ,tn 74r

than its geo-

ts are

RulerNo

Euent

Date

I tK ln \_lll]n N .lwll

f the author-

ver, we

Chronology of the middle Late Classic at Tikal

March ar

(ln Lintel

7,17

later

Naran

rccession of
me was premplete. The
rple VI is the
rd the direc-

z8th Rulcr

:d his father

(Dark Sun?)

ro December au 748
5

z, Tcn'rple IV:

cclcbration of anniversary of
capture of palanquin of

May eo 75r

jcr

Column Altar r: caprure of

noblc from Naranjo(?)
Stel:r zo dedication of r6th

katun
zStlr

rz February

,tl

766

y expanded
idate for the
r,5

February au 766

Srnoke in shrine ceremony by

z8th successor: annivcrsary of
death of Yik'in(?) from roof

comb of Templc VI
On Temple VI roof comb:
lo-ycar anniversary of Stcla zr
and declication of Temple VI,
and possibly the date of thc
addition of tl.rc roof comb

r6s

CHAPTER ELE,VF,N

THE LAST THREE LORDS

{inal thr:oes of dynastic rLrle at Trkal were to last for slightly morc than
anothcr century with only three mcire known rulers filling this timc pcriod.
They are Yik'in's son, now known as Yax Ain II; the ruler who built Temple III,
now knowr-r as Nu Bak Chak II (or Shieid Skull II); and finally Hasaw Char-r
I('awil II, obviously named after the "great man" of Tikal. This chaptcr deals
witl-r thc ccintributions of these last thrcc rulers, even though little can bc rcconstructed. As the fortunes of Tikal begin to declinc, infonnation becomes scantier for each nrler. Less construction was done arrd fcwcr, if any, ir-rscril.tions
exist to help in the reconstruction of the decline. This ncrt-to-last epoch is the
cnd of history as recorded by thc Maya of Tika1. The final epoch has no l-ristory
and is restorcd solely from the archaeology
T1-re

too

Curl Nctse
(Yax Ain

Il)

Yax Ain II (Ruler C; Chitam; Ak)

Yik'in's son is kr-rown by many narres. The patronvmic glyph was recogriizccl
from thc earliest investigation to bc that of an animal, br,rt identification of the
animal has varieci through time. T1-rought first to be a peccary, he rcccivcd
names in Maya for thrs Lreast, "Chitam" in Chol, 'Ak" in Yucatec.l At the r995
meeting of the Ar-istin Group, the glyph was re-interprcted as a crocodile, reintroducing the name of "Cr,rrl Nosc" frorn the Early Classic period. Thus one
of the heroes of Tikal rr-rlership was revived in neme I j7 )'exrs efter the death of
the original. Thc monuments of these early hcroes were preserved in the Grcat
Plaza telling not just of their names hut of their cxploits. The revival of such an
early name could well reflect an attempt to bring back the golden xge rt a time

when the fortunes of thc great were slipping once again. The monumental
public works of Yirx Ain II still werc a major contribution to thc configur:rtiot.t
of the city :rs we know it, but there arc hints that the moment of grcatest glory
had passed with the life of his father.
Yax Ain ll's public works are sharply divided bctween those that are certain
by associated inscription and those that arc inferred by stratigraphy ancl
archaeology The lattcr are the largest and more important, but they bear ncr
rrnlrgual.le sigrrrt rrre.
The certain works ir-rclude two separate, br-rt adjacent twin-pyramicl compleres cach rrrarking the end of katuns 17 ancl r8 and spaced r katun (zo years)
apart. Thesc nonuments were Yar Airr II's declaration that he was rulcr i,rt tl-re
tirne of thc ending of these katuns. Bccause they are physically:rdjacent, the
t66

Reconstr

stela enclctsur
The configura

two comple

tiated by th,

guislied bv t
and also, by

modcrn visi
As noted

provided or
two fixed d
pyramid gr,

Group 4E-4
This architt
cast of Ten

built by

Compler (
too and to,
times large

tory monul
and roz)

ar

ly more than
time periocl.
It Temple

III,

Hasaw Chan
chaptcr deals
can be recor.rrcomes

scant-

, inscriptions

t epoch is the
as no history

Ls

recognized

too Reconstruction drawing of Complex Q b),Norrna, .lohnson, mdde in t919. The

stela encLosure is ctn the north side (tctp) tuith a nine-doorwrty palace on the south side.
The configural:ion represents a uorld cosmos.

cation of the

, hc receivecl
1
At the r995
:rocodile, rerd. Thus one
:

the death of
in the Great

al of such an
age at a

time

monumental

onfiguration
reatest

two cornplexes were called collectively "Group E" on the map and differentiatecl by the terms Complex Q and Complex R.2 These two groups are distingr-rishecl by being the two physically largest twin-p1'1nrr.rid gror-rps built at Tikal,
and also, by location, the first architectural entities that are encountered by the
moderrr r isitor lo lhe sile.
As noted before, Yax Ain II's accession date is z-5 December ,q,o 768,1 a d:rte
provided on Stela zz in Group Q, the earlier of the two llroups. Tl-rere are only
two fixed dates after this time. one from each declicatory stela in each twinpyramid group.

glory
Group 4E-4 (Complex Q)

.t are certailt

igraphy ancl
:hey bear no

ramid comrn (zo years)

; rulcr at the
djacent, the

This architectural monument was constructed roughly half a kilorneter northeast of Temple I. The location lies directly east of Group 4D-r (Complex O)
built by Hasaw, and may have been deemed auspicious for this reason.
Cornplex Q is the largest twir-r-pyramid group ever constructed at Tikal (i//s.
rooand roj).ltisraisedonahighplatformcoveringr.B8hectares,nearlythree
times larger than the group rmmediately bcforc it at Complex P. The declicatory monurnent for Complex Q is Stela zz accompanied by Altar ro (ills. ror
and roz) and thc datc of the katr-rn-ending is zo January to 77t.4 The artistic

style is a closc
Templc VI som

faces to the lel

drops fron-r his

ccremon)r or tl
observation of
rnessage says

completed ano

Vhile Yax /
this tert, nor I
woman has par

Group 4E-3 (Co

Tiventy years
ately wcst of h
on a high plat
1

down to rvhat
pyramid is br-ri

while tlie wes

Maler C:rusew

the e:rrlicr Cor

Tirc declicat

Thc inscriptio
t

r (left) Drawing of Stela zz frctm the nctrth e nclosure of

CompLex Q. The date cctrnmemctrates the beginning of the

rTth katun and is ceLebrated bt, lord Yax Ain ll in Ao 77 t.

zz and Altar to are stiLl tct be found in

the enclosure of Contplex Q, the first stop on Lt tour of

toz (aboue)

SteLa

TikaL.

groLlp comme
another imitat
badl.v eroded,

Thc altar c<

surfacc is not

clearly not pri

cntire royal lir

to3

The east pltv;1pifl 6f

Complex Q, a ttuin-trtyramid
grottp, is the onLlt restored
exampLe

of this

t1,1te

of

drchitecturdl group at 7-ikal.

The llat summit turts rettcht:d

by ear:h of fottr stairs.

roq

ComPlex R

ttt'in-pl,rdntid

gt

itnntediatelt, adl
the open sPace t
Q. Its pristine st
tlemonstrates th
in u,bich ttn une
groLrp LL'ils foutl

fallen stelae.

HE LAST THRI.,F, LORDS

style is a close irnitirtion of Stela zr, erected by Yax Ain II's father in fr:opt of
Temple vl some 3.t years earlier. As with many srelac at Tikal, the profile figure
faces to the left of the viewer, which is west. Yax Ain II is shown scrrrcrillg
clrops from his right hand in a gesturc variolisly ir-rtcrpreted as a bloodletting

cercrnony or the scattering of something solid. In this casc, rhc occasion is

observatiorr of a successfr-rl complction of a zo-year katun ending. Thc visual
message says ir-i csseltce: "\(/e givc thanks that or-rr existence h:rs succcssfully
complcted another zo years and clid so under my guidilnce."
while Yar Ain II named Yk'in as his fathcr, he dicl nor narne his mother in
this tert, rror had Yik'in cver named his wife as such, and so this important
worran has passcd unidentified.
Group 4E-3 (Complex R)
Twenty years later, Yirx Ai' II dedicated another twin-pyramicl gror-rp inmediately west of his most grandiose Group 4E-4. Thc new complex was nor raisecj

north enclosure

of

beginning of the
Ain Il in AD 77r.

t.l

to be found in
p ctn a tour of

amid

of

,in-btrdmid
'restored
vPe
.tp

of

ai Tikdl.

uds reached

lairs.

on a high pl:rtform and is somewhat smaller in scalc. As :r result, one stcps

dowrr to what appears to bc a much lesser monumental group. The eastern
pyran-rid is br-rilt aln'rost abuttiirg the platform of thc earlier ilncl grander group,
while the westerlt pyramicl abuts an ir-rtcrruption in thc :rrchirecrurc of thc
Maler causeway The whole grollp seerns sq.eezcd between thc causcway and
the ei:Lrlier Con'rplex Q QLl. rca).
The dedicatory inscription is recorded on stela 19 accomparicd by Alt.r 6.
The inscription inch-rdes the datc of tl-re rSth katun ending u'hich the wholc
grorlp commemorates at 7 October sD 79o.- The figLrrc of Ylr Ain II is yct
another imitation of Stcla 2r and now:rlso of Stela zz just before it. Although
badly eroded, it shows that thc similarities of clesign were strong.
Thc altar contains a new elcment. The usual bound prisoner shown on the
surf:rce is rrot identified whrle the side bor:dcr displays four clignitaries lvho arc
clearly not prisoners. one is remindecl of Altar Q :rt copan which clepicts the
entire royal lincage of the city seated in progr:cssion from the founcler to the
roq

Comstlex R is another

ttuin-pttramitl group
i mme di dt: ely a dj d ce nt tct
the open spdce of Complet
Q. lts'pristine stdte
,l( monsttrI('s Iltt condiIion
in tt,hich dn unexcauated
group tLids found. Note the
faLlen steltte.

to; (right) The

t,isiLtlc oucr tlte

tct1t

of Tentltlc \/ is

roof of

Mtrl.er's Pal.ttce

in tlte foregrottncl. Altltough built on

oppositc flanks of A rLtL/inc, tlte ttt,o

slru.lt.n'(s rr( t.bought: to be the
tuorl< of the stmte lortl , Ydx Ain ll.
o6 (belort.') The uieru

front tlta
I in the (]re:at Plctztr
oucr thc roof of Mdler's l'ttlttte in
tht: Centrrtl Acropolis, sbott;s tha
t

fi'ottt oI

TernS.tle

trLigntncnt

trith

Tem1tLe \/, ouergrcttt'n

in tlte btrckground.

cLlrrent rlller. C)n Altar 6, there are or-rly four ligtrrcs, trncl they are separatccl by
largc glyph p:rne1s rvhicl-r lamentably arc illcgible.
Yar Ain ll named himself irs thc zgth rulcr in the succession on Stcla zz. The

relative lack of clatecl rronulnclits fror-n his rcign suegusts s()m.: clecline in his
abiliti,- to colnlrlurcl tlrc lvcalth to builcl large public nrolrlllnents. Only the trvci
trvin-trryranricl groups cr)ntilin c(ncrete lssocintcd clatcs irnd trace clefirritc
a.Llthorship to hinr. Hi)$'ever, there are othcr ancl larger lvorks tl'rat c:rn bc

to:

A delail,

the righr angl

L.,etteen the t

Complert:s Q
Yax Ant ll
Group F, d
Iikel),tht: sttr'

of
of

cleclucecl to

\vorks of hl
and the imp

(5D-65), n:

engravcci ot

buildrngs

ar

pilttern of f
thougl-r one
strong geor

that they

rvt

There is

of the
itsclf

palar

rvor-rld

the palacc,

titv of lill

rr

on the ravin

THF, LAST THRF,L, LORDS

separated by
Stela zz. The

lecline in his
Only tl-re two
race defir.rite

that can bc

ro7 A

detdiL

from the map shorus

d relations h ip
bettueen the twct carued steLae in
Complexes Q and R, both the uorl<
of Yax Ain II, uith tlte centraL axis
of Group F, a pdlace comPLex, and
likeh, the sttme Lctrd's residence.

th

gh t- angLe

deduccd to originatc in his reign cither by stratigraphy that connects them to

works of his father, or by stylistic ele ments. Thesc include the Grcat Temple V
and thc impressive pal:rce in the Ccntral Acropohs known as "Maler's Palace"

(lD-61), named after the turn-of-the-century cxplorer who lcft his

name

cngraved on the jamb of one of the palace's doorways (ill. ro). Thcse two
br.rildings are related by stylistrc details of forrn and decoration, including the
pattcrn of facing stones and masks in the upper zone of both structures' evcn
though one is a palace, and the othcr a temple (iLl. rc7). Further, there is a very
strong geometric rclationship that binds the structures togcther, suggestilrg
that thcy were constrr-rcted sirnultaneously.6
There is yet another link between Te mple V and Maler's Palace . The raising
of the palace involved t"rrllch more constrllction labor thar-r the mcre building
itself would suggest. Cor-rrt z of the Central Acropolis was buiit up as a base for
thc p:rlace, as wcll as to provide the ambient space for the courtyard. The quantity of fiIl required to complete the Courtyard measured z6 m (85 ft) in height
on the ravine sidc (south) and approximately 7 m (4 ft) on the north side where

THE I,AST THREE I,ORDS

previoLls coltstructions aiready existed. Tl-re raisirlg of Maler's Palace was com-

parable in effort zrnd voillmetric fiIl to the building of a medium-sizcd ternple for crample, Templc VI.
The jr-rstificatior-i for ascribing this rnassivc effort to the reign of Yax Ain II is
based upon thc stratigraphy of the Central Acropolis. It is known that Structure 5D-52-rst, thc basic elcrnent of the Five-Story Palzrcc was br,rilt by Yik'in,

ancl the evidence of construction dcmonstratcs r-rneqr-rivocally that Maler's

Palace is late r in time than the former project, but not by m:rny years. It is conceivablc that Yik'in was responsible for both projects. It is far more tenable,
however, that the joint constructiol-l of Templc V artd Maler's Palacc was the
work of thc next major ruler (Yax Ain II). Templc V is positior-red in such a way
that by geomctry it pays hom:rge to both Temples I and lV, both of which preceded it. The rnost convinciug explanatiott is that Yax Aill ll, as granclson, was
honorirrg his father ancl his grandfather simultaneously by the constrllction of

Tcrrple V
There is one other architectural project that can be attriburted to Yar Airt Il,
calculated on the basis of geomctric relationships. This is the palace grollp
knowr-r as "Group F," a quadrangular compound locatcd to the north of Gror.rp
G, at tl-re top of the Mendcz Causeway. The Gror-rp F palaces lie sor-rth of Yirx
Ain's gi:rnt twin-pyramid group, Cornpler Q (Gror-rp +E-+). A line conncctit-tg
Stelire r9 ancl zz,both erected by Yax Ain Il, forms a perfcct right-angle with
the r-rorth-south axis of Group F (ill. roZ). The relatiortship cannot possibly be
:rccidetrtal. Rather, it suggests that Group F was constructcd togethcr with thc
latcr Con-rplex R (Gr:oup 4E-3) maintaining the right-anglc exactly at Stela zz.
Despite these qr:itc fr:r-ritful inferential attributiot'ts of a number of architectural monumcnts at Tikal, therc remain a siguificant number of features for
which no attribLltion, however speculative, rs possiblc at this timc. For example,
the Bat Palace (Strr-rcturc 5C-rl), the entirc compler of the South Acropolis
(5D-ro4 et al), the East Acropolis, the whole of the Seven Tcmples gror-rp (5D96) including its major soLrthern palace (lD-gt), are all unattributed, to name a
few. Hopefully, future rcsearch will be able to irnprovc this situatior-r.
lf pushed to speculate, one might guess that tl-re Bat Palace was a royal court
built by the 3oth Rr-rler (see below) for two rcasolls: proximity to Templc III,
which was built by this ruler; and the similarity of the layout of the spacious
cast-facing forecourt which imitates the entrance of G Group, likely built as the
royal court of Yik'in. The imitator had to come later. Furthcr the steppcd vattlt
style of interior finish is a late fcature at Tika1. These factors add up to a tentative attribr,rtion to the 3oth ruler.
The Sor,rth Acropolis, devoicl of any ber-refit of excavation, rentritrs ltt
enigma with only alignments and geometric connections as a clue. Thesc connections (ilL. rc8) show reiationships to lrany far-fiung structlrres built by
many differenr rulers. Thc central tcmple serves as a fulcrum for rclationsl-rips
to at least scven other structures outsidc the South Acropolis.
It is a long reach by iconography, bllt one can note a similarity of decoration

r7z

ro8 A serie:
dmongnum
projects is n

between

t.

Temples g
the figures
on his hea
references

Temples g

evidence ir

The final

Identificat
stelae or t

THF, LAST THRE,!, I-ORDS

comtemple -

te was

ed

(ax Ain II is

that Struc[t by

Yik'in,

hat Malcr's
rs. It is concre tenable,
ace was the

w:ry
: which prer such a

rndson, was

strrlction of
rYax Ain II,
alace group
th of Group

outh of Yax
: connecting
t-angle

with

possibly be
her with the
at Stela zz.
of architecfeatures for
lor example,
r

:h Acropolis
; group (5D,d, to name a

of interconnected integral right,triangles -rt'l1t'it a stri,s;t[author of

,trrrt,,'Ji '-o'tn'id o'oind the {outlt Acropo1is' Tlte
nutnerous
dmong
'projects
rog A series

rclatictnships
these

is not known.

n.
a

royal court

Temple III,
the spacious
y built as the
teppecl r,ault
lp to a tentar

temains an
:. These conrres built by
relationships

rf decoration

betweenthecrosseclbonesontherearofthecentraltempleintheSeven of
of one
i"rrrpt", group nr-td ,hor. that appcar as decoration on the headgear device
heraldic
same
th. fig.rr.i of Altar 5. The "Lori of Cnlnk'tt.rl" bears this
the associated stela r6 bears multiple
<tn his headclress. Alro, Hnrn*'s skirt on

could indicate that the Seven

refcrences to crossecl bones. This thin association

I, but rnuch better

i.n_,pt., group was built in the time of Hasaw chan l('awii
evidencc is required for a positive association'

The final two rulers

monLlnents, either
Identification of rulers by namc, and association with
stclaeclrbuilclirrgs,carronlyconefrominscriptions,ancltowardstheerrdof
173

rro

The cart

at the fctctt o1

head lying in

mdt symbol

It is unfr

only by a s
altar that s
ro9 On\ the restored temple dnd roof comb
of Temple lll are uisibLe aboue the forest
ctrnopy as uieued edst from TempLe lV.

The date or
end of the -

in a twin-1

resources v

Tikal's glory these are very scant. The last clustcr of such inscriptions cenrers
on Great Temple III: onc from the carved wooden Lintel z of the temple itself
and the other from Stela 24, erected in front of Temple III; both relate to the
3oth ruler of Tikal. A single inscription on Stela rr in the Great Plaza relates to
the last recorded ruler of Tika1, the 3rst in succession.
Nu Bak Chak II (Shield Skull II)
Like most of the rulers of Tikal, the name of the 3orh in succession has undergone a number of interpretations. The name "Dark Sun" appears on the stela
in front of Temple III (Ste1a zq) as well as on Stela 20, one of Yik'in's stelae.

This

attributed at different times to Rulers z8 through 3o.

Respectively, these are: the ruler mentioned on the roof comb of Temple VI,
who wc have sr-rggested, was the eldest son of Yik'in and the personage in
Burral t96;Yax Ain II (Rulcr C); and the ruler mentioned on Stela z4 connected
to Temple III, who is now called Nu Bak Chak II7 (Shield SkullII). It is the same
name as the father of Hasaw I, the "great man." The name "Dark Sun" may
indeed be a variation on Yik'in's name, now translated as "Darkness of the
Night Sky."
174

r-rame has been

his optionr

pyramid gr

The

acc

around the
ated by erc
One of the
(ill. rrc).

Temple
interior tar

detail of tl
cality rend
The

spe<

lative: for

not have
Why

is

it lc

a role that

are a few tl
fit well wi

THE LAST THREE LORDS

rro The caruing on the side of Altar 7

at the foot of Temple Ill shows a deity
head lying in a footed uessel. The royal
mat symbol flanks the scene.
It is unfortunate that the second last ruier of the great city is represented

oof comb
orest

tv.

ions centers
temple itself
relate to the
.za relates to

r has underon the stela

<'in's stelae.

through

3o.

Temple VI,
ersonage in
4 connected

t is the same

k Sun" may
iness

of the

only by a single Great Temple (ill. rc) with a carved lintel and the stela and
altar that stand before it. However, it is more than we have for the final ruler.
The date on Stela zqis zq June eo 8ro8 which in fact is a katun-ending date, the
end of the rgth katun in the Maya count. Such a date should have been included
in a twin-pyramid complex but none was built for this katun. 'J(/e infer that
resources were badly down by this time and that the ruler had to choose among
his options, and the construction of a Great Temple won out over a twinpyramid group.
The accompanying altar is a notable work of art' The carving wrapping
around the periphery of Altar 7 is divided into four sections with figures separated by eroded mat symbols as found earlier on Yax Ain II's Altars 6 and ro.
One of the four figural designs is clear - a deity head resting in a tripod bowl
(ill. rrc).
Temple III stands roughly 6o m (r8o ft) in height, faces east and has two
interior tandem rooms instead of the three found in Temples I, II, and IV Little
detail of the sculpture on the roof comb has survived, but its height and verticality render the temple comparable to Temple I in proportion.
The specific reasons for the choice of location of Temple III would be speculative: for example, why does it face east? Does this mean that the Temple does
not have a burial and serves only a commemorative function like Tempie II?
'$flhy
is it located between the earlier Temples II and IV and why does it not have
a role that we recognize in expanding the cosmic plan of Tikal? However, there
are a few things which we can recognize about the reasons for its location which
fit well with the rest of the geometry of Tikal. The integral right triangle
175

THE LAST THI{F]E LORDS

'_i i r The locatictn ctf TempLe lll uas determined by dn integral right triangLe thdt used the
sacred axis of the North AcropoLis as its baseLine.

-..1

north south basc line of the

North Acropolis. The right-angle occurs on the north doorway of 5D-7r of
the Central Acropolis, connectiltg with Temple zz in the Nortl-r Acropolis
and the doorway of Temple III. The j-4--5 integral triangle is rrearly perfect
centered on Tbmple III is colrnectcd to the sacred

(ill. ttr and see Chapter Twelvc).

Lintel z (ill. rrz), which separates the interior rooms is carved irr a style that
is consistent with the stela datc.e The front doorway and its assumed uncarved
lintel had coilapsed. On Lintel 2 the central figure once again has a jaguarrelated theme, being clothed in a jaguar suit that is closely fitted over thc obese
frame of this rr-rlcr. The lord is attcnded by two obcisant individr-rals, their
status inclicatcd by their clothing and postures. AI1 three figr-rres hold trident
flint objects recalling a sirnilar object in tl-re hand of Hasaw Chan I('awil on
Altar 5 in An 7rr, 99 years earlier.
The argument that the central figure is a pregnant femalc has occurred
sevcral times. There is little to sLrpport this argument, howcver, as the {igure has
no indicatior.r of brcasts, and the hands and feet are thc same size as thosc of
the obviously n'r:rlc attendants. Evidcnce from an abundance of painted ccramics demonstr:atcs that male royal corpulence was a commonality during the
Late Classic period.
176

r z Drawing of I
identified ds ShieL,

THE LAST THREE LORDS

',Ts

.i-"9ffir6 ^"r.
d.'
:.d,. .,

i,"

"ti.

'L','/
"G(
fr, \

b6.i!;;
s%'.{i

@a

,"(

r'1,

l
g

rq

:httt uset! the

!ry

it

It-

line of the

f 5D-7r of
Acropolis
Lrly perfect
a

style that

uncarvcd
s a jaguarC

r the obese

--;,"i,6

luals, their

cld trident

I('awil on

.,

ttz

t.r

Drautingof Lintelz,TempLelllTheportLylordinatight-fLttingjaguarcoslLtmehasuariousLybeen

identi/ied ds Shield SkuLI ll dnd Dark Sun. The date is .to

occurrcd

figure has

rs those

tfo.

of

ted ceram-

Juring thc

r77

in front of
ruler

as Ha
the 3rst in
The extr
missing fro

lasting mor
indeed fill

probable s1
free of war
A burial
ren'rarkable

rnember of
around the

The last
predecesso

The finalre
as the man
tt

city.

A magnificent jade pendant

utas

discouered in Burial 77 in the'\Yest Plaza.

The buriaL is uery Ldte in the Tikal
sequence but the identitl, of its ctccupant is
unknou.,n..

Accorcling to the Ar-rstin Group (rggS) rhis ruler's name is Nu Bak Cl-rak II,
which makes him "Shicld Skull II", the name of the gre at Hasaw Chan I('awil's
father, who was buried undcr Temple 5D-33-rsr. The full rcadi'g of the text
tclls r,rs a bit more abor-rt the changing times. The tert says that this ruler
"erected a stela near Temple III in the company of Yokorn Hc of Twelve
Servants, Holy Lorcl of Aguatcca." The yokom title identifies this lord as a
member of the Calakmul hegemony. His fricndly prescnce sLligesrs that a rapprochement has occurred by this time berwcen Tikal arrd the Dos Pilas polity of
which Aguateca was a part.
These scant data indicate that thc aoth ruler oversaw a rime of peace
between Tikal and its traditional cnemies. Of course, this cor-rld be historic
propaganda.lo

Name
Yax Ain II

(Curl Nose; First

Nu Bak Chak II
(Shicld Skull II)

The final ruler: Hasaw Chan I('awil II

A single date on a sirigle stela provides iliformation on rhe final recorded lord

of
Tikal. The paired lnonurrents of Stela rr and Altar rr stand on the North
Tcrrace ir-r front of Templc j3, close ro rhe now ancient sacrcd axis of the North
Acropolis. Thc stela date is, like on Stela 24, a katur.r-ending date. However,
two full katuns of zo ycars have bcen skipped. The ending is for the second
katun of the tenth cyclc at ro.z.o.o.o in the Maya collnt. The date is r3 Ar,rgust
nl 869 with a gap of 59 ycars since the previous date or.r Shield Skr-ill II's Stela z4
ru

[J

Hasaw Clian I('a

(Heavenly Standr

THE LAST THRF,F] I,ORDS

in front of Temple III. The inscription on Stela rr identifies this katun-ending

ruler as Hasaw chan I('awil II. If there were no intervening rulers, he would bc
the 3 rst in succession and the last recorded lord of Tikal.
The extremely important date for the chalige of baktun into the roth cycle is
missing from our record. Given the history of the pasr century, with each lord
lasting more or less 3z years in reign, it is possible that these last two kings did
ir-rdeed fiIl the gap between Yax Ain II (Ruler c) and the end of the record, a
probable span of 69-7o years. They would have to have been years relatively
free of war given such long ruling spans.
A burial found under Structure5D-rr in the \flest Plaza contained:r rarher
remarkable tomb of a young individual. The grave goods srrongly indicare a
member of the Iate royal family. A very fi'e jade perdant had been suspended
around the neck of this unknown personage (ilL. r r j).
The last three rulers all reached back in time ro reuse namcs of illustrious
predecessors. The last two rulers repeated an earlier father-son relationship.
The final rccorded ruler of Tikal ended the known history with the same name
as the man who fathered the zenith of the site - a fitting end to a remarkable
city.

?,oro.

pdnt is

Table 6

]ak Chak

Il,

I('awil's
of
the text
4
rt this ruler

Chronology of the end of the Late Classic at Tikal

Time span: eo 768 - 869 (ror years)

han

: of Twelve
ris
s

lord as a

that a rap-

las

re

Name
Yax

Air

Euent

z5 Deccmber eo 768
zo.f anr:ary at 77r

Accession on Stela zz

IT

RulerNo
zgth

(Cr-rrl Nose; Fir:st Crocodile

II)

polity of

of

Date

7 October eo

peace

79o

Dedrcation Group Q,
Stela zz
Dedication (iroup,
Stela r9

be historic

II
ll)

Nu Bak Chak
(Shield Skull

3oth
z4 Jr:ne

ao

8ro

Ruling, conclusion of rgth

katun on Stcla z4
Probably depictcd on

rded lord of

Lintelz, Tcrnple IiI

the North

Hasaw C-han l('awil

f the North
:. However,

(Heavc'ly Stardard

II
Bearcr)

lrsr
r3 August ,ro

869

co'clusior.r of zrd katun

of rotl'r cycle, or.r Stela 2,1

the second
s r3 August
II's Stela zrg

17c)

CHAPTER T\(ELVF

frontal dot
smaller

LATE CLASSIC ARCHITE,CTURE,

CITY PLANNING, AND THE,
GROWTH OF TII(AL

sca

style, but

r;

tiorr establi

(ill. t14),3)

tered throu
Palaces,

clusters of
variety in f
1ittle variat

micro-acac

The history of a great city like Tikal is the story of its rulers and their works. A
great pol'tion of the archaeological field research performed at Tikal has yet to
be published, but this drawback is compensatecl for by the speed with which
epigr:lphers have cleirlt with old as wcll as new tcxts. In following the course of
the city's history, I have de:rlt with topics of city growth, buildings raised by
certair-t rulers, whcn this inforntation was available, along with the succession
of rulers and Tikal's vacillating fortunes. However, there are sufficient gaps in
thc knowledge that coverage of the architectLlral style and growth is necessarily
uneven. This chapter will contir-rue where Chaptcr Seven left off with discr-rssion of style and growth dr-rring the Latc Classic period. Becausc of its central
importance to city growth in the Late Classic, mention has already beer.r made
in Chaptcrs Nine, Ten, and Elcven of the use of geomctry and alignment as a
device for planned growth. This importalrt feature of Tikal architecture will be
further cxplained in this chapter.
In gencral, the city did not have any progressional p:rttern of dcvelopment,
such as from the centcr outwards. \We saw that the earliest settlement wrs in a
scries of villages scattercd near thc cdges of thc Bajo de Santa Fe. Settlement
thcn spread westwards to a series of locations which included the sitc of the
North Acropolis as well as the Lost'World Pyramid. These scattered scttlements were likely unified into a definable small city by the timc that Dynastic
rule began, probably aror.rnd AD zoo. The architecture of Tikal took ot-t its owtt
distinctive clualities during the Early Classic, partially rcflecting an influence
frcim Teotihuacan. By the completion of the Early Classic, Tikal was already a
dominant force engaged in warfarc and alliancc with its neighbors in the Peten.
By eo 6oo Tikal was a substantial city with a population that could l-ravc been
anywhere betwcen z5,ooo-5o,ooo inh:lbitants, or more.
The Great Temples of Tikal, the city's signature style of architecture, all

date to thc Late Classic period, beginning with 5D-33-rst (AD 672-68z) ancl
concluding with Temple III (eo 8ro) , spanning a period of approxillately r35
ycars and six lords of Tikal. Stylistically, this period was not withor-rt :rrchitectural variation. Only three of the six named Great Temples have the basic interior three rooms. Templc VI reverted to an earlicr style of proportion with three
r8o

Twin-pyrar

Twin-pyra
becn founc

marker of

lord

as a

katun, wht
dominatin
and altar
directions

"palace"
world.
r

tq

sl

Temple

the tol) of tl
Causeway

the East

ct

PIa,

rkJl s htstL

unknown.

LATE CLASSIC ARCHITF,CTURE

frontal doorways. During this period mar-ry other Lilte Classic ternplcs of
smaller scalc werc built withor.tt reference to the magnificent "Great Temple"
style, but fathcr conforming to the ancicnt three-doorway, low/broad proportion cstablished in the Preclassic inclr-rding for exarnplc, 5E-38 in thc East Plaza
(iLL. r r 4), lD-+l irr the North Group, as well as dozens of smaller tcmples scirttered thror-rghout the sitc and of unider-itificd authorship.
Palaces, twin-pyramid groups and ballcourts form the other most sigr-rificant
cllisters of architectural style. Of these, palaces demoustratc the greatest
varicty in form while twin-pyramid groups :rre the most rigldly stylized with
little variaticur in form. Such broad generalizations are subject to challcnge on a
micro-academic leve1 since two identical buildings of the same type arc rare.

RE,
E

:ir works. A
al has yet to

Twin-pyramid groups

'beer.r made

Twin-pyramid groups are a Tikal type of irrchitectur:ll assemblagc that has

becn found in few locaticxrs outside this city. The groupr functioncd as a sacred
m:rrker of the change of a time period (tl-re zo-ycar katr-rrt) ancl servcd the ruling
lorcl as a means of public declaration of his success ir-i seeing thc end of the
katun, whcther he was in power at its begir-rning or not. His power as a ruler
cloninating a conquerecl victirn is the usual theme of the north-placecl stcla
and :r1tar pair. Thc groLlp was an architectural cosmogt:am of the cardir"r:ll
clircctions always placing thc king in the north, the heavens, while the southern
"palace" structurc displayed the ninc doorr,virys of the rrirte lords of the ttndcr-

lnment as :r

world.

with which
re course
gs

of

raised by

: successicir-r

ient gaps in
r

necessarily

vith discusf its ccntr:rl

:ture

will

be

:veloprnent,

lnt

rvas

in

:r

Settlement
: site of the
:ered settleat Dy1n51i.
< on its or,vn
Ln influcncc
as already :l
n the Peten.
d have been

itecture, a1l
z-682) :rud
imately r3.5
r,rt architecbasic

inter-

r with three

rrq Tewpb .1F.-38 stdnds dt

the top of the Mendez
Causeuta)' on the east side ctf
the East Plazd. Its role in
T ikal's h i st or), re m dins
unknoun.

ing high

ab

ture likely

The

s,

othe

Temples wl
plaza. The
the Seven Tr
fields of th

courts are t
ruler is not
The play
used in the

Adjacent at
could watcl
viewing plz
game playe

have served

Ten as one
the East PL

<

rrJ

Reconstructiondratuingctf thesmalLbaLLcourtbettueenTempleIandtheCentral
Acropolis. Note the uieuing shelter on the highest architectural element. This shelter is
on the axis ctf the baLlcourt.

markers

mz

that it was

ment
us that ther

was r(

destroyed d

An analogy to this theme is found in the Great Plaza itself, whcre Temples I
and II form the pyramidal functions marking the movement of the sun; rhe
North Acropolis served in the role of the northern heavens (and in this case,
burial place of kings), while a pair of mr-rlti-doored palaccs of differing clate
nrark the southern boundary. Structure 5D-7t was an Early Classic br-rilding
whose central axis rnarked the sacred north-south aris of the North Acropolis.
Still of Early Classic date, an adjacent nine-doorway palace (Structure 5D-rzo)
was later raiscd to the irnn'rediate east, but off the sacred axis.
Altogether r-rine twin-pyramid groups are knowr-r from the site, but it is not
known if they are consecutive. The earliest groups are in irrcomplete condition
and have no associated inscriptions. However, the beginnings of the practice
are clearly in the Early Classic period, whiie the Late Classic versions are betrer
preserved, dated and larger in scale.l
Ballcourts

The few ballcourts known from Tikal vary more in scale than in form. One
large example is located in the East P\azaz and is of Late Classic date but not
associated as yet with any particular ruler.
The most obvious ballcor,rrt today is the small group ir"r the Great Plaza jr-rst
soLlth of Temple I. Numbered 5D-l+,the axis of this court aligns with a buildr8z

Palaces

The catego
Maya socie
understood

tion. How

sense is not

lines of evir
Other fu
retreat hou
for the trair

ion; perhap

ber that the

importance
items had t
own simila

were captul
The Cen

vated as

show that

I,ATE CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE

\
'\
be

Centrdl

is shelter is

ing high above in the Central Acropolis, and the northern room of this structure likely served as a royal viewir-rg stand (i//. rr5 and see ill.7).
The other most prominent examples are found in the Plaza of the Seven
Temples where three playini courts spread across the entire north side of the
plaza. The structure numbers are 5D-78-8r. From the north side' the Plaza of
the Seven Temples could be entered only by passing througl-r onc of the playing
fields of the three parallel ballcourts. Al1 known eramples at Tikal of ballcourts are tentatively assigned to a Late Classic date, but their authorship by
ruler is not available.
The playing colrrts are all oriented north-south. Slopir-ig side benches were
used in the game to bounce the ball back into the playing field (see ill. rr5).
Adjacent at a higher level were platforms accessible by stairs where viewers
could watch the game. The court in the East Plaza showed cvidence that these
viewing platforms were covered. Our only eviderrce for the specific type of
game played is in the form of displaced carved monuments that coulcl easily
have served as ballcourt markers. Column Altar r'was described in Chapter
Ten as one of the works of Yik'in. A very similar monument was found re-set in
the East Plaza, just as Column Altar r had been ir-r the'West Plaza. The two
markers may have originated from the East Plaza court, which would imply
that it was built by Yik'in. A much smaller fragment of another similar monumellr was retrieved from the Postclassic debris in the Central Acropolis, telling
us that these small monuments wcre dragged frorn the ballcciurts and often
destroyed durrng the collapse of the city.

re

Temples I

the sun; the

in this case,
ffering date
sic building
h Acropolis.
ure 5D-rzo)

but it is not
re

condition

the practice
rs are better

form. One
late but not
rt Plaza jr"rst

rith

build-

Palaces

The catcgory of palace architecture is perhaps the most complex in ancier.rt

Maya society because the functions of the widely varied group are so poorly
understood. Only two functions are clear: family residence and administration. How thesc two functions combine to form a royal court in the E,r-rropean
sensc is not clear rn its details but very strongly indicated from a number of
lincs of evidence (pl. Xil).
Other functions of buildings we call palaces most certainly occurrecl: royal
retreat houses for men or womeni judiciary courts (in the legal sense); schools
for the training of children of the royal families in the arts, sciences and religion; perhaps cven storage houses for maior paraphernalia. We have to remember that the terts from both Temples I and IV speak of the capture and singular
importance of the royal palanquins of enemy cities. Such large and elaborate
items had to be stored somewhere appropriate, and Tikal would have had its
own similar paraphernalia, presumably in greater qLlantity than those that
were captured.

The Central Acropolis is the only palace group that was cxtensively excavated as a surviving above-ground group. Excavations elsewhcre at the site
show that earlier palace groups were buried in their entirety, either as the result

LATE CI,ASSIC ARCHITECTURE

of conquest or by deliberatc retirement, for example Gror-rp 6C-XVI. This

rernarkable group, excavated by Juan Pedro Laporte, appears to have consisted
of an entire palace complex from thc Early Classic period which was partially
razcd and fully buried, as if the entire group had been ritually killcd.r Similar
remains four-rd beneath the East Acropolis in the East Plaza suggest a comparable event.a

The Central Acr:opolis is unique at Tikal because of its locatic)n on the soLith
side of both the Great Plaza and East P\aza at the sacred core of the city; and
also by its known length of developmental growth, ranging from thc Preclassic
through to the very collapse of the city, a period of roughly rzoo years. This
important group will be discussed at some length, br-rt first it is useful to look at
other types of palace structures and groupings that are different from those

found in

tl-re

Central Acropolis.

Limited courtyard palace groups

Therc are a number of palace complexes at Tikal which have gror-rpcd the main
buildings around a single or double courtyard. These con.rplercs stand out
markedly as different from the long-term growth and multi-courtyard conligr.rration of the Central Acropolis. The few eramples that exist in the central core
of the site have the appearance of thc Inca royal cor-rrt as found in Highland
Peru. In the latter tradition each king built his own royal court and it was main-

taincd after his death as his personal property. These consrrucs (called
'pandqds) were quadrangular in formatiotr and contained resiclential as well as
religious fur-rctions. Also they date to half a millennium after the clowrrfall of
Tikal, so thel e is no connection other than analogy. At Tikal there are four such
groupings arranged almost (but not quite) in a cardinal distribution about the
site center. They are: Group G, associated with the Mendez Causeway and
Temple VI possibly built by Yik'in (Rulcr B);Group F associated by geomctry
only with the works of Yik'in's son Yax Ain II; a group callcd the Bat Palacc to
the in-rmediate west of Temple III; and a lrolrp to the south of Tcmple V,
including Structures 6D-42 through 6.5 in two courtyards, facing east. Thrcc of
these examplcs face east (all br-rt Group F), the direction that a residencc shor-rld
face towards the rising sun and the directior-r of hfe and rebirth. The cast-facing
guoups are fronted by large spacious platforms. Both the Birt Palacc grouping

and Group G h:rve broad stairways that connect their spacious eastcrn
approaches to the surrounding terrain. In the case of Group F the orientation is
south, as the map clearly shows that the open ambient space "frot.rting" the
enclosed group lie s to the south. The southern grolrp (6D-az-65) is rnade n'rore
complex by the presence of a greatcr number of small buildings and is without
the large approach space on the eastcrn side, althor-rgh the courtyards do open
to the east. This group is vcry important in the configuration of the Late
Classrc geometry of the city in that it ties togcther the locations of Temple VI,
Te nrple IV and the tenrple called 3D-4; in the rrorth grolrp, known as Group H.
r84

116 A uiew of
into the MendL

Yik'in.

Only Gror
spaces have

knowledge o

rr5). In eacl

There are tra

sometimes n(

ments were c
routes of acc
These limi
some buildin

an "acropolir

cation. It is rr
Yax Air-r II, br

are visibly La

known other

Freestanding

This categor
handling a r
(r) highly

e1e'

iC-XVI. This
consisted

rave

partially

was

i1led.3

Similar

est a compar-

r on thc soLlth

'the city; and

the Preclassic

years. This

>o

:ful to look at
rt from those

..t$<
*i

::?:, .r'
, .- ,a
r_::g.t

rped the

r -:i-_ . :
*
--;-.F1 ' -: ^'l<: t

main

.es st:rnd

out

;;';-*ur-]-ia-_J*-:

!d[: '*

yard cor-rfigr-re

central core

in Highland
lit was main-

t6

A uietu of the interictr courtyard of Group

C),

the palace complex tuhich integrates

into the Mentlez Causeuay and is thought to be the work of the zTth lord of TikaL,
I

tK rn.

ructs (callcd
tial as well as
: clownfall of
four such
about the
auscway and
by geornctry
are

Lon

Bat Pal:rcc to

rf Temple !
)ast.

Thrce of

dence shor"rld
Ie

east-facinFi

ace

grouping

ious

easterr-r

rrientation is

ronting" the
s

Only Group G has been partially excavated, and none of the open easrern
spaces have been itrvcstigated. Howevcr, standing architecture allows some
knowledge of thc room arrangements in Groups F, G, and the Bat Palace (ill.
r16).In each of these groups, the known room arrangements are complex.
There are transverse rooms and rooms in tandcm, sometinles interconnected,
sonctimes not. In ali observable cases there is eviderrce that the room arrangements were changed over time: big rooms were divided into smaller ones, and
routes of access altcred, common features of palaces.
These limited cor-rrtyard groupings are all raised on elevated platforms, with
some br-rildings raised even higher. The decision to designate certein groups as
an "acropolis" or not is to date entirely subjective and without analytic justification. It is relatively easy to ascribe Group G to Yik'in and Gror-rp F to his son
Yax Ain II, but tl-re othcr two groups are still shrouded in mystery, though they
are visibly Late Classic in date, excepting the 6D group about which nothing is
known other than what can be seen on the map.

made more

rd is without
ards do open

of the Late
f Temple VI,
as

Group H.

Freestanding major palaces

This category is quite diverse and somewhat artificial, serving as a means of

handling a number of important strucrures. There are at least two types:
(r) highly elevated and large-sca1e structures with tandem rooms that face only
r85

I,AT.L, CLASSIC A]{CHITECTURF]

in one direction, and (z) elevated single, or multi-room structures that

face

equally in two directions.

Thc fr-rtrctions of thesc two types are clearly different, but no doubt both are
ceremoni:ll, as opposed to residentiai. Type r includcs structlrres in a variety of
locations around the center of the site. The ninc-doorway structLlre, -5D-r5, is
r-rnique in that it faces south, whilc al1 other nine-doorway structlrres known at
Tikal face north. Othcr examples are 5D-77, facir-rg south in the Lost \Worlci
Pyramid group; 5D-ro-5, facing east, on the east side of Temple V, ancl 5E-jr,
probably facing north, to the west of Group G.
Type z is a passage structure, serving the function of passagc from a public
space into a ceremonial space. The most prominent example is ;D-9r (ill. r 17)
on the south side of the Plaza of the Sevcn Temples. A formal ceremonial stair
is visiblc on the sorlth sidc of this major palace. All other counterparts are
four-id in the context of groups, spccrfically the Central Acropolis. Structure
tD-7r is alreacly knowr.r to have vast importance because its axial line lies on
the sacred axis of the North Acropolis. Thc structure offers highly limitcd
acccss frcim the Great Plaza into Court r of the Ccntral Acropolis.
Similarly, the palace known as 5D-44 apparerrtly served a combination of
ceremonial functions. Seven doorways face northward into the East Plaza.
However, access wils available when thc building was first built (clate uncertain) , through the north gallery into the south gallery, and hence into Court 6
of the Ccntral Acropolis. \(ith time this access was closed in keeping witl-r a
general closurc of access into the Acropolis during the later part of the Late
Classic periocl.

CENTBAL ACROPOLIS

TIKAL,
G.oup

GUATEMALA
Lii.s

Ssclion

lndictl

".---ll- -i" ""'""

rr8

The Cer

of differingl

The Centrz
The most

group, and
interpretat

rt7 Detail of a Painting b1'

Didna Nobbs of the Seuen
s Clroup. Struct u re
5D-9t in the background is
typical of d "pLlssdge" t\r|e
of palace.
Te m1t le

architectur

Ccntral Ac
tion of spar

of

architec

out the

flor

pre-existin
ex:rmples

The survey

(r) Each bu
tion for the
formed by

central do(

tion

is the I

(z) Alignn
Trkal, so t
points of t
buildings.

:es

that face

ubt both are

r a variety of

re,5D-r5, is
'es

known at
Lost World

; and 5E-5r,

om a pubLc
-9r (ill. rry)
monial stair

terparts are
is. Structure

line lies on
ghly limited
I

rbination of
East Plaza.
ldate uncer-

nto Court 6
:ping

with

of the Late

'

a painting b1t

of the Seuen
tp. Structure

tackground is
0dssdge" type

NTRAL ACROPOLIS
TIKAL, GUATEMALA
Group Plan

CE

"---li-i"
rr8

The CentraL AcropoLis is a complex of multi-leueL courtyards surrounded by paLaces

of differing func.tion and constructed

ouer fiue centuries.

The Central Acropolis

a palace complex (ill. rl8) was made in this
provided
the greatest amount of information for
lroup, and the rcsults have
interpretation of structure functions as well as the techniques used at Tikal for
architectur;rl pianning and surveying. The architectural arrangements in the
Central Acropolis have revealed how the Maya of Tikal dealt with organiza'
tion of space - how they planned for new major construction. A simple method
of architectural surveying is involved that allows a precise method for laying
out the floor plan of a proposed building using reference points from earlier,
pre-existing buildings. The principles are simple once recognized and multiple
examples are available from the Central Acropolis cor-rrtyards.

The most extensive investigation of

The survey technique

(r) E ach building has a single critical poirrt in its plan that determines the location for the new building. This point is the juncture of the two lines that will be
formed by the front wall of the building and the central axis through the
central doorway. These lines intersect at right-angles. Their point of intersection is thc location point of the building (ill. r 19) .
(z) Alignment of location points was apparently important to the Maya of
Tikal, so that placement of a third building in alignment with the placement
points of two earlier buildings demonstrated respect or honor of these earlier
buildings.
r87

I-ATE CLASSIC ARCHITECTURF

Axial Point (PAP)
Central

TFacade

Line

rr9 The primary axiaL point of any structure

is the point of intersection of the facdde line
uith the centraL axis. lt is the basis of
arch it e ctural suru e1, and p anning.
L

( j) The placement of the location point is established by reference to the location points of two carlier buildings which have importance to the new building.
The rnost corrlrrron reason for importance is ancestry, that is, structures raised
by anccstors who will be honored by this new building. The three poinrs, rwo
pre-eristing and one new are connccted in an integral right triangle (ilL. rzo).

(a) The new building may now find its floor plan, with the location poir-rt
alrcady fixed, by a direct-sight survey from one of the two pre-existing reference points on the triangle (ill. rzr). The sr-rrveyor stands over his reference
point, and, holding an instrumer-it, sights the turning right angles from al1 the
visible corners or other architecturally impc,rtant points or-r existing burldings
that are in view. Two clear exanples of this technique are available in Court z
of the Central Acropolis. The result is that sufficient new points can be laid out
on the flat sr-rrface of the proposed br-rilding, and with the application of symmetry, the entire floor plan can be achieved.

The survey i

The instrur

could be m

tions in

tt

rl

:
-:==::===T

thr

become the

-:
'tlb

-:

the necks o

in ill. uz

:.'1

from Tikal

these are rr

t,

t,1

origin.

lt

While th

lt

system of u

ll

ll
rl

lt

'il

COURT

50.2

,r-r..+r.l llll
I t,il lil IIl

" Ii : llll
I iul r:
llil
; !.nil
;lr--

rzo

The integral right triangle

uhich determines the Location of

the primary axiaL ltoint of Maler's

in dooru,ays ctf
Structures yD-7r and 1D-58
ruhich trtredate its pLanning and
construction.

Palace is rctoted

I t|-.:.--

U{ - -'r

tzz An Earl
found in a to

prototyl)e su,
turning right

lt

rl

ll

it
tl
tl
lr

ll

tture
line

rl

rt,

to the loc:r:w buildrng.

:tures raised
points, two
e

(ill. rzo).

i{,iil

c0uRr 50-2

iilil
i.tf,d

t;=
,r.1I ,!t

11

!ti

t+.i.

:ation point
:isting refer-

l.:t-:

zr

Kelr L)oints on the ground pLrtn

Palace were surueyed by

ris reference

of Maler's

from all the

turning mtrltipLe right-angLes front

uisi!,tle points ctn earlier buiLdings as

rg burldrngs
e

uieued frctm the doonuay in .yD-58.

in Court z

n be

laid or-rt

:ion of sym-

The survey instrument

Thc instrument for sighting right-angle turns is a flat ce lt-shaped object, which
could be madc of wood, but only examples in jade are known. Threc perforations in tl-re surface forrn the right-angle. Pegs placcd in these perforations
become t1-rc sighting rods. Sucl-r objects are frequcntly depicted h:rnging around
the necks of kings, and are r.rsr-rally identified as "pectorals." The oblect shown
in iLl. rzz is from a royal toub in Caracol. None has been retrieved as yet
froin Tikal. Numcrous eramples have becn for-rnd in Costa Rica, and while
thesc are recognized as tradcd Maya picces, we do not know their places o{

origin.
While the Central Acropolis has proved the bcst l:rboratory for revealing this
system of urban planrring, it extencls over the rest of Tikal.

rzz An EarLlt CLassic jade pectortrl

found in a tomb in CaracoL malt fig
pro!o!yl)I' sut t'r'f inrl ru mt nt for
turning right-angles.

ru
ru
ru

---

11

[-ATE CLASSIC ARCHITECTUITE

Tikal's planned growth

The date of origin for application of the triangulation and right-angle system
is not known. Tl-rere are examples of such usagc in the Early Classic period, but
much more investigation and study of the available data are rcquired to conficlently say anything more definitive on the matter. However, a number of quite
signi{icant progressions mark the Late Classic, particularly during thc period
of the three aper kings: Hasaw Chan I('awil, Yik'in Chan l('awii and Yax Ain
II. Hasaw's planning of the Great Plaza at t. AD 73a-7iL is the carliest highly
clramatic example, a configuration alreacly describecl iri Chapter Ninc. His triangle honorcd his late wife and an unknown anccstor buried bencath the
pyrarrid templc of 3D-47. An even morc dramatic exarnple is tl-re triangular
connectiolr that unites Templcs I, I! and V5 As the latest strlrcture in this
grolrp is Ternple V thc builder of this Great Temple was the crcator of the formation (ill. rz j).l have argr-red that thrs was Yar Ain ll (Ruler C). Temple l was
the creirtion of Hasaw; Tcmple IV is thc work of his son Yik'in; and so the
grandson, Yax Ain Il honored his father and grandfather with the creation of
Temple V The right-angle sits at Temple I, the earliest in the Firotlp' and the
triangle is a perfect 3-4-5 configuration in the Pythagorean serics.
A third example alre ady noted is the relationships that r,rnite Temple IV and
Temple VI with the northern 3C-43 and an obscure (but notable) structure ir-r
the south (6D-6r).
A final example is the alignmcnt from an Early Classic temple in the Lost
World group to the palace complcr of Group G, passing through the mair"r
tcmple of thc South Acropolis. This latter serves as a fulcrum for a number of
relationships, ir-r which a right-angle to Stela zo in twin-pyramid Complex O,
way in the north, serves as the basis of two integral right triat.rgles, dividing
cenrral Tikal into two spatial entities. Several other relationships spin off of
these in a progression of triangulations (see iLl. ro8) . It woulcl be ineppropriate
to attempt to detail every such example tn this volumc. Suffice it to say that the
city's growth was anything but haphaz:rrd. It was a carefr-rlly planned progression in which each new monumental building served as an honorific to two
earlier: st1'LlctLlrcs of similar importance.
This system of architectural plannir-rg is not unique to Tikal.6 L'rcidents of its
use are observed at Paler-rque, Copan and a number of other large Maya citics.
In fact, every lowland site for which a detailed map cxists shows some evidence
of this system of building triangulation.
Observation of this remarkable feature of Tikal architecture rrriscs more
clLlcstiorls that it solves.'Where did the knowledge comc from? How, irl prrcticality, w:rs it executed over largc distances on the surface and cluite formiclable
ones in the vertical dimension. Some auswcrs ntay be derived from outside
sources. The ancient Egyptians used the exact same system as a fileans of land
measure to re-survey thcir fields after every annual flooding of thc Nile. Later,
the system found its way into the design of their art and architecture. While

r90

'-'{-:

l,_TEMPt
.\.-

',,

li4"

Lzj

Map o
relating it t'

thcre is

nc

ment und
upon a sh
sion of *
what we

The gr

Caracol v
the movet
of the M

control

who used

of

ancest

layout of
more thar

I,ATF] CI,ASSIC ARCHITECTURE

ngle system

period, bLrt
ed to corrfiber of quite
; the

period

nd Yax Ain
:liest highly
ine. Hrs

tri-

)eneath thc
: triangular

ture in this
i of the for-

:mple I r,vas
and so the
creation of
up, and the
rple IV ancl
;tructure il-r

in the Lost
h the main
number of
)oniplex O,

rz3 Map of the integral right triangle ruhich

relating it to the earLier TempLes I and lV.

serued to plan the locatictn

of

TempLe V

:s, dividing

spin

off of

Lppropriate
iay that the
ed

progres-

:ific to two
dents of its
,4aya cities.
re evidence

aises more
,r,

in practi-

formidabie
rm outside
lns of land
\ile. Later,
ure. While

there is no connection between the two societies, a similar process of development undolrbtedly was in operation. As an agricultural society dependent
upon a shifting fie1d system, the use of land measure is logical. The transmission of this rneasuring techr-rique to art and architecturc follows, and this is
what we see in the Central Acropolis and throughor-rt Tika1.
The greenstone survey instrument found by Arlen and Diane Chase in
Caracol was an instrument belongrng to a member of the elite. I(nowledge of
thc movement of stars and of thc calendar represented power to the clite class
of thc Maya becausc it related to essential food production. Knowledge and
control of the manipulation of spacc likely was understood by every farmer
who used it to lay out his milpa. At the elite level, it was used for the vencration
of ancestors expressed by city planning. In light of these observations, the
Ii:Lyout of the crty of Tikal is a massive erpressiot't of ancestral venerrtion over
tnore than one-and-a-half milletrr-ria.

CHAPTE,R THIRIE,E,N

DE,CLINE AN D FALL:
THE LAST DAYS

The decline of Tikal had already begun before the last recorded inscription at
13 August eo 869 (ro.z.o.o.o) . The abser-rce of a recor:d for thc important
katun-endings which preceded this last one testify to thc fact that the city was
in trouble.
There is a small ceremonial center called Jimbal that lies rz.5 km to the
north of the Great Plaza inside the settlement range of the grcater city. This
center erected a carved stela at the Maya datc of zz June to 879 (ro.z.ro.o.o),
ten years after the last date at Tika1. The inscription contains some non-Maya,
probably Mexican, glyphs and makes no mention of Tikal. lt is probable that
this small centcr at this time considered itself indeper-rdent, lying outsidc the

original Tikal settiement bour.rdaries.

Inscriptions continue to occLlr at a few othcr sites in the Peten, such as Ixlu
and SerLral, but generally the peak of civilization in this part of the lowlands is
over by eo 87o.
Archaeological evidence for the last years of occupation give r-rs a confr-rsed
and mixed picture, as one might expect durir-rg a period of cultr-rral disintegratior.r. However, the evidence does not provide any clucs to the cause of the
declinc. \flhatevcr the causes were, they did not pertain to Tikal alone, but to
the Peten landscape in generai. The subject continlres to be debated by scholars
on a broad geographical scale.
The Terminal Classic
The period which is characterized as thc "coliapse" at Tikal is referred to as the
"Terminal Classic," associatcd in turn with the Eznab ceramic complex. The
dates ascribed to this complex are AD 85o 95o. That the collapse lasted for a
century is based on a "guesstimate" of how iong it wor-rld take for stone architecture to deteriorate from natural caLlses. The pattern of architectural disintegration found at Tikal depends largely upon the loss of the wooden lintels
which support doorways. \When these lintels are removed, by whatever agency,
the vault stones above fall, creating an unnatural arch above the doorway Even-

roof will fall inward. In cascs of multiple-storied buildings,

the upper story is partrcularly subject to this forrn of natural deterioration,
while the lower stories are protected somewhat. The pattern is quite clear.

tr-rally, the whole

r92

til/her:e a secor

story remaine
part of a burl<

was subject tr

David Freu
condition of

the burlding,
Freidel found
had been ritur
oblects.lSuch
terns of prot

physical collr
involved at th

as evidence ol

to the Eznab

The largest

olis during

rir

cliscovered

e>

palace locate,
will be that fr
The physic
catcgories. Tl
rior locations

divisions of t
and musical i
up, probably

periods of e;
found as part
found in asso
about re-cyclr
city that neve
manner that i
The three

Courts 5D-2,

ductive. For c
their operatic

Court 5D-2, O

The midden

5D-62 and 5l
Eznab date ar
real burials in
location sugg
rooms of 5D-

DECLINI., AND FALL

lscflptlon at
e important
the city was
5 km to the
ter city. This
ro.z. ro.o.o),
e

non-Maya,

robable that
; outside thc
such as

Ixlu

: lowiands is
sa
Ll

confused

disinte gra-

cause

of the

alor-re,

but to

by scholars

rred to as the

rmplex. The
: lasted

for

'stone archirural disinteroden lintels

tever agency,

orway Even-

:d buildings,
eterioration,
; quite clear.

\7herc a second story wall coincided directly over a lower story wall, the lower
story rcmained prcserved intact. However, where the second story covered or-r1y
par:t of a buildir-rg below, the part of the lower floor that was exposed on its roof
was subject to collapse.
David Freidel has argr-red with referencc to the northern lowlands that this
condition of semi-collapsed structures is the rcsult of "ritual terrninrtion" of
the building, and he offers evidencc of termir-ral conflict. In this intcrpretation
Freidel for-rnd that thc debris and artifacts over the floor of a collapscd br-rilding
had been ritr-rally placed thcre with "white carth" deliberatcly spread over thcsc
objects.r Such a case was found at the site of Cerros in Belize. Howcver, tl-re patterns of protected versus unprotected structure and their coir-rcidcnce with
physical collapse at Tikal indicate that tl-rere is no intentional termination
involved at rhis site. At Tikal we interpret thc objects for,rnd on a structrlre floor
as cvidence of thc very last occupants of that structure, and we date the objects
to the Eznab phase.
The iargest body of evidence for this pl.rase was found in the Central Acropolis during my ercavations of that architectural complex. Bill Haviland also
discovcred ertensive deposits of Eznab matcrial similarly distributed in a
palace located in a more remote part of the city. The evidence described here
will be that from the Central Acropolis.
The pl-rysical material used for evidence can be examined in several differing
categories. Thesc are midden deposits insidc rooms; middcn deposits in erterior locations; and burials. Within these categories there are fr,rrther interesring
divisions of types of material, the most intriguing of which are food remains
and musical instruments. Because the Maya were so meticulous abor-rt cleaning
up, probably in cyclical occasiotis related to the calendar, midden deposits from
pcriodr ol crll ier occupxtion ere very rere. Arteienr garhagc is mott often
found as part of construction filI ir-r large buildings except whcre middens are
found in association with rural houscs. The Maya were apparently very good
abolrt re-cycling. Therefore, the deposits from the terminal occupation of the
city that never were cleaned up offer us a glimpse of daily life at this time in a
rlanner that is rrot availablc from the peak of the Classic itself.
The three major sources of these deposits in the Central Acropolis are from
Collrts 5D-2, 5D-4, ar-rd 5D-6, the latter two bcing the more extensive and productive. For discussioll purposes, the important middens will bc identified by
their operatior-r and sub-operation designations from the excavations.
Court 5D-2, Operation SoC

The midden called Operation 8oC was located in an alley between strLlctllres
5D-62 and -5D-63, a U-shaped structure. This deposit contained ceramics of
E,znab date and also human bones. The bones represent one of several cases of
real burials in middens for.rnd in the Central Acropolis for this tirne period. The
location suggests occupation of the east rooms of 5D-63 ar-rd probably also the
rooms of 5D-62,(seeill. rr8).Thesebuildingsareof typesthathadccremonial,
r93

D!,(]I, INE AND FAI,I,

possibly spccializecl, br,rt not domestic residence, during thcir peak rn the Sth
ancl 9th ccnturies. The domestic refuse found for the ternrinal period is not
cot.tsistcut wrth thc original furrctions of these buildings. Althoi-rgh we do rror
havc middens for the ear:lier Classic period to verify the functions for: that
period, the dorncstic naturc of the Eznab middclr in Operation 8oC is clefinitely
at variance with the cercmonial natllre of thc origir-ia1 br,rildirrg. During the termirtal phase original fr,rnctiot'rs of the strllctures have been abandoncd, ancl any
storre building in good condition was occupiecl by survivirrg residcnts of Tikal
as shelter. Elscwhere, thc midderr'contents provide evidence that thesc people
were using objects that belongecl to the elite nrling class, bur they wer:c livilig rn
conditions that are vcry different from those of thc Classic period. The very
fact thilt the midderrs were not removecl is indicative of this differe'rce.

5D-:'zq Q
rtyard
The str
ately over

cou

(spearthrr

introduce

cer.rtury T

warfarc),
polychror
lapsed sto

on top of

another

excavated

Court .5D-4 and Operation 96

Although tnuch of this courtyard contairrcd midden rlaterial, rhe mosr concentratecl :rnc1 important parts were locatcd both inside and outsicle Srructure
5D-5 r and along thc frolit (north siclc) of Srructure 5D-rzz in othcr worcls, or.r
the wcst and south sides of the courtyard. Probably rel:rtccl ro tl're occupation of
this area was ::tl'lother rniclden at a lower levcl in :r cul-de-s:rc sor-rth of Structr-rre

rcmains ir
fron
vessels ar
seeds

earlicr La

Late Clasr
more inte,

tion of
t zq A uiet.u into the open sp.tce of
Court q in Lhe CentrdL AcropoLis.
'lhe court is surrounded bt smalL
Ltt, (.lossrc p.rl,r;es llt.t! ucrc

occupied tJuring tbe colLdpse of the

site and the Location of many, trash
middens of this date.

ce

absencc ol

of Maya l
this room
lhc presen
uncharact

Midden 97
Ncarby, ju
97A. Thc
blcnd of n
of wealth.

The mu
fragrrcnts
(uscd for
hammer c

ccramic cc
spindle wl
of chert ar

of domest
On the

lowing:

r,,1

fragments
burning in
plete); 6 e1

DI,CLIN!, AND FALL

Lk

in the Sth

,eriod is not
;h we do not
ons for thart
)is definitely
rring the ter.red,

and any

:nts of
rhese
i'ere

Tikal

people

living in

rd. The very

lCe.

concenle Structure
er words, on
1Ost

:cupatioll of
of Strr-rctr-rre
ace

of

rclis.
;mdll
re
t

of the

y trash

5D-rz4 (ilL. rz4). This refuse was no doubt thrown from thc living ilrca in the
courtyard abovc.
The stratigraphy of thc n'ridclen inside 5D-5 r is of greatest interest. Immediatcly over the floor the refr-rse of occupation included the rernair.rs of an atiatl
(spcar:thrower) with carved bone handlcs. This is the type of object that was
introcluced from Highland Mexico back in the times of Jaguar Claw I in the 4th
centlrry. This examplc, inclicative of purposeful food collection by hunting (or
warfare), was associatecl with ceremonial paraphernalia such as fragments of
polychrome ceramic vessels and ceramic figurinc whistlcs. Above this, were collapsed stones frorn the vault of the front room. A thin layer of guano (bat dung)
on top of tlre stoncs indicated a period of abandonment. Above the gwano was
another occupation layer with most interesting contents. A fire pit had been
excavated into the layers below and this was surrounded by organic food
remains including not just com, beans and squash but also a wiclc variety of
from frr-iits :rnd nuts. Associated ceramics were a mir of brokerr don'rcstic
vessels and ceremonial polychrome vessels, some identical to those of the
earlier Late Classic Imir phase. It is possiblc that these latter origir-rated in a
Late Classic tornb which had been looted, but such a thesis is unprovable. Even
morc interesting was the presence of a human coprolitc (fcccs). The combination of ceremonial and prestige ceramics with the evidence of cooking and
absence of hygienic measurcs provides a very stranie and uncharacteristic view
of Maya habits. lt has beer"r suggested by a mcmber of the Austir-r Group that
this rocim may have served as a prison, an intriguing suggcstion supported by
the prcscnce in the doorjambs of the entrance of secondary holcs that indicate
uncharactcristic closure of the doorway.
seeds

Midden 97A, Court 5D-6

Nc:rrby, just to the north of Court -5D-4 was a long, lincar mrdden designated
97A. The invcntory of the contents of this midden best exemplifies the curious
blencl of matcr:ial from domestic, daily life with ceremonialism and indications

of wealth.
The mundanc pursuits of daily life were represented by: 19 flint cores;33
fragments of chert or olrsidian Lrifirces (axes or knives); 24 mdno fragments
(r-rsed for grinding grain or nuts); 3z metate fragments (grincling plates); ro
harrmer or rubbing stones; r fragment of a chcrt dagger; r fragment of a
ccramic colander; r stone spindle whorl; 6 perforated sherds, probably r-rsed as
spindle whorls; atrd 248 fragments of animai bone. Not countecl were dctritus
of chcrt and obsiclian, human bone fragments, charcoal, and many kilograms
dom. stir' ct'rt trt it' frlgnrent s.
On the other hand, itcms reflecting wealth and high status included the following: 14 ceramic pellcts (from rattle feet on ceramic vessels) ; z4z figurine
fragments; 45 fragments of modelcd-carved vessels; j4 censer fragments (for
burnir.rg incense); 3 identifiable whistle fragmcnts; r ceramic box (almost complete) ;6 effigy vessel fragments; r ceramic flute fragrnent; r ceramic ear-flare
oF

rgt

DI],CI-IN!, AND FALL

extended

the origin

charred st
that had I
included r
gestion oi

found frer
pret this

vator,

my

n'rixcd wit
represent

not the ca
Midder

the wcster

tz6

Recon

of Jaguar (
scene of fin

rz; ln the foreground is Structure ;D-rzB in the Central Acropctlis tuith Court q in the
background, both Iocations ctf collapse period middens. The tdLl structure in the redr is
1D-yz, the "Fiua-Story Paldce."
fragment; z polychrome sherds (one with painted hieroglyphic tcxt) ; 23 stucco
fragrner-rts (architectural adornmerrt); r bone tubc (probably a fan handle); r
cach of shell: linger ring, fan handle, pcnclant, and 4 shell tinklers. This list is
typical of the contents of a Terminal Classic midden in the Central Acropolis
and demonstrates a curious blencl of domestic daily refuse and costly ceremonial paraphernalia (ilL. rzy).
The middens of 5D-46

Once again, the clan lineage hor-rse built by -Jaguar Claw I ir-r the mid-4th
century figures in the story of Tikal, even at the very end. \Whether the last
members of the lineage were indeed the last occupants of this house, or
whether it had been taken over by interlopers is not known. Thc longevity of
this structure as an important building is rare in Maya archaeology.
There were five importarrt rr-riddens associatcd with this structure, two in the
outer courtyards of the building and three inside rooms. Two of these will be
surxmarized here because of therr special importance for the reading of the last
days of Tikal.
Midden A (Operation 98A) was located in the north patio of 5D-46, a spacc
that had been added sometime quite late in tl-re Late Classic. Thc cxterior
midden was heaped against the north wall of the Early Classic building and
r96

-,,*W

DECt-INE AND FALL

cxtendecl halfway across the patio (ilL. rz5). There was a firc pit excav:'ttccl into
the original patio floor and associated with food remains, anim:rl borres irnd
charred secds. The remarkable feature here was the presencc cif humar-r bone
that had beerr partly charred and exhibited tooth nrarks. Thesc hut.nan boucs
inch-rcled a large skull fragment with br-rrning on the interior surface. The sug-

gestion

of cannibillism is strong. Howevcr, the fact that human rcrneitts

are

found freqr.rently in midden deposits cluring this period has lccl sotne ro intcrpret this evicler.rce as just altother burial that was attacked by rodertts. As ercavator, lny own interpretaticin is that these particul:rr humatl remaitls were
mired with other food refuse together with direct eviclencc of cooking ancl tl-rey
represcnt part of the kitchen nridden. Such mixture with kitchen matcrial was
not the c:,rse with the true midden burials.
Midden C (Operation 981() was ilir interior middcn in the central room on
rhe wesrcrn side of the building . The midclen was bar-rdccl by alternating soil
tz6 Reconstruction of Courl 6 inthe CentrdL Acropolis uith 1D-$ onthe let't,the house
CLatu l. Pdlaces uisible in this group span tao years of builtling trntl utere the
scene of final occupation during the colldpse.
of Jaguar

rt
,.

q in the
the rear is

N
X
H
F'

.);23 stucco

r handle); r
. This list is
rl Acropohs

itly ccremo-

:he mrd-4th

her the last

s house, or
longevity of
e,

two in the

hese
rg

will

be

of the last

r-46, a space

'he exterior
,uildrng and

K
r.l

D!,CLINE AND FALL

colors and piled r-rp against thc rear (east) wall of the room, sloping down
through the doorway and out onro the cxrerior platforrn. The layers of debris
were dense with typical E,znab midclen arrifacts, and the banditrg indicated
pcriods of cyclical deposit. Hopes for some stratigraphic divisions of the Ezna[-r
phase were dashed when parts of the same polychromc vessel were retrieved in
both upper and lower levels of the deposit. The tin-rc periocl for accumr.ilariorr
of this midden, r.8 m (y.9 ft) in depth, rrusr have beeli rclatively short. Thc
method of accumulation can only be explainecl by the presence of a hole in the
ceiling of the now absenr roof. Remnants of rooms on the second story showed
that indtviduals cor-rld have becn living on the uppcr level, dr-rmping their trash
i'to the room below. The wide physical separatio' of two parts of the sarnc
vessel fr-rrther sllggests that wide ir.rtervals occurred betwccn bouts of cleaning.
This, again, is not typical behavior with any paraliel in the moclcrn erhnography of the Maya.
Nearly all erterior doorways in the heavily occupied parts of the Acropolis
showed evidence that attenrpts at blocking them with sorncthing nrore subst:rntial than the usual curtaitts were employed in the Classic period. \(hether these
door blocks were designed to keep things olrt or to keep people in is a n.ratcr of
conjecture. They do suggesr a tinre of small popr-rliltion ancl high stress. This
stress is evident in rn:rny signs: the charred and chewed human bones, the presettce of kitchen items mixed with ritr-ral and rare items of wealth, thc blocking
of doorways. A number of ceramic specimens are of a type known to corne
from Belize in this sirme Termin:rl Classic pcriod. The idea th:rt a trade ncrwork
was still in operation under thesc conditions of declining social order seems
strange, br-rt the evidence is tl-rat this was the case.
Musical instruments
Onc of the more interesting featurcs to emerge in the :rrtifactr-ra1 assembl:lge for
the Terminal Classic is the number of musical instruments th:rt founcl their way
into the midden deposits. Those found included ceramic drums, e ccramic
"flute" with a' anthropomorphic figr-rre, a set of ccramic pan pipes, a bone rasp
and nrimerous whistlcs scattercd throughor-rt tl-re acropolis. This orchestra of
instruments may wcll be reprcsentative of types that were present throughor-rt
the Classic period and only happen to be prescrved for our edification because
the refnse of the final occr-rpation was not cleaned op (ill. rz7).

no single
cause of

mously

c<

spread of
Recent

Inomata
that warl
Tika1, as

cor-rflict

r,r,

erable inf

factors w

argued to
ering of tl

a powerfr

environm
to be accc

the addec
brought a

we call th,
The pa

shows Ti

(pl.xIIl.

of a magr
of the rair

The Postc

Little rs kr
The cerar

have been

relate to c
especially
west. Sitet
the lake ar
evidence

<

The small
Causes

of the collapse

This topic has already producecl a multiplicity of academic papers with dozens
of explanations. The volume trtled The classic Maya colLapse edited by T,
Patrick culbert has most ertensively cxplored the variety of offered causes.
Very briefly, the n'rajor calrscs favored by scholars includc social unresr ancl rcvolution, disease, drought, change in water-leve1, land mismanagement in food
production, and warfare. Over the years scholars havc agreed Llpon one thing:
tz7 (left) A flute-like ceramic utind instruntent thdt tuas recouered in the centrdl
Acropolis prouides a hint of pre-Columbian ntusic.

passed th

behind

so

Tayasal cc
conquere(

Tikal,

as

the aband
Finally,
remnants

DECLINE AND FAI-L

cping down
:rs of debris
rg indicated
rf the Eznab
'retrievecl in

:cumulatiolr
'short. The
a hole in the
tory showed
g their tr:rsh

of thc

s:rrne

of cleanirrg.
'n ethnoirare

Acropolis
substan-

ore

hetl-rer these

matter of

;a

stress. This
Les,

the prcs-

:he

blocking

wn to come
lde network
order seems

no sir-rgle factor is sufficiently supported in the evidence to stand out as a sole

cause of the collapse. Many factors were involved in a process that was enormously complex, took many years to occur, and varied geographically over thc
spread of the Maya lowlands.
Recently, the work of Arthur Demarest, Stephen Houston, and Takeshi
Inomata in the Petexbatun (Dos Pilas) region has demonstrated convincingly
that warfare was a primary factor in that region. Certainly, the history of
Tikal, as now interpreted from the inscriptions, shows a deep involvement in
conflict with its near and far neighbors. This factor must have exerted considerable influence on the eventual downfall of the site. Equally certainly, other
factors were involved. Change in the water-levels in the Peten is ltow strongly
argued to be evident during the latter part of the Late Classic period. Such lowering of the water-levels in the wetlands that surrounded Tikal would have had
a powerful influence Lrpon the ability to exercise intensivc agriculture in tl-rose
environments. Stress introduced by any of the above factors would be expected
to be accompanied by social unrest and probably disease. Years of warfare, and
the added stress of a lowered water supply, and hence less food, could have
brought aboilt the disruption of the socially stratified society at Tikal, which
we call the "collapse."2
The painting produced in r9r5 by Santa Fe artist, Carlos Vierra, probably
shows Tikal most accurately as it looked in the Terminal and Postclassic
(pl. IJQ. Made without ever having visited the site, Vierra captured the image
of a magnificent city falling into decay and succumbing to the creeping inroads
of the rainforest.
The Postclassic

remblage

for

nd their way

;, a ceramic
,

bone rasp

orchestra of

throughout
.ion because

with dozens
:dited by T.
ered causes.
rest and rev-

nent in food
n one thing:

ntral

Little is known of the Postclassic at Tikal becar-rse the occupation was so slight.
The ceramics are distinguished by the compler name Caban, and examples
have been retrieved from scattered portions of the site. These ceramic types
relate to other sites that preserved a strong occupation during this late period,
especially small sites close to or on Lake Peten Itza some 6o km to the southwest. Sites like Motul de San Jose, Ixh-r, Punta Nima and Tayasal surrounded
the lake and contir-rued to be occupied into the Postclassic period. The dates for
evidence of this occupation at Tikal are set rather arbitrarily at AD 95o-rzoo.
The small number of artifacts found suggest that visitors from the lake sites
passed through or stayed briefly at Tikal, perhaps on ptlgrimage, and left
behind some evider-rce of their visit. As described in Chapter One, the site of
Tayasal continued to be occupied until the late rTth ccntury when it was finally
conquered by the Spanish. By this time, it seems that there was no memory of
Tikal, as the Spanish neither heard of it nor did they leave a record of visiting
the abandoned ruins.
Finally, there was a small settlement at Tikal in the rgth century for which
remnants have been recovered - late Colonial forms of pottery and evcn metal
r99

DL,CLINE AND I-ALL

instruments. The name "Tikal" was attributed to thesc people as clescribed in

Chapter One. Onc tradition says that the late settlement was eventllally driven
frorn residencc by a plagr-re of rabid bats. After this occuparion, the ruins lay
abandoncd ouce again untilthe arrival of the various early visitors and the University of Pcnnsylvania project in r955. Sir-ice this date, the site has enjoyed per,
mancnt occupation arrd hopefully will conrinue to do so, since abandonment
equals destruction.

Thc cyclc o

time to visi

tional
Retrospect

occur,

though the lirst occupation of Tikal was somewhat late in the framework
of the entire lowlands, it nevertheless was occupied for at least r,67o years. T1-re
early stages of development reflected those of the lowland Maya as a whcile,
seeing the evoh-rtion from scattered farming villages into a cohesivc community
with an agricultural cconomy and a strorrg ritual framcwork.
By ,tl zoo thc concept of family dynasty was inrroduced, a concepr rhat
gripped thc city Llntil its last rulcr carved alid set his last monument in eo 869.
Ahnost certainly the farnily line did not stay inract, but was broken and
usurpcd by interlopers from outside more than once. The longest break was the
Hiatus, lasting r3j years when Tikal was under outside domin:rtion, likely
frorn the southcastern city of Caracol. The Early Classic period ended in darkness ancl silence in the ir-rscribed records.
With the emergence of the Late Classic, Tikal struggled in a difficr-rlt renaiss:rnce which finaliy burst into flower by eo 68o with the rrppcarance of its grcatest rlller Hasaw Chan l('awil I. Wealth and power grcw under this man and
reached a peak in the rule of his son Yik'in Chan I('awil. Dcspite conrinued
we:rlth, thcre then began a decline with thc zgth ruler Yar Ain II, Hasaw I's
granclsor-r, who diecl around eu Boo. The decline accclerated with thc final
rect,r.-1. rltcr lorrp. gltps. irr eo li69.
Investigations of thc history and:rrchaeology of the site have been cxtcnsive,
perhaps greater than at any other Ncw World site. The results of thcse investigations are only partially available to date, ar.rd whcn fully availablc will still
represent knowledge of only a small percentagc of the vast city. Certainly Tikal
still holds secrets and sr-rrprises yet to be rcvealed. The history of a singlc city
like Tikal casts light on the Maya crvilizarion as a wholc. Study of Tikal has
illur"ninated many facets of Maya culture: how the Maya engaged in politics
and warfare; the fr-rnction of royal coLirts; the manncr of architectural surveying and city planning; the role of outside influence, particularly from Merico;
and not least, attribr-rtes of a city's style in art and architecture.
As visitors to the site strll cxperience at Tikal, the presencc is overwhelrning.
The horizontal and vertical scales are vast - the erpenditurc of hr,rmar.r effcirt
hard to con-rprehend. Thc beauty and dangers of the setting are humbling. This
volumc has only been able to scrape the sr.rrface of many complex topics. We all
wait with bated breath for the next chaprer in Trkal srudies.
Evcr-r

dry

accuratcly

espe(

El Niilo

ha

scason, thcr
cvcn fcwcr t

The polit
must alway:

has had verl

There art
park in your

is

payablc

south of th
The second
short distar

ticket is

gcr

and costs rc

At Tikal
opcratcd m

travel on a r
visitors at t
Lodge) whi

overhead far

rvelcome sr
watcr), a m

tl.rosc who r

are resort
Hclcna, wh
many in th

agent for cr
groups arc
few miles ea
even grande
ar.rd close r

Camino

Rcr

providecl by
group, rvhic.

it

is still

pcr

by one of
archaeologir
because

it

recount intr
a way that n

At the sit

These inclu
neither of r
near the en

Cescribed

Visiting Tikal

in

ually driven
he ruins lay
rnd the Uni:njoyed pcr-

'andonment

,framework
o years. The
as a whole,

community

The c1'clc of rainy and dry scasons has rnadc thc bcst
timc to visit Tikal from February to May, the traditiorral dry season. However, there is no way to
accurately predict just when the cycle of rains will
occur, especially ir-r recent years when the influence of
El Niiio has clisplaced the rrormal cycles. In the dry
se:rsolr, there are fewer flying insects, less humidity, and
even fewer tourists, making a visit ideal.
The political situation for the country of Guatem:rla
must always be checked in advance, but in the past this
had very little effect on the safety of tour:ism.
Tl.rcrc arc two cntrance fees to p:ry if enterrng the
park in your own vel'ricle. The lirst is for the vehicle and
is payable at the gated park entrance several miles
south of thc arcl'raeological zonc on the pavecl road.
The secorrd is a day fee paid at another gate located :r
short drstance west of the hotel and museum zone. A
tickct is goocl for e:rch day allowing multiple entrics
and costs ro US clollars, subject to raises.
At Tikal there :rre sever:rl hotels ancl a c:rmp grouncl
operatcd rnainly for thc youth group who choosc to
travcl on a vcry lorv budgct. The hotcl favorecl by nrost
visitrrrs at the site is the Posada de la Selua (or Jungle

l'ras

oncept that
it in eo 869.

broken and
:eak was

the

Ltron, likely

led in darkicult renaisof its greatis mar-r and

e

continucd

, Hasaw I's

th the

fina1

n extensive,
rese
:1e

investi-

will still

tainly Tikal

l single city
f Tikal has
in politics
rral surveyrm Mexico;

rwhelming.
rman effort
rbling. This
'pics.

\{/e all

Lodge) which offcrs scni-dctached bungalows with

ovcrhcad farrs, but no air conc{itioning. There now rs a

welcome swimming pool on site (clon't clrink the
rvater), a rnodcratcly good dining room and bar. For
thosc who wish morc luxurious accommodation thcrc
arc rcsort hotcls in the areas of Flores and Santa
Helena, where the airport is locatecl. The choices are
many ir.r this arca and onc nccds to consult a travel
agcnt for cLlrrcnt information. Popular with the tour
groups are the Villas Maya located on a small lake a
fcw milcs cast of thc airport at Santa Hclcna. Anotl.rcr,
even gr:rncler hotel, at the e:rst encl of Lake Peten Itza
and closer to the Trkal park is the rWestin Hotel,
Camir.ro Rcal. Bus communication to thc park is r.rot
providcd by hotcls unlcss onc is part of an official tour
group, rvhich rs recommended. At present, in the r99os,
it is still possiblc to cr.rlist on a tour group that is lcd

by one of the original University of

Pennsylvania

archaeologists. Such a group is highly recommended

bccause it has a tirnc Lmit ancl these :rrchaeologists can
recount intriguing anecclotes of the "goocl old days" in
a \,vay that no othcr tour guidc can communicatc.
At thc sitc, thcrc arc a numbcr of facilitics availablc.
These include two museums of malor importance,
ncithcr of which should bc rnisscd. Both arc locatcd
near the errtrarrce to the site as :rpproached from the

road frorn

Sar.rta

Helena (the airport). Or-re is the

govcrnmcnt-sllpportcd Stcla Mr:scum, connected to

the of{icial Visitor Center and restaurant, just rvcst of
the entrance to the site. The Visrtor Center incluc{es arr
extensive sales m::Lrket with an astounding range of
goods, inclucling books, local and importcd r.rative
crafts, leproductions of famous pieces from thc tombs

of Tikal, and much, much more. Take an extra suitcase

for purchases.

The other impol'tr1nt insritution at the site is thc

Sylvanus Morley Museum, across the way at the
cntrancc (north of thc old airport), a facility whicb
was opened cluring the I'reyclay of thc Pcr.rnsylvanir
Project and which contains many of the best pieces
from the nrajor tornbs. This Mr-rseum has an entrance
fee which maintains the building and staff. All
facilities, including museums) hotels, restaurants and
bars are locatcd closc to thc cntrance of the park where
the roacl connects with thc old and now defunct
airporr at rhe site.
rX/hile it is perfectly possible to visit the lurns on
onc's orvn and without a guicle, it is not really recomrnended. The sitc is sprcad ovcr a vcry large terrain and
the possibilrty of nissing something vely importanr is
high, not to mcntion the latent dangers of the
r:rinforest of the Peten of which thc visitor mllst bc
aware. The wildlife of the rainforest is still there, and
thc ur.rwary need to be accompanied by an experienced
guidc. For thc visitor who stays at the site ovemight
there is a special feature available. The park staff will

issue special permits for a fee to enter

the

archacological zonc outside of the regular park hours,

which vary by season. The fee pays for tl're time of a
park rangcr rr,rho must always accompany visitors in
these off-hours. The attraction is to rcach thc Grcat
Plaza, or Temple IV, in time to view the sunrise :rnd
hcar the sounds of the rainforest as it cornes to life
each day Convcrscly, a visit at night, cspecially dLrrirrg
a full moc.rn, is a porverful experience, allolving the
visitor to view the rising of the moon behind Ternple I
fron'r thc top of Tcmplc II. Most visitors find this
c\|erier'r(e uorth the extr:r pri.e.

Visiting Tikal is a rnajor crpcricncc. No one

failed ro be impresse d by the magnitudc of
achievement

has

thc

of the Maya at this major city, nor by the

ambicncc of thc cnvironment. The best aclvice is to be

both careful ancl wary and to takc morc film than you
think you rnight r.reed, especially film of high speed,
sincc thc forcst casts a dapplcd shadou' at all times.

Notes to the text

sial. Thc n:
changccl in
KL]O\\ n

Chapter r

re b

is

p tr

ni

|v7 a1''r r\ gr i t uLt

ure, editetl

Harrison lnd B.L. Turncr l[, 4 r 4 pp.,

Llnivcrsity of Nerv Merico Press, i 978.
I'ulLtrot.tser Sut,rntp, Andent Htbitdt,
P.L).

AgrituLhtre, dnd Settlentent in Northern

llellre, cclitccl bv B.L. Turner TI ancl Peter
D. Herrison,29.1 prp., Llniversitv of Texes
Press, r98

1.

z "Warfarc, Dcnrogrlpht', lncl Tropicel

F,cologl: Speculltions on the Paranctcrs
of thc \'[:r,va Collrpsc," by Arthur: A.
Denrirrest. Plper presented at the 89th
Annual Me cting of thc Amcrican

Anthropological Association, Ncw

OrJclns, r 99a. "The Petexbrtrlne

Regional Archeeologicll Projcct: Pcacc,

War ancl Collapsc of an Ancicnt Anrcricru Civilizetion," bl Arthur A.

Dcmrrcst. ht I'iue Huntlrecl Yt:ars After

(',oLurnbus: Procattlings of the qth
Ittt, nt.ttton.tl t .oneri.. ,'I A'n, rt, tni:l:.
eciitccl b,v E.\\l Anclrovs V ancl E.C).
Mozzillo, pp. 98-roz, Trrlanc Llnivcrsitl'.

Nen Orleans, ry9q. Hieroglyltlts nttl

Histor,- dt l)os Pilds: I))'ndstic PoLitics of
the (lLassic Ma'ua, Lhrivcrsit_v of Terls
Press, Arrstin, 1,191. PoLitits and Hterarr:lnt Antongst Classic I,Iaytr 51;1s,s, b,v

Sinron N4lrtin and Nikolei GnrLre, in

Arelt.rcnl,,Sr \ l.tg.tzrrtc., o.,1.

1 Tht Strnto

l\'Icrrtcr Rock Sheltar, ()cozo-

roL/nth, ChirpL/s, r\.1crlco, R.S. Mrc

Neish, rncl FlA. Peterson, NWAF Prpcr
t

1, 962.

J(

rr,

llu. \n /.rr/l

.\1.^.r

I ttltllnilttit\

in

Ball:e, eclitecl by Norrnln I llmmoncl,

ztio pp., Oarrbriclgc Univcrsity Prcss,
t9L)t.

5 "The Revoiution in Ancient -\4aya SuLrsistcncc," Pctcr D. Harrisr)n! pp. 99 rrl

nVision trnd Reuision in NId1,a Studies,
eclrted b,v Flora S. (.hnc1' ancl Pctcr D.
Harrison, LJnivcrsit)' of Nerv Mexico
Press, r99o.

6 "L.ighth Cienturl' Ph1'sicrl (icographv,

trritt'trrrrrt .tn.l \.rrttr:.tl R(JUuracr rI
thc Maya Lorvlancls," pp. rr 6j in
LouLantl lvlal'd CiuiLizttion in tht:
Eighth Centtu-1, A/), cclitcd l.A. SabJoff
ancl J.S. Henclerson,

Dumbirrton Oaks,

Weshilgton D.C., r993.

7 "Tikai as a Tr-rcling Centcr," Christo
phcrjoncs, mss. Plpcr presented at the
XLIII Internrtionll (longress of Amcricanists, Vancouvcr, Cllnacll, r979.
8 ",Aspccts oi lWater Managernent in the
Soutlrer;r Mrva Lol,lends," pp. 7r rr9,
rr ELonoilti. Asptt:ts of 'WLtter i\iltnttgement in the Prehisp(tnic Worlr/, Rcsclrch
ir Econonric Anthropologl,, Supplement
7, eclrted by Vemon L. Scrrborough and
B.rrrr I .1..r.r,.l\lPn'.. ryy1.

9 "Prcliminerv Investigltions of Agro

nomic Potentials in'Bajos' Acljaccnt to

Tikal, Pctcn, C'uatcnrala," b,v Bruce H.
Dahlin, pp. tos lr2, in Aclss tlu XLIk:

zoz

Congres lnternationdl des Antt:ricttrti-ste-s, Vo/. 8, Paris, r979. "Bajos Rcvisitccl: Visual Evidence for One Svstcm of

Agrirttltrrrc." plr. 2+- r\4. lr1 Pcrur D.

Hrrrriscrn, rn Pre-HispttrtiL: trIaya Agri-

culture,ccl.

b,v Pe te r D.

Trrrner II, University

Press, r97li.

Harrison

encl B.L.

of Nerv Mcxico

ro Tha Yegetution of the

l7:ten,

Clrnegie Lrstitutiorr of Washington Publication No.478, V,'ashington D.C., 19;7.

tt 7-he Cerdmits of Til<dL: VesseLs front
the P'urials, Cdches, Lmtl ProbLemttitLtL
1)r:po,sl/-., Tikal Report No. 25, l,ert A,
b,v 1i Patrick Culbert, Thc LJnivcrsity of
Pennsylvlnil Muscrinr, r99 3.
rz "Ncu.Pcrspcctilcs on (Jkl Problems:
D,vnastic Refe rences for the Early Classic
et Tikal," b,v Juan Pcdro Lrporte and

r99o, pp..13 66.

Chapter

r P D. Harrison, 'Aspccts of lWater

Nllnagemcnt in thc Southern Ma_v:r
Lrrn.1ancls", tt EcononiL: Aspects of
Vldtar Nldnogement in tlte Prahisptrnit:
'V/orLtl, ecl. V Scrrborough encl B. L.

Isaac, JAI Press Lrc., r99t, pp.

; Chcrt

is thc

being vcry sirlilrr irt tttribptes, espccrallf in its suitabilrty for kn:rpping lnd

rlru'

.1r11'111g

eclition, by Robcrt J. Sharcr, Stanforcl

I iniversitt' Prcss, r 99.1.

Chapter z
r Malcr, r9rr,

z C

Peaborly.

Coggins, r986 (Ciuatcrrrla); Joncs,

9llli.
I Stuart, I)., ncl mss unpublishcd.
4 A. ll Meutlsle,r', l3iologict Centrdlir

Antericrtnct, Archacology', Vrls. I lV,

r889-r9or. This publicetion matle lvail-

ablc the mlps lnd increcliblc photogrxphs takcn throughout the r\la)a
arca, incluciing Tikal.
5 Teobert Miler, L,xpLorations in tha
I)t:pttrtment of the Peten, C)uatemala,
Vo1. { No.r, Tikal, Ciambridgc, r 9 r r.
a, A. X4. -fozzer, A Prelirninart, Study
of tht Prchistorit Ruins of Tikdl,
(]utttemdLa Vol. V. No. z of Mcnoirs of
the Peaboclv Museuu, Harvard LJniversit.r',

Crmbriclgc, r 9r r.
lrrrrtt. L,. V,,rlrr.

Sl

llt, Ins, riL,ti,,n'

ClWl'uir. lj7, rgJt-.
'ftik,'|'he

of thePeten,
8 R. B. V/ooclbur,v and A.S.

Ruins of

ZcrtuLeu, lJnitecl Fruit

Comptn),, r951.
9 Secret of the Rain Forcsr, Life Mega
zinc, Vol. 45, No. r5, October r 3, r958,
pp. 84 9f,. Rich l;intl ctf MLtya Bones,
Lifc Nlagazinc, VoJ. 47, No. r7, October
26, r959,pp.9j 96.

ro N{y olvn Project nnmber was 22!

nrerking me as rn carly cntry iuto the

rescarch group.
r r .J. P. I-aporte

anil Vilme Fialko C.,

"Nerv Perspcctivcs on C)lcl

Problerns:

Dynrstic Rcfercnces for the Eerly Cllssic

rr 1ik.rl,'it

Ir:ion.tn,l R,ti,i,'n

|v7a1'u Studies, ccl. F. S.

Clancy and P

itt
D.

Fl:rrrison, LINN'[ Press, Albuquerque,

rllu lr\(lul \ulring.

,( r ll)

rng ancl cligging tools.

Llnivcrsrt,v of Ncu' Merico.Prcss, r99o.

Antient h7tyt, 5th

Arrcricln verietl of ilint,

having ir s1ightl1'ciifferent chcnical conrposition from thc Europcan sources, but

Chapter 4

Huclscrn, t 999; or The

7r-rr9.

S. Ricc, Ir.ighth (',entury Phl,3i6u1

Geogra phy, F.nuironment, tnd Natural.
Resourtes in the l\4crytt Loultrnds, r991.

z D.

Vilrra Fialko C., pp. :; 66,in Vision tntl

Reuisiott in !l1t1,a Srarli,s, cclitetl by
Flora S. (.lancy ancl Peter D. Hlrrison,

r3 For ex:rmplc,Tb( NId\),1,6th eclition,

b1' Michacl D. Coe , Thames ancl

JS

l3

this form in

rurresolved ar
rulcr b,v thc n

long reign is
tiolr-

rz

Schele an,

Willian Mor

r 1 "Thc Arr
r:rn,rnrl Toll,

bl Dalid
l]osllllll

Sn

In

crn
Princcton Li
Teotih
r

u a

998.

14

P. D. Har
Lis, Tiktrl, I

Sttub,

Mal';,

cclition, p.r45.

Chapter

sented Nithi

of

1hg

(:omlonents

J. P Laportc, rbirl.
\V. R. Coe, TR 14, r99o.

; ibid.
,1 R. J. Shrrcr, The Arttient

phv has comr

sizing the cla
S(/hcthcr ont

Period, Aut i
r5 Ercavatic
southrvcst of
5th

Houstor:lr

srrated the I

historq
-5

r In Ma,vr notltiorl ll.rz. r4.8. r5.

z Thc rcacling of tiris nlnre lnost conlrronly prrblishecl in the plst has bccn
"Yrx Moch Xoc."
1 Othcr intcrpretations of thc rvorcl
"xok" inclucle "the countcr" ancl "the
rerrder," connoting a scholrrlt' man

fitting conccpts for the founclcr of

lsty

clv n

Scc

1996.

16 Hrrrison.
r7 As rotcd
clacla hrs be
reaciing is /ra

mcaring.

Sr

Texrs) No. 5l
I havc sonct
tcrnr "chactr

brordl),

und,

C. Joles, peper prcscntccl at the N{eyr

Weekcrrcl, LLr ivc rsit,v .Vluseunr, I'hrladclphie, r996.

highest ruler.
r8 Pctcrtr4at

5 This situation

changcs rlrnost claill,

lncl clcflnitely with everv new rrcctins of

rccognition o

the epigrephers u'ho arc constautly at

rvork on thc topic. Thus rt is ineviteble
that some of the namcs usccl in this
volume rvill have be cn mocli6ccl b,v the

entl Revision

time it is in print.
6 In Maya notation 9.o.ro.o.o
7 Mava Earl,v Classic lylonnncnts lnd
Irrscriptiorrs, it A Cutsitleration of the
Larly Clcrssic Periotl in the Matu Lowlntds, ed. bi- C. Wiiley ancl P Mrthovs,
Albanr', N! r985.
8 In Maya notation,!.12.14.8.r;.
9 As wrth r11 rulers in thc carlv p:rrt of
rlte h.trl' Cl.r"i, Pr ri,,.l rlr.r. i. !i,ntr(,
vcrsy ovcr the interpretetion of thc namc
phrase . Here there is no rclding,vct rraclc
in Nll,ve enc] the rvord "moon" sorrctimes prcccdcs thc "zcro" in the vrrious
scholars'rcaclings.
ro In lrer re-anal1'sis ol Tht: RttLers of

Drau,ing

'1'tktl, ('cnevicvc Michel has nou

rcjcctccl Zcro Moon Bircl es a

mlcr of

Tikal.

rr The idcnti6cation oI this ruler's

namc is lnothcr-th:rt relnains contro\rer

rrost of

tht

19 Llporte
Chapter

Clemency

54,,

scrtation, Ha
u The other

of lenple

crcd at Tikr
materiel for I
the citl:
3 C--lcrrcncv (
4 Exclvation

conducted ur
Eclrvin M. Sh
Projcct at the
Scott was in
operetious dr
ancl I hacl th
briclly in th
goocls in Buri

5 Thc tcrm
qucrtlY enou
crte a

kincl

l:alomte it is

NOTES TO THE T!,XT

pects

of !ilatcr

iouthern I'layl

aic

Aspects

of

the Prehispdnic
,ugh and B. L.

was

knorvn as "Jaguar Parv" and published in

this form in many places, the orthogra-

onc.

phy has conrc to bc rccognizecl as emphasizing the clarv rather th:rn thc soft paw.
\Whether onc or two rulers lre repre-

phrasc is integratecl into the name gl,vph

in such e s'ay that it canrrot be separatecl
frorn the inclividual's personal name,
such as, in this casc, "Siyah", one trensla
tion of n'hich is "gift."
Thc phonetic tr:rnslation, both of this

r(ttt..l

enturt Phl,sical
tt, and Naturo|

owldnds, t,1,1i.
L variett, of flint,
t chemicrl com

irltttl rl)( \xlll(

rr

t(

\1. IrlllJill\

urrrcsolvecl es of February, r998. A single

ruler by the nanrc ol Jaguar Claw I u'ith a

long reign is lssumccl in this presentr

tiolr.

rz

pp.7r r19.

I,

Schele ancl Frcidel, A lorest

of Kings,

Willierl Morrolv, r99o.

r 3 "Thc Arrival of Strangels":Tcotihuacrrn ancl Tbllll in Classic Maye Historr',
by Devicl Stuart, preplred for thc Sym-

posiunr "Thc (ilassic Heritage: Frorr

Tcotihulcan to the Tcrrplo lv{lyor,"

ean sources, but

rttributes, espe,r knapping ancl

Princcton LJniversitl, revised Fcbruary

I cutting, scr:rp-

r4

r 998.

P D. Herrison,Tha Cantrdl Acropct

Tikal, (lufiemuLu: tt Preliminory

Study of the I;unctions of lts Structureil
Lis,

Components During the Ldte Ckssic

Parlori, Ann Arb o\ r97o.
r5 Excavations at the site of Dos Pilas
southlvest of Tikel, maclc by Dcnarcst,

o.

:ient Nltya. 1th

Houston ancl Inonrata hlve

clcnron-

of rvirrfere in Meya
history See elso Martin rncl (irubc,
strf,tecl thc powcr
r996.

.r4.8.r 5.
ame most coDr-

) past hrs been

of the lvorcl

's
rnter" and "the
cholarly man

: fourder of

rtecl at thc Ma,va

rseum, Philedel-

'e constalltly at
s it is incvitable
es usecl in this
modified by the

r6 Harrison,

ideration of tbe
the Maya Lowrnd P Mathervs,
.r4.8.r5.
he early part of
thcrc is contro
:ion of the nanrc
'e ading yet made

"rloon"

some

r" in the various

The Rulers of
chcl has now
rd as a rulcr of

of this ruler's
n

ains controvcr-

Lrsc

s/as more popular in later

ruler:rncl most othcr rulers of Til<al

is

taken from the rvork of a group ol cpigraphcrs callecl herein "the Austin Group"
n'ho mcct annually in Austin, Texes to
discuss and update thc on-going work of
trars!ating thc corpus of Maye hieroglyphs. The principal lcaclcrs of this
group are Linde Schele of Austin, Texas;

Nikolai Grube of Bonn, (icrmarry;

Simon Martin of London, Englancl.

ancl

6 In Ma,va norxtion,3.r8.r5.rr.o.
7 ln Maya notation 8. r 9. ro.o.o.

ll ln Maye notation, thesc trvo datcs arc:

9. r.o.ll. r,5 ttcl 9 t.z.t7.r7 respcctivcll:

9 In Pctcr M:rthovs' dctailed discussion

Mtyd EarLy CLassic N'Ionunents and

lnscriptions (r9ll;) a fort,v yeer periocl of
activit,v is clescribecl spanning thc aclult
lifc-span of Storml' Sky
ro Coggins, r975.
r r flre V.rr.r lc rJing r. tLl(.lu\!.
z ln their chronologic:rl sequence

r6 stcll arc numberecl 40, 91 r3, j,71 r5!

27,8.6,2i,25,r41r2, ro, u6 ancl r7.

ncaning.

explainecl

e Copen Note

(Austin,
Terrs) No. j8, Stulrt, Gmbe and Schele.
I heve sometimes choscr to rctain the

ternr "chactc" in this text es it is still

broecll,v unclcrstoocl in the meatring of
highest ruler.
r8 Pctcr l\lathervs end

Johl

fusteson clicl

rccognition of thrs titlc.

r9 Laporte and Fialko, r99o, in Vision
.rnrl R.

vi.iur

rrr .V.rr.r \r rr.lre..

Chaptcr 6

Clemenc.v

C. Coggrns, Pdinting and

at TiAai, Doctoral Dis-

StyLes

sertation, Harvarcl LJniversity, r975.

z The other is thc tcxt on the roof comb
of Tenple VI. Stcla 4o, rcccntly recov
crccl at Tikal has llso provided ncu'
nratcrial for the Earl,v Clessic history of
the citll
3 Cilcrnency Ci. Coggins, r975, ibid.

4 Excavation of Nu Yax Ain's tornb lvas

conducted undcr thc supcrvision of Dr.
Echvin NI. Shook, Director of thc Tikal
Project at thc tirrc. Archaeologist Stulrt
Scott lv:rs Jn clrargc of North Acropolis

opcrations during the sunluler of r959,

ancl I hacl the privilege of joining him
brjeily in thc cxcavation of the grave
goocls in

of the

peccarvl identiliecl by thc trcloil clcmcnt

in its eye. "l('an" c:rn meen cithcr "prccious" or "yellow:" hr this c:rse the l:rtter
seems appropriatc although rve could
n'ell be missilg the point cntircly Thc
pcccary is a specilic s,vmbol rn thc
heavens representing rebirth, ancl thc rcfcrcncc in this gl,vphic phrase could rvell
be to thc hcavcnl,v constellation. See
NIa1,a Cosmos, b,v Freidel, Schclc ancl

Parkcr, r99i. Previouslv in the literatllre

this rulcr has bccn called "l('an Bolr."
r5 Estala ry da Tikal: Hallazgo y
lectun, b.v Juan Altonio Valclcs, Fcdcrico Fahsen ancl Gesper Munoz Cosmc,
publishccl by the Instituto de Antropologia e Historie rle Guatem:rl:r, August,
r997,48 pp.
16 The Maya notations for these z clates
ilrc respectivel,v and in chronological
orc{cr: 9. r. 1.o.rz end 9.r.r3.o.o.
17 In Maya notation 9.L.o.o.o.
rli ln Maya notrltion g.u.rl.o.o.
tq I l^, Il.trl, r, "I I ik.tl- yq1 i.ie11 111 1'11s..
Publicacioncs Vistx. Cuatemala.

uo Because thc nanrc glyph of this ntler

Burirl ro.

5 Tlre term than k'au,il turns up

frcqucntl,v cnough in ruler's names to inclicilte r kincl of titlc. Llnlikc ahau and

kdlonttr: it is nore

llter in the tcxt.

r4 Thc translltion of thrs ruler's name
coulcl bc dcbetecl for prgcs. wc nos'
knou' that the animal lvhose lre ad is
carvccl in thc glyph is indeed that

l revereltial titlc that

z3
r

Schele and Grube, Texes Notc 67,

994, Austirr, Texas.

z4 In Maya notatior 9.:l.o.o.o.

z5

Rcccnt studies of both the texts on

Stela z-j and rclatcd glvphs on Stela u6
have suggestecl that thc rvonran's glvph
ma,v rcfcr to an event rxther th:ul ir
person! the evcnt bcing thc founding of
the dynastv In this clse, the nrain 6gurc
on Stcla 23, being so badly clefaced coall
tllrn out to bc that of a rralc menber of
the lineege. If so, lve do not knou'rvho
this person nray bc.
z6 ln Maya notation 9.l.9.rl. j.
z7 Coggins, r975.
u J Tlre tcrn kJlotnl, i) thL r(\ r)ruil
mirde b,v Mertin encl Crube to thc titlc
chercte vsccl in this text. Martin ancl

Grube sly that tlrc nrcaning ol

"kalomte"

is not 1,et knolvn.

z9 Previouslv published as "fagrrar Parv

Skull II" by both Joncs ancl Michel.
ro ltt \l.r1.r lror.ltinrr ,).5. r.,,. r i.
lr lil V.tr.r n',l.ilrony.r'.i.9. Ii.

t: ln V.t1.t nor.lnur ,,.o.S.4.:.

3j Scc Schelc and Freidel in

ancl

thcsc

r I This reading is l speculltivc onc proviclccl b,v thc present illlthor and is

Se

bccn rcinterpreted as ".[egu:rr Clau'. "

9.3.o.o.o.
zz In Maya notation 9.3.2.o.o.

zr In M:rya notation

Forest

of

Klngs, and subscclncnt papers by Grube

r97o, as in Note r3.

As noted b,v Simon Mlrtin, thc rvord
chctcte hx bcen read in error. The ncrvcr
reaclirrg is kalomte, a word of unknorvu

r7

I)ratuing
to.o.o
v4onuments rncl

" Its

times during the Late Classic. Thc

most of thc grouncilvork leading to

es almost daih,
new meeting of

not pxt of all nrler's names. Thc

loosc translation is "great, heavenl,v

siel. TIrc namc translation alone has

changed irr rcccnt time. OriginelJy

includes e skeletal lorvcr jarv, hc was prcviousll, called "Jaguar Parv Skull I." This
is now knorvn to bc a gl,vph variant for
thc basic nane Jaguar Pau' rvhich has

Martin.

34 Pro'iousl,v publishecl as Animel Skull

TI (Michcl anclJoncs).

Chapter 7

r Harrison, r 97o, dissertation; ancl Har

rislrt. l',.1.,,t V.tr.t ArchitLttttrr. irr
Nlotto,Treasurt:s of dn Ancient CiuiLizd-

tion, ecl by C. Gallenkamp ancl R.

Johnson, Abrams, r995, pp. 84 96.

Chapter

A Forest of Kings,
and Society in Ancient
Masoamerict, r99z; Martin, Simon and
r

Schele encl Freidel

99o; Hassig,

'V/ar

Nilolrr Lrrrl'e. M.rrr Suptr.tatr.. il

. V'1. .1x. Nn r'.rqr)\. pp.

Ar,/,n,,,1u.g.1

4u 46; Martin and Grube, Evidcncc for

Macro-Political Orgenization among
Classjc Maya Lon'lands States, unpublished mss.

u Thc same nane gl,vph is

rcad

Spearthrorvcr Shicld and is shori'n both

ls ln on'l ancl a shiclcl in different versions of text.
3 Fron Temple l, Lintel 3. In Me,va rrotatioi 9. t L.9. t /-. t6.
4 Martin, Simon and Clrubc, Nikolai,
Politics and Hierorchy Amongst CLassic
Maya Sttttes, Archacologv Megazine,
r994. Also, Grnbe, N., Schclc, I-., ancl
Fahscn F., Epigrupbit: Research at
C d ra c o l, BeLize, t,19 3, tns.
5 Ill Ma1'a notation 9.5.r2.o.4.

r' lr \lrr.t nolJIIor) t.o.-'.r.r r.

7 Schclc anci (irube, r99;+, p. ror.
8 In Ma,va notation 9.6.8.,1.2.
9 ln Maya notation 9.6.t8.r2.o.
ro ln Maya notation 9.7.r4.ro.o.
rr Lr Ml_va notation bctn'cen 9.,3.o.o.o
and 9.rz.o.o.o.

Le)

NO'IES TO THE TEXT

r2 I lr(.1'((iti. tl.rt. irr.\l.rr.r nnt:ri,'r i-

to the people oi Tikal of this conquest

9.

event.

ru.o.8.;, r 1ittle leter tlun thc pcriocl ol

silence notecl abovc.

r; Iclcnti6c:rtion of the n'lr cvcnt rnd

rclrtionship n'ith Tikrl u'rs nracle by
Stephen Houston ancl David Stuirrt. See
also Arthur [)emrrest in Nationa] Gcogrephic, r99g.
r.1 ln Maya notation 9.9.r2.a.a.
r5 A tcntativc Nliryr trrnslition proviclcd by Schele in the Austin Synrposiunr

ol ry,.4.

r6 Also knorvn in thc litcraturc ls

'Anirnel Skull", ancl unofficially trans

lilted ilrto N{aya rs "E te ll."

17 Tilnslirtion by Simon VIartin, per
sottll communicltion, r997.
r tl Also callecl "Brrcl Heatl" in somc rcfcrences. cf. Halcs.

Chapter 9
r In Meye notltion 9. r l.o.o.o.
z Lindr Schclc ancl Nikoler Gruhe. Sozr:
lleuisions

to Tikll's Dtn;stl, of Klngs,

Texrs Note

ar7,

Mlrch

994, Tcxrs Note

on Prc-(lolunrbian Art, Writing

ancl

(-ulturc. Arrstin, Texls.

3 The nemc has l vlrictl' of reeciings
from diffcrcnt occrrrrenccs in texts. lt has
bccn rcacl as Nu Ll Bek (lhak, ancl oncc irt
Dos Piles, es Nun Bak Chak.
1 Irt V.tr.r I,,,t,r{iun r. I I.(,. I(,. I r.
5 In Mlava notation 9:r.6.t6.r7.

6 ln r\Ia,va notxtion 9. rz.o.t.3.

In N4ave ltotttion, rcspcctivcly

9. rr. t.ro.r ttnd 9.t2.6. t 6. r7.

S I lrr' t r,rr.l.rt r(,r I rcnt lin\

n riting

ol the Nleye progrcsscs, lncl it

progrcssing rapidly;

tcrr.,,f tlrir kin.l

S

IO

all

nt.rr

is

rcaclings from

ru

11, ,111.1r'rr

r!\i-

II.

z r ( lrri. loltc..

tlonJ r99t.

l,( r.,,il.11

\'umnIililLl

z4 ln N{l,vl notation 9.r,+.o.o.o.

z5 The geometry and usc of alignrncnt

that is involvccl in the placcmcnt of t\lter

5 ri'ill be cliscussccl in a later cheptcr

cleeling rvith this cxtraorclinary fcaturc

of thc la,vout of the citv

u6 Lrterpretetion of thc relding of thc
gl1 1.lr' orr .\ltrl V..r. rrell r' rlr. rn!,rring
of thc figures clepictccl on it follorv the
u'ork of C,rubc ancl Schele ls clescribccl in
l-errs Note 66, TikaL Altar V, t,),)4,

Tcxas Notes on Prc-Clolurrbial Art,

Vriting, ancl (iulturc, Arrstin, Texas.
z7 Thc idcntification of the raa1a.. gl,vplr
ancl its rssocietiorr witir Calakrnul rvas
lirst rnecle by Sinron Martin, rvho also is
responsiblc for recognition of the hnk

bcnvcen the trvo rrcr in the picture by a

colllurorl dcuonrinittor of relationship to
the samc wonllul. Elrlier contributors to
stucll'of this titlc s'crc Stcven Houstolr
ancl Devitl Stuart.
z8 ln Maya not:rtion 9.ri. r r.6.7.
z9 F.pigrephic rcscarch leeding to rccogrtirorr ul tlr. ri rl' f,'r "r\lrtll.lLiul" \\.1\
clonc by Devicl Stuart.

lIt(

( t L,ti I r,

likc nrost rovll nlmcs at Trl<ai.

9 In N,lave notation 9.r2.9.r7.t6ro In Mlva notation 9.12.rr. 5. r ll.

r In N4ryr notltioll 9.rL.t 1t.t7.7.

rz In l\{ayl nittltion 9. r 3.o.o.o.

r; This is a subjcctive observetion. hr

this lutlror's opinion Hlsalv Chln
T('arvil hacl thc grcttest effect on thc
grcatncss of the citl than any ol its other
nrightv lorcls.

14 ln Mlya notation g.r 1.1.7.r8.

r5 Y/hile Schele end (lrubc utilizcd the
"Jlguar Cleiv" translxtion, X4rrtin

prefers "Jrgurr Parv Smoke" rs thc nanrc

of this rulcr of Celekmul (Martin, pcrsonal corrmunication, r997).

r6 In Mava rlotxtion 9. r;. j.8.rr.

r7 A r.ariation on the Tikal usrgc of

Chek Toh Ich'ek (Jrguar Clarv).

r8 In Mevl notrtion 9. r 3.3,.9.r8.
r 9 Thc giving of proper nilnrcs to sacrcd
inaninrte objects hls bccrr rcvealecl in
certlin readings of tcxts, not jrlst fronl
Tikal, but fronr selerll ro,val capitlls. As
ttr tltt . t'c lt,r,. tlt, tlr1'lr' 111'1..."1;',*
this nlmc cen bc rcrcl in N'[a1'a, but not
lccurrtcly translrtcd into meaningful
English.
zo Blooclletting cercnronics were coll
ductccl to solcmnize events of grcat

irlportance, such,rs thc lcccssion of a

rulcr into po\\'er, or thc clcath of a ruler.
The perfornrancc of such r ceremony at
tlrr. tiilr. irrrlii.rrc. rlrc gr,,rt iItl'e11.11'.,

zo1

r In Ma,vl notiltion 9. r l.J. r j.r5.

uu As knorvlcdge of the hieroglvphic
z

to Florl Clanc,l', Seventh Palcntlue

Rcruncl

Trblc, Vrl. Xl, pir zi7-zqz, 1989.

1 r fones, r9Ez.
lz ln Mayr notation 9.14.ri.r. r9.
l l ]r Vrv.t nur.lnon g. r+. ri.6. rJ.

16 Cllcrrcncy Coggins, Pcr.inting nttl

I)rtning St1'les at TlAal, Doctoral Disrtation, Hln'arcl LJnive rsitv, r 975.
17 Aubrey S. Trik, "Thc Splendid Tomlr
ol Templc I, at Tikal, (iuatcnrala,"
Expedition, Vrl. 6, No. r, r96j, pp. 3 r8.
se

(,.

Irr \1,r1.r n('t,rri(,1 q.

3 In Maya not:rtion

4 Irt V,rr,r rut.lri(,r)

5 In Meva notltion

(' The enalysis

j.o.o.

rvas clescribed

in

T/:c

Oentrd AcropoIis,'f iltdl, (luatemttLcr: A

I'rt:limintrry Snrtly of the Funt:tions of lts

Stntchrttl Octmptnents l)uring the Late

Ptrictd, Harrison, Doctoral Dis
sertation, LJniversitv of Pcrrnsvlvania,
OLdssic
t

c)74.

7 lhe

to Pieclras Ncgras, l knou'n ally of

( .tl.tlrtrrrl. Hu1r1 f11llt. ttctt itr.t ril,riort'
n'ill help to resolvc this puzzle from thc
mid llth ccntnrv

Me,ve

heartlrncl.

ro Scc rcfcrcnce to Simon N{ertin

Notc

in

rz

reaclings thet are includcd in this

text arc abstrilcted from thc rvork of the
Austin Croup, specificall,v inclucling the
u,ork of Schclc, Grube, tr4artin rncl
Stuart in April, r99,1. Scc also Sirnon
Martin, Nar Epigrdphic dattt on lvLtryct
Wdrfare, plpcr presented at Prinrcra
iVlesa Rcclonda, Nueve Epocr, Scptem

baseline that
6D-6r in thc
has its right a
cirstcrn trianl

6r. The

signr

ture is not kn
to cluc rvcst
have been th,

<

of Yik'in

z9 Thc

south of Tetr
proximitv of

reverence for
Horvever, dur
docs not co

huried in

cllncc
ing

ir

con

impor

Thrs fact sugl

roval family

king. This

brother of Yi
3o Tcxas Nr

Relisions

tct

Februar,v L AD 744
1, Tcnrple IV

(9.r;.rz.r r.ru),

9.rt.r2.rr.r3, oll

r4 Jull'r,1, Ar) 7,+a, (9.r5.r5.2.3), on

Lintcl j, Temple l\{
r5 ln tr4aya rotation 9.r i. r 5. r,+.o! oll
Lintcl z, Tcmple l\l
r(' The cornparablc artlvork is fronr

3r

In Ma.va

3z

Frorn Stel

In Maya nota

Lintel

ri In Mava lrotiltion
Lintel z,Templc I\1

s far
loca

Schclc ancl G

7.

rr August z, r o 743 (9.r;. r2.2.3), a clete

recorclccl rlso on Linte l 3 of Te mple lV

Chapter

rr

Thc lirst

ic
age rvas maclt

Linte I u 5, Yrxchilan, in rvhich I-ady Xoi<,

u,hilc cloing secrificc, rcccivecl l serpcnt

r8

Simon Martin, r995.

r9 This iclentification hls been mede by

\int,,n \l,trtin ulr,,.r,lJr rlr.rt thc i.lcrrrili
catiolr is not conclLrsivc,
rcference for translations and clating of the Tcrrplc VI roof

zo The primlry

conrb text is from Christopher Jones,

"Lrugural Datcs of Three Late Classic
Rulers ol Tikrl, Guetemala," it Anrcri
u

9.2. r l.o.

9. r 5. ro,o,o.

plliri,. ul tlrc.irrr,rti,,il l\!\uilr( illtn

catc. Tlte ttervly discoveretl city is closcst

r Christophcr fotes,

Col, Mrcue
Corle, Thrnr
lo4 pp., 1992
Cor., \ll R.

Excauations
Terrace antll
volumes, N4o

of Pennsylvar

AI

r977,

-Tikal,
NIdyd Ruins,

Oommerce ttnd

r,aria Muscu

pp.z8-6o.

5.\.o...

9. r 5.

recent cliscovcrr.of a nelv sitc, Joc:rl1y

callccl /.o Verentos, placcs it cven further
west on the Rio Chocop,1 northcrn tributary of thc San Pedro. Thc furthcr site
coukl lot havc bccn att:rckecl by Tikal
rvithout thc coopcrtriolt of El Peru. The

ctn Anticlttitt'. Vol. 42, No. r,

rs. t.('.8.
r

Teble, Junc 1993, ecl.,\1. Macri alcl J.

McHargue, Pre Columbian Art lnstitute. San Francisco.
8 ln Ma,va notltiolr 9.r i. rz.u.u.
9 Both of thesc sitcs lic to the rvest of
Tikal encl both arc located on or ncar thc
Rio San Pcclro i\{:rrtir, the \\ratcr route to
the rvcst. El Pern is thc closcr site. but

vision. This lvork clates from ln 7u 5 rnd

thus was carlier then thc crcnt recorclecl
on Linte I z of Templc IV
r; In Maya notation 9.r5.r7.ro.4.

i.1 In Meve notation 9. r j.o.o.o.

35 ln X4ar.a notatiol 9.r5.3.6.f.i.

Chapter ro
t Irt \r1.r1.r rot.ilion

ber z8 ;o, r995, Prlenque, Chiapas;

Martin, TlArrl s " stdr LUdr" Ltg.linst
Ncrrctnjo, in F,ighth Palenque Round

'lrude Routes of the !t4avo, in Historia tle

ClLratemlla, Vol. I, ncl (rvritten in r99z).
zz ln t\{avr notation 5.o.o.o.o.
z3 In Ma,ve notf,tion 6.t1.r6.9.16.
z4 In Meye notxtion 7.ro.o.o.o.
z5 ln ordcr for thcse dltes to conform to
thc Schclc correhtion rvhich has other
n'isc been useil in this volunre, the thrcc
clates of rrJg Bc,.lj7 Bci and ri6 Bc
should rcacl r r4l tsci,456 BCt ilncl r j7 tsci
rcspcctivcly:

z6 In Meya notation

respectively:

9.+a.a.a to 9.1.r,,.7 .7.

z7 Clalled l)ate I in thc scrics of Templc

VI .l.rt.'. rh, t\l.rv.r nor.lrnn i,

9.r6.rt.o.o

z8 Two integral rrght triansics shrre

9E8.

CoccrNs, Cr

Drauing

Styl

dnd Iatrutgra

scrtation,2,
sit;', r975.

Cur.rtnr, T.
25, Part A,
VesseLs from
Problematica

Thc

LInive

r\{useum, Phi

lt4aya

Institution,

\Vorlcl

Serier

Sabloff, St. Rt

nque, Chrapesi

tL'dr" deoinst
alencluc Rouncl
N{acri encl J.
bian Art Insti-

,|

L,z.z.

,r

e to the west of
:d on or near thc
le

wrter route to

closer site, but

Lerv sitc, locallv
:s it even furthcr

northcrn tribThc further site

a

racked by Tikal
of El Pcru. The
'
n become intri
'ed citv is closcst

baselinc that mns bctu'ccn 1Cl-41 ancl

6D 6r in the south. The rvestern trianglc
has its right angle at Temple I\{ wirile the
elstern trianglc has its right :rnglc at 6D6r. The signific:rnce of tire latter structurc is not knorvn. but its locrtion is close
to due rvest of Tenrplc VI, arrd it coulcl
heve been the burial place of a nrcnrbcr
of Yik'in's femily (rvife, sister?).
z9 The location o[ Burial 196 to thc
south of Temple ll ancl in the immecliate
proxirrit,v of thc Grcat Plaza shou's great
reverence for the individuel rn the tomb.
Hou'cvcr, clu rirrg the se tine s, its location

not confornr to thc ncccl to bc

buricd in e location of cosmic signili
calrcc - a consiclcration that rvas cscalat

does

ing in importance in Tikal at this tinc.

ally of

This fact sullgests a lesser nember of the

ro,vl) fanrily is involvecl, rather than a

rcw inscriptions

known

puzzle from the

3artl an cl.

Mlrtin

mon

in

5.r2.2.3), a clate
of Temple IV.

(9.r5.ru.r r.ru),

.ri.r2.rr.rl,

orl

9.r5.r5.2.j), on
).r t. r t.r:1.o,

king. This line of re:rsoning favors

brothcr of Yik'in of unknou'n ranc.

jo

Texas Note 67, March, 1994, Sonr:

Ret,isions to Tikal\ Dt,nas4, of Kings,
Schclc and Grubc.
jr In Mr,vr rrotation 9.t6.rq.r7.t7.
;z From Stela r9, Decerrber 25, AD 768.
In Maya notation 9.r6.t7.t6.q.

Chapter r r

callecl hrm Ruler C. Next G. Michcl uscd

tlre Chol Ma1'a worcl for pcccar,v
(Chitam, r989), which Coggins revised
for thc Yucatcc vcrsron (Ak).
z In the formal clesignation of the Pennsylvenia excavatiols these cornplexes
bccarrc (irou p 4E-4 (()) , ancl Cirou p 4E- 3
(R).
j In Ma,va notatron9t6.t7.t6.q.
4 In Mava llotation 9. r 7.o.o.o.

notation 9.r8.o.o.o.
6 This very importrnt geometric rell
tionship is described in Chapter rz.
7 This translation is from Schele encl
Grubc, Maya Hicroglyphic Vorkshop,
March 9 r8, r995, Austin, Tex:rs.
8 ln Maya notation 9.r9.o.o.o.
5 In

NIa,va

9 Coggirrs,

ro

Princcton Prcss), that all tcxts had a propaganda function, recording history in
only thc wa,v that thc rulcrs rvantccl it tcr
be rernenrberecl.

6rst idcntilication of this pcrsorrage rv:rs macle b,v Chris Jones n'ho sinply

final rcport on trvin pyrarrid groups at

Tikal as Tikal Report r8.

Recorclecl oll the mlp xs three strLlc

turcs nurnbcring 5D- 3 r , 5D-4 r ancl 5D12.

j Leporte, t99o tn

Vision trnt! Keuision

in Mavtt Stutliu.

1 t ull'err. I'rr'\urr.ll \uilrr)ilili..lli(,rr.

r997.

5 Thc right anglc at Tcrrplc I rvas rccog-

lized

b,v Aveni ancl

Hlrtung originallr',

but not the significancc of thc trianglc

itself.

6 Harrison, "Spltial (ieometrv

and

Logic in thc Ancicrrt Maya Mincl. Part

u:

Architecture," in Serenth l'denque

Rountl Tdble, 1989, pp r41 u 5:, San
Chapter r3
r ftil iJ fr.iJ.l. \ih.r.,,l,,gr ,,f ( cr.,..
r995.

u Scc Harrison, "Thc Risc of the Ralos

ald the Fell of the '\{aya," in Soclal
lrrorr:ssd,s

-foncs, The TrLtn-Pyrnnid Orctult

in l\4at,a prt:history: Studies in

Memory of Sir F,rtt: Thompson, ed. N.

Chapter rz
OLassic i\4ayer Architecturol

Assembltrge

r Thc

RAPHY

Marcus hls suggested il

Mesoanteritan V/riting Ststens ft992,

Pattern:

Franci sco.

r988.

Jo,vce

r (i.

IBL IO

Harrmond, pp 47e5o,3,
Prcss, N! 977.

Acaclemic

dt Tikal, (]uatamold. Doc-

toral Disscrtation, LJnivcrsitl.

6lms, r969. C. .Joncs is also

pre

-\,1icro-

plring the

o11

rtwork is fronr
uhich l.ecl.v Xok,
ccivecl r serpent

rorn -to 7zy and

: evcnt recorclecl
5.r7.ro.4.

NIdl,a

H,Lnrrson, PL.r'.!.t D. The Central

Coda, Thamcs ancl Huclson, l.onclorr,

104 pp.\ t992.

Acrop oli s, T i kal () u at end a : A P rc liminory Studl, of the Functions of its ,Struc-

Coe, \\l R. Il Tikal Rcport No. 14,

Exctrutttions in the Clreat l'Lazd, North
Terrnte andNot'th Acropolis of TikaL,6

of

Cor, MrcH,r.l.r- D. Bretking the

rs been made by

that thc identilince for translaTcmplc VI roof

:istopher Jones,
ree Late Classic:

nla," in Ameri-

, No. r,

Bibliography

volumcs, Monograph of Thc Llnivcrsity

of Pennsylvanie Museum, r99o.

A Handbook of the Ancient

turdL Components tluring the Late

Period, Disscrtation, Llnivcrsity

Pennsylvania, Ann Arbor, 127 pp.,
r974.

(-,

I assi c

Ec{itcd b-v Harrison and B. L. Tunre r

-11 l're Hispdnit lvldya AgricuLture,l)n

versit-v of New Mexico ltress, Albu

r977,

-Tikal,
Mdya Ruins, The Llniversity of Penlsyl-

Commerce dnd

vnnia Muscum, r27 pp., znd cclition,

qucrquc!

a, in Historie cle

r 9811.

Hevrr.exl, Wrr.r.r,q.r,r A. Tikal Rcport

No. r9, Frcalations in SmaLL Residentidl Grol.tps of 'f ikaL: Groups qF r tnd
4F-2, Monograph of Thc Llrivcrsity of

ritten in r99z).

Coc;crrns, Cr.nr,rnNcv C.. Painting and

.o.o.o.

Drauing Stltles at Tikal, An HistoricaL

4.t6.9.16.

and Iconogruphic Retonstruction, Dts

scrtation, z rolumcs, Harvard LJnivcr-

f,.o. o. o.

:s to

conform

tcr

,hich has otherrlume, the three

nc and 156 rc
i

tc

ancl r57

nc

respectively:

;cries

of Temple

r notrtiolr

is

rianglcs share a

sitv, r975.

Cur-ennr, T. Pemrcx

Tikal Rcport No

25, Part A, The Ceramics of Tikal:

Vessels from the tsttriaLs, Odches antl
P robbmat i cal D (p o sit s, Monograph of

The Llnivcrsit,v of

Pe

nnsylvania

Museum, Philaclelphia, r993.

Mdl'd Ciuiliznlloz, Smithsonian

lnstitution, Exploring the Ancient
World Scrics, cclitccl b,v Jcrcrry A.
Sabloff, St. Ren,v Press, r6o pp, r99,j.

,1

r,1pp. r 978.

Pennsylvmia N{useum, Philaclelphia.

I-{orisroN, Slr.pnrx D. HierogLlphs dnd

History at Dos Pilcrs, Dt-nastic Politics
of tl'tc CLossic Ma1a, Universit,v of
Teras Press, Austin, r8r pp., r99j.

Jonls, Crrnrsropnl.F. Trkal Report No.

t6, Exctrutttions in the Edst l'luzt of

Tikdl, z volumcs, Monograph of Thc

University

of

Pennsylvanil Museum,

t'hilaclelphia, 98 pp, r996.

ancl

LrxroN S,qrrnnrHw,qrrp. Tikal

Report No.33, P^tt A, 7-he Nlonuments

Anrl Inscriptictns of Tikal: The (',druetl
Morutmcnts, Monograph of The University of Pennsvlvenia Museum,
Philaclclphia, rz8 pp., r982.

X4arrn, Trcrcrnr Erplordtirns m the

I)t:partntent of I'eten, (,ttatcntaltt:

Tikal, Menroirs of the

Peabod,v

Museum of American Archaeolog,v and

Ethnologl, Hlrvarcl LJniversity, Vol \

No. r, Cambriclge,9r pp.! r9rr.

ScgRr-r, LrNll and D,qvrl Fnrrlpr. A
Forest of l{ings, Tbe Untold Stort of

the Ancient Ma1u, William lr4orrorv

Nov York, j,+2 pp., r99o.
and Prrp-n tr{.qtsrnrs The Code of
Klng-s, Scribner, Neq' York, 4lr pp,
ancl Co, Lrc.

998.

RonnnrJ. The Ancient l\4a1,ct,

5th eclition, Stanford LJniversitv Press,

SHARF.R,

Stanforcl, 89r pp., r994.

Tc>zzx+r, Arrnll -N{. A l'reLimintrl,

Stud), of the Ruins of TikoL,
()urttcmttLtt, Memoirs of the Peabody
Museum of Arnericln Archaeology and
Ethnologl', Harvard Llnivcrsitl', V<rl. V,
No. z, Canrbridgc, pp. 93-r lt! r9r r.

20-5

Acknowledgments and illustration credits

Ch:rsc, Arlcn r1
Chase, Diane r

chert r5,455o
Chiepes rr; ro

Scholership orr the cit_r of Tikal hes bccl

cxtcnsive, inrtrlving rlorc t]rur r oo
inclrvicluals. Thcsc arc clivicleri l.etrveen
archacologisrs rvho wtrked ar the sitc in rhc
liclcl. rncl epreraphers :rs rvcll ls other
sptcralists rvho h:rr.c srucliccl thc nraterials
recovererl frorl thc sitc. Inlclr.crterrtll', one
benefits from rlrc cfforts of rll of rhcsc
schollrs. but a nurlber of rhcm h:lc bcen of
specirl rssisr:urcc in rhc prcprrrrtron of this
iolurnc. Tikal is rrr aocient cit_v of such
singulrrr irttport:rncc to thc uorlcl of Nla1'a
. rt.lr<. tlr.t. rt .. t rt.l.' ( 'r.')t lrjt c\ LIlLlr Lrl(,li
ancl rhis is f:rrticulrrrll so in thc llclcl of
cpignphr: Chanses occur in
thc
Lrnclcrstrtrtcling of rhc cirl on l cl:rilv brsis. In
preprring this svnthcsis I hrve rclietl hclili
on tirc \()rk of nanv othcrs irr rcklition to m1'
oln cxclvltions rrt the site. Of plrticuler
hclp rvrth the ecliting ancl corrcctiol hlve
been Tetlclv Dclvrlr ol tlre r\rt Museum <if
Denvcr, Cihnstopher.jones of thc Amcric:rn
Divisron, Uuir,ersirv of
Pcrrlsl lr.lnil
N'luseum, t\leri Millcr of the l)cpartnrent of
Art lt Yllc []rrrversril, Sinon lllrtin of
Lonclor flliversitl \\tilliem A. Havilrncl of
thc l)eprrrtnrent of Anthropologl Llliversio

of V.-rnont.

ancl

(lcncvioc Nlichcl of Seattlc.

Wrshington, lll of

hon generousl_r sh,rrccl

thcir knorvlcdgc rrtcl s1.:rrccl mc sonlc
cnlbirrrilssnrent. C)f coursc. crrors will still
n

exist, lncl thesc:rrc solclr nrv responsibilrrlr

Ar lnorhcr lcvcl of editorial gui(lrncc I owc;1
grcrt clcbt to Clolin Ricllcr of Thrrnrcs rrr<l
Huclson lvho has cnsurccl l colsistencl of

presentirtion, lncl to .fcremv A. Sebloff,

Amcricrn Flclitor of the serics. Dircctor of thc
linivcrsiti ot I)enosvlllni:r NIuscun, rncl

friencl rs rvcll rs collcrgue. Specirl rh:rnks rre

orvcrl to nrenv rvho generously mlclc rulrrlable
cspccr:rl1v justin l(err,

sorlc rilrc illustrarions,

Nrcholas Ilellmuth, Eclrvrrcl f.. Crocker. Tcrl

I{utleclgc encl (lherles Cirllenkamp. Also, I rrrr
grc'atl,v inclcbtccl to minv solclicrs et rrnrs
n'ith rvhon I rvorkecl rt Tik:rl encl crrrre uncler

rts lrsting spcll: \Xrillirrn ll. Circ II,

(ihrisrophcr Joncs, Villiam I hi'iland, Prtrick
(itrlbcrt, Hrttulr trloholi' Negi; rrrrl Virginir
Cireere, ro mcntior:r fciu l-iulll1', mv wi[c,
Alexlnclrl NI. Hrrrrison not onll wtrl<ed rt
Tikel, but hls g,ivcn freclr of hcr
( lrL'tr.l, t, rlcrrl rrl r r'rlll\ ( (rrs tlrrr
1'r,,t,. t,

Illustrrtiorrs are by thc iLlrhor, except for rhc

follol'ing. l'hich rrc by courtes,v of:
I photo Nicholrs Heilnuth; IV photo Stuart
Ronrc, courtesv Al{F; V Dirrrr Nobbs; VI
i)iego t\lolinr; VII Dicgo Molina; X peintirg
Tcrrv Rutlcdgc; XI photo fll.frLsrin I{cr r, File #

Xll photo (c).fustin I{.-rr, File # 2697r XIII

prirting Ciarkrs Vicrr:r, courtesv Muscum of
,1887;

\4an, Balboa Perk, Srn l)iego; frontisgriccc:rnc1

llr clnt'ing Terrl llutlcclgc;5 map Philip
Wintol, rfter UI),\l, Ncg # Tikal 6 r -5- j; 6 ma])
Philip \Vinton; Il rfrcr r photo courres,v Hrns
I{ucli-l lug;9 Dicgo tr,lolirra; rz. r3 Ti-ustccs of
thc British Museurr; r6:rftcr Tikrl Rcport rr,
llrrvcrsiq Museun, Tcrrplc IV ancl Circlt
Plrza Shects, r959; 19 prirrtine l)irne Nobbs:
22 IPL; 21 JPL; z-5 LJI)r\1, Ncg. # Tikrl 6;-5rr3t z6 photo Stuart Romc. courtcsl AMli; z8
rfter gcneril rrlp of Trl<rl ruirrs, TR rr, (Jni
r.ersit,v Nluscunr, r959;3o LlPr\I, Ncg. # Tikrl
69 \ trr; l2 IJPM, Neg. # Tikel 69 5::; 15

Lll']r\I, Ncg. # Tikrl 69-1- r;;;36 Lll)rVI. Neg,. #

Tikrl 98 5 :: 39 LlPr\I, Ncg. #'l il<rl 65-4 rr 39;
4o LJI)N'l, Neg. # Tikrl err ;- 5 ; 4z.J PL; 4rr IJP\'1,
Neg. # Tikal .)9 5 jr;49 UI']XI, Ncg. # l-ikal
64-5-19;5r l.)l'N4, Neg. # Tikrl 69-;-r75;52
UPtrI, Ncg. # Tikal 68 j i,li 53, -54 clr:rwings

Fcclcnco ljrhsen, corrrtcs\. .Juin Antoli{)

Valclez encl IDF.AH of (;u:rtcnrlii;55 phoro

Ilclrvrrcl F. Crocker; -56 photo Stulrt Romc,
courtesy AMF; 57 llPN1, Neg. # Tikel 69 ;,
9A;5tt tJPtil, Ncg. # like1 r'9 5 rlil3;.5r; UPr\1,
Ncg. # Tikrl fr8-5'7\; 6r drau'ing I L Stanlcv
Loten, LIPX.I, Ncg. # Tikal 98-5 rr 68 llP,\{,
Neg. # 73, 5 936r 74 Sinroo Merrin rncl Nrkolrr
(imbc; 77 l)l'Nl, Neg. # Tikrl 69-5-96; 79
tJPtr'I, Ncg. # Tikel 69 s ss;8o LJI'NI, Ncg. #
Til<al 69-5-;5; tiz lJPN4, Neg. # Tikal c1 5 E.;
83 LJI)Nl, Ncg. # Tikrl 6e-;-e7; tl5 tJPNl, r..ee.
# Tikel:; 5 X;:86 U1)r\1, Ncg. # Trl<rl 6z-3e
48;87 photo Stulrt Ronrc, courtesy Ai\{F;9r
LJI)Nl, Neg. # Tikrl 69- 5- r oo; 94 IJPNI, Ncg. #
6.9-5 99;97 ,rftcr gene ral mrp of Tikal ruins,
TR rr. Philrrlelphir, 1959: 98 LJP\4, Ncg. #
Til<rl ri-5-.791; 99 plroto Nicholrs Hcllnruth;
roo clralving Norrrrn fohnsont ror L.Il)N4,
Ncg. # Tikrl 69-1-;9; ro7 rftcr gcrreral nap of
Tikrl ruirrs, TR rr, Phrlrclclphia, r959; ro8

litcr Creat Plrze (]urtiranglc. TR r r.

Philarlelphie, T959: r r r :rftcr (lrc:rt l)lazr
Quaclranglc. Tlt r r, Phileclclplrrr, r959: rrz

rgii rr.l LJPr\I, Ncg.

8r:; rr5 rlrlling Tcrrv RLrrlccJge
rfter Pctcr Spier; rr7 clctril of printinq b1
Dilne Nobbs, courrcs\ rhc Jrtist; r22 lhoro
Drrrrte lud Arlcn (ihesci rz-3 lftcr:r conrprlrition of scvcrrl tlurclrangles. TR rr, I)hilatlelphi:r, r9;9; rz6 lfter,r clr,nving br'$(iilbur
tlPtr,l, Neg. # Tik.rl 69 5

l ika1 6z-,1

chicle

r8

(lhilde, Corclor
Chitem 166; -se
Chol rr
Cholti 69
chrorologies r<
Chucn ccremic

chultuns 5o

Cini

ceramic p

(ilessic pcriod:
61-r99

climrte r4,,15
Cobe r6

Coe, \X il[anr Ii
Coe, \Irilliam R

(ioggins, (ilenr
r4 11!
Colha 46
collapse r9z u<
Copan 3o, ror,
(iortcs, Hcrnar
cosnrologv 5r,
Orocker, Erhvar

(lucllo r1,46
-1.

Culbert,
cult of rhe
cult of rhe
Curl Hcad

l)inrick,.lobn

Nuncr:rls in lla1lc.r refer to illustrltion runrbers

Doublc Bird 9z
Ylrx K'uk M,

clynasties 65 8:
D,vson, Robcrt

Pcerson; rz7 photo H. Stlnlcv l-oten.

Acropolis

llrtt I)rlace 4tr, r7f,, r84 rl.i5; r 61 -scc

l)rlacc of rhc \(Iindou's
Belizc rr, r ], l.l-.1j, 46 47, r98; ro

a/-scr

fauna r8-r9,,1,
Iire-Born:3,7,
sih

Firc Jaguer Cla

Fn'e-Sror,v Pela,

35

(ilrrlcol r7.98, roo ror, Trgj rzr

rz7 rzE. rlo, rE9, r9r, zoo; ro

zo6

I 9r,94, r<
le l[ 92, roz,
llzneb ceramic

Yich'ak l('ak
First Crocodile
98, roo, roz,

8, 17, 92, 99, ra1, t 19, tLr r)lj

r zar, r28, I lo, r:, l,-r l:+. r:lo, r55, r78; ro
Crrnpechc r r
(ilncucn r4o

Crthenvoocl, Frcclcrick

cmblcm glypirs

fi

ta), 111, r6)

sl, rllo

3,1

F. Te

bll<tur:,1

Ceyo

Mirador r6,
[.] Peru r55
El Z:rpotc 82, 8

r82

BcrDoulli, (iustil. 1r, 1

bircls :o. :.1. ll5 86, r,19; 20. ,!t. / ) r
burirls zr, z,+, tj 16,.+6,48.5r, jj, j7 6j,
6t 69, li2 8j, liJ 88, 9o ,12.91 96.
roz rolj ruo, r26 r27, rll, r.lo t,lj,
162 t64. r7q, r78 r79, r89; 3a 31,9t,96,

bejos,15

F.l

betrb 79, r43

Bajo rlc Srntr Fe r 5,,1o.46. ,18 ,+9, 5r.

4r

r84, r86

cffigy vessels 8r
r8 Rrbbir r;o
rSth rulcr 95-9
F-l

ballcourrs 18,,+2,,1.1,8r, 1r5 rra), 15t,

(lrlrkrrrul

Eb ccramic pha

Index

cecro 87
Oekchirlucl

Bal

Dos Pilas 17, r:

r8r

Yir Ain IT

9u,,

Dav Jaguar 56;

Dcmarcst, ArtL

East I'laza

18, iit,

plur

Kalonte

Fiast

r8r rlili /6 /7,

Pat

jegu

Flinr Morrntrin
flora rt,,15
Flores 3.1,,1o
Foliated.fagurr

forri6cation 7;Frcidcl, David;

1tr:I1

(i:urlcccr:rrnicphrse z:l) 57 \9.

6r,61

ajT,

6l

6,1;

Great.Jaguar C
(ihrk Toh lcl

IN D F,X

deIhir
UPr\{, Neg. #
# Tikrl 65
rr39;
z; 36

;;4u JPL; 46 llPNI,

PM, Neg. # Tikal

likal 69-5-r;5;

-52

1;53.54 clreii'ings

Juan Antonio

Ltemah;5-5 photo
oto Sruert Rome,
Ieg.

# Tikal 69 5

;9-5-r8B;

-59

UPM,

rrrving H. Stanlei'
q8 ; r; 68 llPII,
{artirr rrrcl Nikolai
fikal 6q-s-e6; zq
;8o UP\I, Neg. #
;. # Tikal 63 5 8:;
97; 85 UPM, Neg.
Ieg. # Tikal 6:- 1a:ourtcsy AtrlF;9r
:;94 UPM, Neg. #
rp of Tikrl ruins,
98 UL\I, Ncg. #
icholas Hcllmuth;

ror

nson;

UP\1,

ter genetal rrrp of

Lelphia, r959; ro{l

TR rr,

mnglc,

fter Great

Cirert Plaza 3t 16,4r lL. \7.62,71-75, 8r,

9r, 91, 9E, ro4i rrri 126, rz8, rl4, 117,
r.1r r42, r45, T56, rj8, 16r, 164,166,a74,

Lac\' Tikal ,15 see

r8z, r84, r86, tclo' r6 t7,;7, ra1. rra, 176

(lrcat Tcmples 11,19,11, rz6, r:8, r5,1, r8o;

Lakc Pcrcn

Chikle, Gorclor rz
Chitam rl'6; scc,il-.o Ak, Rulcr C, Yex Ain II
Chol r r

t6
Cr:oup F

Cholti

69

chronologies zo z4
Ohuen ceranrrc phlse 6z

chultuns 5o

Cini

ceramic phasc 64,68

Classic periocl zo zr, 38-4o, 19,

j9

rj9, 16r rar2, t61,r67,ri1 rr4, 176, r78,

r9o, 2oo; r27r i1t t 12, t a3 I )9, t ll\ sce
also Hcavcnly Stanclarcl Bearer I
Hasarv Chrn I('arvil II r66, r78 r79
headdresses t9-za, z9, Illl, 96, 98, r34,
rt7 rl8,

Colha 46

hieroglyphs

l,c l.lLrrrr,.l

.crr', t r r.

(ltrrl "lI leacl 92.98-.)9, ro5 99;

I(alomte Rrhm

s.r.,

conipile
Phihclel

awing bv \\rilbur

Hunlb Pacll r:5 rz6, rz8, r loi r 42 r,1l

Hun:rl B:rlam 69 ;r, 8r, 9u; scc a/-so lioliatecl

Dcrllrest, Arthur r99

Drnrick, John 35
Dos Pilas r7, rz) 126, t4o, t78, t99 to

r76,

r8l

Yrx I('uk Mo
clynlstics 65 8u, rzerzr,
l)r'sor, Robcrt S. ;6

F.l

inscriptions 69,7a,8z 81,94 95. roeror,

tiL)-rzL. r24, r28, r4o, r59 r60. r6r,
171 t7+ t9zi t99
Ixlu r9z, r9.,;

zoo

l9z,94, roj;ssc

lr,

;7,61

63;

19,

57,

(iimi

5r,6u; Eznab

nix rr, r95;

, 16r

61 6j, lt. E6, 90,

:, r13, r 18, r-56,
l8
Ch'rktel Xok

e al,so

II

r98

f:runa r8 r9,45,,19
Fire Born 71,79 8L, r19; 80;

-sc.r also J('ak'

sih
Ilire Jegulr Cl:rlv rzr, rzll, r3r, r33; see rl-so
Yich'ak I('ak
Firsc (lrocodrle 79 8o, 8z 83, 86 88,9o,92,
9lJ, roo, ro2, ro5;82; sec a/so Yax Ain I
Five Story P:rl:rcc r7z; r7, r96
Flint Mounttrn ror, rzr

1lora r8,45
1.1,,1o
Foli rtecl Jlgurr

Grcrt

o5; sr:a

roo,

r9z r93,

Florcs

rj8

'I

al-.o Lizarcl Hcacl I

ro2, ro5; -s.r.r./lso Ljzerd Heacl

Tc II 9:,
Eznab cerlrnrc phesc

lJ, I58, r60. r61,

tL4-1 15

forti6crtion

sarc

sr:r: a|-so

Hrurrl Brhm

Freidel, David 78, r9;

llso

roj;

69 7o, 8r;

75

d/-(o

Grcet Jrguar Cleiv 73,76, 78, 8o; -sec,rlso

Chak Toh lch'ek I, J:rgu:rr (llarv I

145, r;+7,

t6t; tqt
kzt 29,3q, t99

Lal<e Yrxha 3.1

Laporte, luan l'edro:r, 17, 55 56,79 80,
rr6, rtj4

Lrra, Euscbio 3r
Leiden Pl:rquc

7e7r

lintels 1r,.15! 1 loj ri2-TJl, r,+r r,12, r,19,

r5l r57J r7li t76' t9z; t 3z' tlr) rir' rl]'
r77

Lizard Hercl I 92, 94, ro5; sr:e also E Tc I

Lizard Flercl 11.)2. ra2 rolJ rojj r:o! rz.1;,(ca
F-

Tc II

Long Count:1 2.1

Long Snour r:4
Lord of Cahkrnul 173
l-orcl of Crrracol rzz
Lorcl Quetzal 96, r o5; ,tcr: cl,ro I('uk' Ah:ru
Lost \X'orlcl l'vremicl group z r, 18, 4.1, 46, 4E,
ja 57, 60, 62, 64, 8o, 8r,9o, ro6 ro7,
. r r-TT2) rj.lj TlJo, r87, r9o; Jl lr, t4 jt,

ro6
lou'l:rlcls rr, r4) 22.
t91. r99-zoo

,+5.

rzo, ruu,

ru

8, r 1o,

Mltlcirl,

Pe

rc,v

3 5

NI:rlcr, Tcobcrt 3r 3,1

N'laler Crrrsewir,v {-42. 11, r 58, 16z. 169; r6
t7.3J. r7a,
Maler,s lralace z 1r1j) t jyttz\
r88 r89; -ser: a/-.o Palace of the Trvo
Storics
Marrik ceramic phrsc 68
m:rrcarlor 8e8r,8o
Mlrtin, Simon 98, rzr rz,1

'rrr.l.irt i .^r.ti1. roo. rr. rz-. r{- rtx.

rj8;6t,97. t a8

N{auclsloi Alfrccl Pcrcival 29, lr, ll, r54

Mruclslay Causeway p, 44, t 58 r6
Mava agriculture 1 r rz; architecture r2,
rrr rrJ, r2o, r28J 2oo; rrt r2! lzoj zooi
lstrologv 22; estrollolly rz; calenclar r9,
zz a+29:2Ji cerainics ri,61 62.64
civilizatrrn r:; coliapse rj, r99; cliplomacv
L-.

Jagtiar C-'larv ill 92,99-ror, ro5; ser: a/-.o

(lhak Tirh lch'ak Ill
jcwclrr' 59, r a7, r11 rllj t61, t79; t4q, t67,
t 7ll

:OOl

I l. r'\,: I'flelll\

.lllqll.lElC\

polio rz; population rr;

I

Jrguar Cla*'l l,.ll.ll-t9.8r-llz,

9.1, r19,
r ',o, tc16; 76; se e t[so Chak lbh Ich'ak I,
(irc:rt J:rguar Ol:ru'
Jrguar Clan, Il 92,9q 95, ro5; sr:e al-so Ohrk
Toh lch'ak I[

Pcru r55

F-

ir 62,64.8;,
Jurac

jasuar r8-r9,8l
Jrgu:rr (ihrv clan house 76 78, I t 1, 196
Jrgu:rr Cl:ru' lincage 7e7r, t 1, 7 6, 8 2,,2 q, 98,

Irl Zrpote llz, li7

emblem gl,vphs L9-1a.95. tzz tzq, t6t
E Te

L51,

Nlrthcu's, Pcter 7o
Lromata, T:rkeshi r99

cfligy vcsscls 86 8;
r 8 ILrbbit r3o
rStlr ruler 95 96,93 97
El (ieyo 3,1
El Mir:rdor r6, r5,1
rE4,

aguar

Dorrble Bircl 92j toa-roz, rosj rzr'1 see dlsa

Erst Acropolis 42, t7z, t8q

ra4, rar, rr5.

'rl-so
46

Tikal

67,&1,79,82,

hurn:rn sacrificc,19, 58 59,68, 9o

Hunbolclt, Alexrrnder von jr

).r\ J rlri.lr 5":.',, .r1... rrlt

^[ rhr r.rgrr.rr

F.rst Pl:rzr + lz, qq,7l, r57, r59, t62,

r8 r r 84, 186; 16 17,11
Eb ceramic phase 48

'2.

p,6j

Horcluras rr, jo
housenounds r 5
Houston, Stephen r99

trlso

:y Loten.

, 42, 41,62,
14 rr5, rz8,

l?+,

writing

Holmul

r.rr
see

rrj rl,

9o,98, rjo, r1,1, r.1li T57i r9z\2],77,9.);

r60, T98

rs

r 1,'r

Hiatus r02, rr9 rz5, rz8, zoo

(iuello rj,46

Culbcrt, T P2rtrick 2r,48,

cult of thc jagu:rr r 3, 29, 5a-j7J rzl j

r.11, r72; r JE

H( rrcrl\ \rJr.lrr.lBr.rrcrl r:r rr-.

t 27. see iLso Hasarv Ch:rn I('alvil I
Flellnuth, Nicholas r 6z

collapsc r9z zoo

Coprn 3o, ror) r2.1, Tlo, 169, r9a;' ro
(iortes, Hernan z9
cosnrologl' 52, 55, 6o, rz7, r4o r 4r , r 8 r
Ctocker, flch,arcl 96

\X/oman of

'r|so

l-rdv Tl'elvc Nhceu,r37, r,1r r4a,

also

Coc, lWilliam R. 8, r 17, r4z

Coe, \X1rlliam R. Il ;6, sz
(ioggins, Clenrcncy 1o, 83,, 86, 9o 9r,98,
r41 t1L

16

Hasrw,Chln K'arvil I rzo, r25 r47, r5j r56,

(lohr r6

.'rlr

r7r r72, r8.+-T8j; r6, r7r

Group Ci 42, r59 16o, r6z, r72, r84-r8j, Tgol
r6, r6a, r8t
Group H 42,,1.1, r5E, r84; 16
Grube, Nik<rlai 911, r zr, r z1 rz5, r lll r 17,
r64
Ciurte nrrlr l,291 a j,17; ro
Guillerrin, George

6a,

61 tgg
clinate r 4, .15

Plrrza

le\.hia, r9591 rrz

5; rr3 lJPtrl. Ncg.
ng Terrl Rutlcclgc
il of parnting bv
lrtist; rzz photcr
3 aftcr r
, TlL rr,

Chasc, Arlen r9r

Chase, Dranc 19r
chert r5,49 5o, r95
Chiap:rs rr; ro
chicle r8

f.rLlc r r. ool rr.r-f

IZ

r'. r r. r ' 'o-2ooi n riil r!

Mcnclcz-, Nloclcsro 1r, 4o

N{errclez Causeway 4 lz,

r5.) r6a, r6L, riz,

r9ll' t6, t6a

NIerlvin, Rrymoncl L.. j.1

l\{csoarlcricln cirilization r j
Miclrcl, (icncvicvc 91 95, rzl
nriclders 48, 5o,

r9;

r98

Jimbal r9z
Joncs, (ihristopher 3o,68,9:,98, rro, r17,
r60

milpa r8 r9, Srj r9\; t()

Nlorlcl; Svlvrnus P 3,1
Motul cle Sln Josc r99
[rusica] instrunrents r98; r96

I('rk'

ndbudL

Sih 7l, 79, 8r i s?c,rl-(o Fire Bonr

kalomte 79 8o, 8z 83, scc a/so Chacte

I{alontc Balarn 98 99, raj;9.);

scc al-.o Curl

He :rcl

I('rn Ak 88, 92,911 rar, ra1, r19;91; sce tlLso

Yello*' I'eccrry
katun 14, jo, rz8, r3j r 14, r7i, r78, r 92
K';rwil roz, ro3; ro I
kin 24, 46
Kinich r\hau rz,,15, 56, 86, r?+9, r5T; rJr;,(dc
a/-so Night Jaguar
I('uk'Ahau 96, ro5; scc a/-so Lord Quetzal
l-ady.Jaguar Throrc rz6,

rjj

I tl

topographv 9,

19 Laj

29, r47

Nakurn 46
nane glyphs 65, 67, 6,1 7r, 8o, 82, 88, 92,
94 95! ror-roa! rr.),r27;6i,7a 7i,,1o,,92,
88,,12.9q 9;,93, r.i8
N:iranjo 46, rzr ruz, rz4, r56, r58
Nl Tuntc K:rvrvak r 37
Night laguar 56,86; sr:e o/,<o cult of thc
jrgurr, I(inich Ahati
North Acropolis a6, 12, 16,,+8 5i, 5 t 60,

62 64.68 69,71

t-5,1J6, llE.

107\ r1z, ra6-r271 r.1r,

rj8,

9r9r,

r8z, r86; r6 r7, 17,71-7i. ra5

northern hillhlinds r
r

ro.+,

ra,a, r76, r80,

176

INI)}.X

Nu l',rk (.h.rk I r:1 r:;. r ; t. r +('; -irr ShrcltJ

Skull I
\Lr ljrl< (lh.ri< 11 rl'('. r-1 r-6. r-S r-9i jfr
Shicl.l Sl<Lrll

ll

\Lr llllrnr (lhlcnrll

Ir

olrrirlirrrr 19. a.S.90. r l-. r +1, r9i

Orrrz. \ntonio

r 5,1

l'rlrcc of tltc lnrr Storrcs ;;:.rlt.r1so \lrrlcr'r

l)rIrce
l)rlrec ol thc \\inclorrs 1:.11r -.rr,r/-.o l'llr
P.r

l.rcc

l':rlrcc l{escrroir 11. r1.7

prl.r(cs -r -i. r r r. r r1, r19. rSr. rS; r8l
l)il.rnrlLiln rtt. ril. rii lsar. lSl; lti
l),tlcrr,1Lrc 1r.6ar. rc-, r r+, rrl r16. rr3. r lo.
r+r r+1. r9o: /al
I'crLrotlr IlLrscrrnr rr l+
l)elcrr r1,:9. jr. j+ tar.-1o.-1).-1..4'o.-j. rrl
r ll, r3o. rrr. r99
l)icrlrls Ncgres r:;r ro

l)litl()rnrs rrr. rrS

l'lrze ol tlic Sercr lcnrl'lc: jS.

++. aJr.

IS6l r1,. tf. rl6

politv -c. --+ -i. Sr
l'onrlrccr 5o: ro

rS

U.trrrctLrr 1.1 lj. 19. ir. i6. rr. -1, -l sr.9.r.

uirrrl :1

l.

IJnrversitr oi l)cln\rlvrnir -. ]-l i..

[]sLrrn;rcirtr I{iler r1. (-o

l)onronl r:\ r:L

\,':rgtrc \crrr

:: :;

nrrfrrc

-i

+.)

populrrron 9. a)r.6+ 6i. ic:. rSo

I\rstclrrssrc pcrio.l:c. ror. rs-. lEl. r99 roo
l'rcclrtssic lrcriorl:o :r. tS. +r (r+.:1. rot
toL). I l +, rart. tSt

l)rorecto Necion.rl Tikel ;-

-1c--

l'rrlltroLrsrr Surnryr 4r'

l)rrntr Ninrr r99

l'urto tlr' (.hrrirro r:;

])ttuc rcqron rcl)r r.rnrrd ol- tlrc SLrrr r 51
.lrrcru.rl r 9. r9. 9a), 9S. r c
(]trint.rrrrr I{oo I t. rf': rrr

llrirer: I ror'lich rr
c. I )on 1rg()ia()ntlrs+.1.4)r).
I{ ir

tlr. rr.1. r1S. r54.

ri9 r6:. ra)+. r + r-ir J t t. t.t)i t-f
l{Lrler (l rLl'. I-1. r-9; -.r.,//so .'\k. (.hrtrnr.
Yrr r\rr ll
\.rn.\rrrlrcs ro

r+, r l:,

I6J
Scotr. Snrrrr 8 1r N;
Scil.ei +c. rq:r rr

r tll rillcr 9j. rcj

lI r:1 r:S,
lir[ (]lr:h l

2.O8

-l-crnplc

I 1r, l(), l{). +r .11. +1. I r r, LlS. I tc.

rlt r tJ. r l-. r.1rl+t, r,1i. r.19, ri,l l\:.
r6r. r6+. r6t, r-tr. r-5, rEr. rlJlj r90:
r6 1..1ltt)ait+1,trl
Icrttple Il i:. 19, +r. roil, r I r. Itr8. r t,l. I lt.
rJc Ilr. r:li. rS+ rii. r6r r6r. r6.1. rrj,
rtri r6 r-, jr. larf
lcrttlrlc lll tr. 19. .,r. ll. r \+, Ia)r. la)a). r-r,
rr.+ r-ar, I-l r-9.1tor Ia). .,),1.1. t-()
lcnrplclV r\. lr, t9.,lr.,l-1,46 +-. rrr.
rsl rj-. ra)r rl':, r61, r::,1;5. r81 rE.1,
lr)o; l\: /l,j jt. //J. /tt. /9/
Iinrplc \,' 1,1. ll. rt+. r-r r-1. tE6. l90; /-..

6S.

S\ E-.90.9r. ror ror.

rar. SI.

Ic+. II9 r16. Ilc, ljj. rj\ rt6, r3o; /rl

\{ist I'lrze +:. ++.4i6. rjr, r-,). rlll: rl, r-.

1),1,1-6
\\orn.rrr of likel q;. qS;-.r'r,r1-ro I ;rLlr I il<rl
$ ritine r r. 6+ arii -r.r' .r1so lricroglIphs

\ I 19. ,1r. jj. 61, r +ll. r j+. r jS r arr,

r6+. ra)9. r-r. r;4. rSo. rS1. |9a; t\9 t6a;
..r,r,,rl..o Icnrflc of thc InscriPtrons

Tcnrpls

iio 81.8; S-,9o.

rrc rrr! rlr r]t. ti"l, rso;6:
r trh rLrl.r 9+. r oj
lcotilrrr;rcrrn 6t. a)- 63.

Ttgrc (ionrplcr

Slrectr, l)rvrorr
ShrcltJ 5kull

rrlrrsco

TcnrPlc ol tlic lnscripriorrs +r, ++. ri4.6r. rrar.

i +S. r \S r 60; r 6, / t9; -(.i' !//-ro TcmPlc VI
IcrrrPlc lLt'scrtrir.11: r1,
tcnrl.lcs 1r. lt. li 16. jS 19,,1r..14, S6.9o.
Ior. IoE, l r r. l l+, rr- r:S. r47. r;1; ro9,

s,rlrrl -.)
Sen.iosc:g. rof;; r.. r.N
Srrtr ,\l,rr trr crvc r l
Sclrclc. I irrJr -- -S. r:1 rr\.

'I.rnrlrincliro r:1
T.rr rrsrl :9. -1o. t.t.r

rI

l.

r-Jari

-{.r,.//-\o

Nl

r 5,1

1r['rl r; r1,r(. r-.rr:ro.ra)

I ikrl I)rojcct 3. 11 3-

tr tl'
lcro XIoon llircl -e-

Z;rcrr]crr