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Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

Article March 2013
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00103-2

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Ognjen Bonacci
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Bonacci O. Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments. In: John F. Shroder (Editor-in-chief), Frumkin, A. (Volume Editor).
Treatise on Geomorphology, Vol 6, Karst Geomorphology, San Diego: Academic Press; 2013. p. 112-120.
2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Author's personal copy

6.11 Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments
O Bonacci, University of Split, Split, Croatia
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

6.11.1
6.11.2
6.11.3
6.11.4
6.11.5
6.11.6
References

Definition and Classification of Polje

Description of Some Poljes
Hydrology and Hydrogeology of Polje
Definition of a Ponor and Its Swallow Capacity
Catchment Area
Anthropogenic Influences on Polje

112
113
115
116
118
118
119

Abstract
Poljes can be defined as depressions in limestone karst. They commonly occur as large-scale landforms in tectonically active
karst areas. Their origin is generally polygenetic. A distinctive subtype of polje, the turlough, occurs in many formerly
glaciated or glacial-margin terrains. Poljes exhibit complex hydrological and hydrogeological features and characteristics,
such as permanent and temporary springs and rivers, losing and sinking rivers, and swallow holes and estavelles. From the
hydrologichydrogeologic perspective, a polje is to be considered as part of a wider system. It cannot be treated as an
independent system, but only as a subsystem in the process of surface and groundwater flow through the karst massif.
Poljes are regularly flooded in the cold and wet periods of the year. Ponors or swallow holes represent fissures in the karst
massif through which the water sinks underground. The determination of the catchment area for a karst polje is an
unreliable procedure due to unknown morphology of underground karst features. Anthropogenic influences on the
hydrologicalhydrogeological regime of the poljes can be considered under the following four categories: (1) water storage;
(2) increase in the capacity of outlet structures; (3) surface hydrotechnical aspects; and (4) other works.

6.11.1

Definition and Classification of Polje

The word polje is used in Slavic languages without particular

reference to the terrain, which need not necessarily be karstic
(Ford and Williams, 2007). The term signifies a field, which
originally had nothing to do with karst. For this reason,
Bonacci (1987) considered that the term polje in karst should
be used as it seems more appropriate than the formerly
accepted term karst polje. The importance of poljes is that,
generally, they are the larger, fertile, and inhabited oases in
karst, commonly providing the only conditions favorable for
human beings.
There are many more or less different definitions of
karst polje as shown by the following examples. In a strict
sense, poljes can be defined as depressions in limestone karst
(Bonacci, 2004b). The geomorphological term refers to large
closed depressions with conspicuously flat bottoms developed
on karst rocks (Gracia et al., 2003). Gams (1978) defined a
karst polje as a great closed basin, with flat bottom, karstic
drainage, and steep peripheral slopes. The angle between
the side slope and polje bottom is clearly demarcated in which
the flat floor makes a sharp break with surrounding slopes.
It represents a large closed depression draining mostly
underground, with a flat floor across which there may be
an intermittent or a perennial stream and which may be
liable to flood and become a lake. Sporadic isolated, pointed,

Bonacci, O., 2013. Poljes, ponors and their catchments. In: Shroder, J.
(Editor in Chief), Frumkin, A. (Ed.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 6, Karst Geomorphology, pp. 112120.

112

cone-shaped carbonate hills, the so-called hum, are characteristic of many poljes.
Different authors have proposed various minimum dimensions of closed depressions developed in karst in order
that they could be treated as polje. For Cvijic (1893) the flat
bottom should be at least 1000 m wide, whereas for Gams
(1978) the lower limit was 400 m. Bonacci (2004b) considered that poljes vary from less than 0.5 km2 to more than
500 km2 in area. On small karstic islands, there are many
poljes, varying in size from 10 ha to a few hundred hectares.
For example, on the island of Vis (Croatia), with an area of
90.3 km2, there are 17 poljes with the total surface of 783.5 ha
(8% of the whole island area). Some authors do not agree that
such features should be treated as poljes.
For LeGrand (1983), poljes were flat alluvial valleys bordered by relatively steep bare limestone ridges. Field (2002)
defined the polje as a large, flat-floored depression in karst
limestone, whose long axis is developed parallel to major
structural trends and can reach tens of kilometers in length.
Superficial deposits tend to accumulate on the floor. Drainage
may be by either surface watercourses (where the polje is said
to be open) or swallow holes (a closed polje). Their development is encouraged by any impedance in the karst drainage
(Field, 2002).
Nicod (2003) stressed that a polje is not an elementary
form. Due to this reason, the feature cannot be defined by one
or two criteria and this author cited six main criteria of karst
poljes: (1) topography; (2) structural conditions; (3) part of
active tectonics; (4) morphoclimatic heritage; (5) recent and
present hydrology; and (6) geomorphological features. Nicod

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 6

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00103-2

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Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

(2003) also stressed that many poljes are in an incipient stage

where the base level in the active poljes is controlled by the
hydrogeological conditions in the karst unit below, with its
seasonally fluctuating groundwater level. Near the seacoast,
the base level depends partly or mainly on the sea level. Nicod
(2003) also mentioned two derivative forms open poljes
and paleo-poljes. Open poljes are partly drained by a permanent or an intermittent stream, whereas paleo-poljes or
fossil poljes arise from canyon downcutting and drastic
lowering of the piezometric level, commonly correlated with
regional uplift. Ford and Williams (2007) distinguished three
main types of poljes: (1) border; (2) structural; and (3) base
level.
Poljes commonly occur as large-scale landforms in tectonically active karst areas such as the Dinaric (Italy, Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro) and
Betics (Spain). Poljes in karst occur in various parts of the
world, most commonly in the Mediterranean countries. Other
localities with poljes are in Asia (Turkey, Iran, and others),
Caribbean Islands (Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and others),
USA, and Canada. They are relatively rare in the cone-karst of
southeastern Asia (Bogli, 1980).
During the last two decades, a large number of poljes have
been recognized in the central-eastern sector of the Iberian
Range (Spain). These Iberian poljes are characterized by terraced levels of corrosion surfaces with a concentric distribution. Some of them are controlled by the structure, whereas
others do not show any clear tectonic influence. The Jiloca
Polje (Spain), with a surface area of 705 km2, has a mixed
karstic and tectonic origin. It has been reinterpreted as a karst
polje developed within an active half-graben (Gracia et al.,
2003). The Jiloca Polje (Spain) is possibly the worlds largest
polje.
According to Serko (1948), there are more than 200 poljes
in the Dinaric karst. Their total area is about 1500 km2, which
is approximately 2.5% of the total area covered by karst.
Milanovic (2004a, 2004b) noted that in the Dinaric karst region there are about 130 poljes and that about 50 of them are
large. It should be stressed that precise determination of the
real number of poljes in the Dinaric karst, as well as around
the world, is a very difficult task, and could be very different
from the above-mentioned figures. The main obstacle is the
lack of a precise and uniform definition of polje. The Dinaric
poljes are generally elongated in a northwestsoutheast direction along the Dinaric Mountain range and occur at a few
(maximum five) terraced levels elevations, between more than
1200 m above sea level (m asl) and less than 20 m asl.
Turning to the question of their origin, it is a generally
accepted fact that tectonic factors (folds, synclines, anticlines,
large faults, and the boundaries of rocks) are important for
the formation of poljes. Poljes have been created by exogenous factors, by the erosion of insoluble rock, and by the
corrosion of carbonate rock (Roglic, 1964). The origin of
poljes is generally polygenetic (De Waele et al., 2009), and is
still controversial today. Most of the poljes, especially in the
Dinaric karst, are aligned along tectonic boundaries or fold
axes. As discussed by Milanovic (2004a, 2004b), their genesis
is governed by a complex suite of processes, although generally reverse faults of regional extent have played a key role in
their genesis, and most such poljes are tectonically controlled.

113

According to Trudgill (1985), there are two important factors

that affect the formation of poljes: (1) surface lateral positioning of the average height of water-table levels in sediments and (2) accumulation of the sediments themselves.
Sweeting (1972) found that the erosion in poljes is lateral,
where sediments and water come in contact with the limestone massif. Neogene and Quaternary superficial deposits
such as terra rossa commonly tend to accumulate on the
poljes bottom.
A distinctive subtype of polje, the turlough (an Irish term)
(Williams, 1970), occurs in many formerly glaciated or glacial
margin terrains. This is a closed or seasonally closed depression that may have been created by karst solution, or by
former glacial or fluvial erosion, or by deposition of a barrier
of glacial or proglacial debris such as an end moraine (Ford
and Williams, 2007). The distinctive characteristic is that
the outlet drainage is through karst conduits with a capacity
that is exceeded by inflows seasonally or during intense
storms, with the consequence that temporary lakes are formed
or permanent lakes are expanded substantially in area. In the
type area, Ireland, more than 100 examples are known, and
are up to 250 ha in area most occupy shallow topographic
depressions (Coxon, 1987). In Canada, turloughs have not
been comprehensively cataloged but probably are several
thousands in number (Ford, 1983), with areas up to 300 km2
or greater. The majority are also shallow features, on the broad
limestone and dolomite plains and plateaus of the continental
interior (e.g., van Everdingen, 1981; Ford, 2007). Quite exceptional are Lac des Bois and Tunago Lake, on dolomite
plateaus at 661 N east of Norman Wells, Northwest Territories,
which are dammed by, and drain underground through,
broad ridges created by the hydration of anhydrite along a past
glacier front. Lac des Bois is a permanent lake of B300 km2,
whereas Tunago Lake fluctuates a few tens of kilometers in
area seasonally and the vibration of its vigorous underground
river is reported to interfere with seismic explorations (Ford,
2007). There are also substantial turloughs in the rugged
terrains of western Newfoundland (Karolyi and Ford, 1983),
and in the Rocky Mountains and Mackenzie Mountains of the
western cordillera (Brown, 1972; Hamilton and Ford, 2002;
Ford, 2007). The local relief may be up to several hundreds of
meters, comparable to that of the classic poljes.
Poljes in karst may have been captured by the river network. In the Dinaric karst region, some poljes have developed
around large karst rivers such as Dobra, Gacka, Lika, Zrmanja,
Krka, Cetina, Neretva, and others. The Sinjsko and Hrvatacko
poljes (Croatia), as well as a few other smaller poljes, have
developed around the Cetina riverbed, and at the same time
could be treated as river valleys. The Licko (or Lika) Polje
(Croatia), which is one of the largest poljes in the world, with
a surface area of about 700 km2, represents the terminus of the
Lika sinking river (Figure 1).

6.11.2

Description of Some Poljes

The Dreznicko Polje in karst is located in the central part of

Croatia, in the northwestern part of the Dinaric karst. This is
an area of karst relatively densely covered by vegetation. The
Dreznicko Polje is a typical closed polje in the karst. Figure 2

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114

Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

gives the catchment boundary (basin limit), the position of

three poljes with their altitudes, location of permanent and
temporary karst springs and ponors, and groundwater flow
directions based on groundwater tracing measurements. The

Figure 1 Photograph of the Lika Polje situated in northwestern part

of Dinaric karst (Croatia). The Lika River is regularly flooded it in
winter. Photo Ana-Antonija Baric; Center for Karst, Gospic, Croatia.

Dreznicko Polje is the lowest-situated polje with the bottom at

an altitude of approximately 440 m asl. The topographic surface areas of Dreznicko, Lug, and Krakar poljes are 23, 32, and
17.4 km2, respectively. The total catchment area as determined
by detailed geologic, hydrogeologic, and hydrological investigations (groundwater tracing, water budget, and geoelectric and speleologic measurements) is 225 km2.
Bedrock is predominantly Cretaceous carbonate layers. The
three poljes in the karst are flat alluvial valleys bordered by
relatively steep and bare limestone ridges. A layer of Quaternary
sediments o5 m thick covers the bottom of these poljes. Many
swallow holes occur in the whole catchment. Faults, fissures,
karst conduits, and jamas are common in the carbonate layers
that are very permeable. Jama is a vertical or steeply inclined
shaft in limestone. The directions of groundwater circulation
are conditioned by the position of ponor and spring zones in
the poljes. All these ponorspring connections are proved by
groundwater tracing. The mean annual inflow to the Dreznicko
Polje is 9.40 m3 s1, maximum inflow is approximately
40 m3 s1, and minimum is less than 0.10 m3 s1.
Figure 3 shows the position of three poljes (Lukavacko,
Dabarsko, and Fatnicko) with their altitudes, location of
permanent and temporary karst springs and ponors, and
groundwater flow directions based on groundwater tracing
measurements. They are situated in deep and bare karst of

Basin limit

Krakar
Polje
460 m asl
Susik River

Drenicko
Polje

Legend:

900
m asl
440 m asl

Karst River (open stream flow)

Swallow hole (ponor)

Temporary karst spring

Permanent karst spring
Groundwater flow direction
Altitude in m asl
River flow direction

1
465 m asl
Lug Polje

N
W

E
S

10 km

Figure 2 Map of the Lug, Krakar, and Dreznicko poljes situated in the northwestern part of Dinaric karst (Croatia). This karst region is covered
by relatively dense vegetation.

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Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

Dabarsko
Polje

115

Lukavacko
Polje
1000
m asl

470
m asl
Bregava River
spring

Fatnicko
Polje
A

km

E
S

~2

460
m asl
B C

10 km

Legend:
Permanent karst spring
Swallow hole (ponor)
Temporary karst spring
Karst River (open stream flow)
Altitude in m asl

Bileca
Reservoir

Groundwater flow direction

River flow direction
Figure 3 Map of the Lukavacko, Dabarsko, and Fatnicko Poljes situated in the bare and deep southeastern part of Dinaric karst (Bosnia and
Herzegovina).

eastern Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina). The poljes

are hydrogeologically connected (Milanovic, 2004a, 2004b;
Macropoulos et al., 2008). The Fatnicko Polje, with an area of
5.6 km2, is the elongation of the Dabarsko Polje whose surface
area is 31.7 km2. In natural conditions before the filling of
the Bileca Reservoir, the average duration of flooding in the
Fatnicko Polje was 137 days yr1, and varied from a minimum
of 67 to a maximum of 235 days. After the construction of the
Bileca Reservoir, the duration of flooding is prolonged, but has
not affected the actual flood heights (Milanovic, 1986). It is
very interesting to note that water swallowed in the ponor
zone A in Figure 3 reappears at the Bregava River karst spring,
whereas the water sinking in the ponor zone C in Figure 3
reappears at the Trebisnjica River karst spring. The water
sinking in the ponor zone B in Figure 3 reappears in both
mentioned karst springs, depending on groundwater levels.
The straight-line distance between these two springs is more
than 35 km, whereas the longitude of the three ponor zones in
the Fatnicko Polje is about 2 km.

6.11.3

Hydrology and Hydrogeology of Polje

Poljes can be divided into the following groups according

to the hydrological regime: (1) permanently flooded or lakes;
(2) periodically, partly, or completely flooded; and (3) dry
poljes. The Vrana Lake on the island of Cres (Croatia) (Bonacci,
1993) and the Skadarsko or Skutari Lake (Montenegro and
Albania) are characteristic examples of the permanently
flooded or lake poljes. Some examples of periodically flooded
poljes are the following: Cerknica Polje (Slovenia), Popovo

Polje (Bosnia and Herzegovina) (Milanovic, 2004a), Vrgorsko

Polje (Croatia) (Bonacci, 1987), and Zafarraya Polje (Spain)
(Lopez Chicano et al., 2002; Gisbert et al., 2003). Examples of
dry poljes include Dugo Polje and Dicmo Polje near Split
(Croatia), Glamocko Polje (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Cetinje
Polje (Montenegro), and others. In most cases, a small part of
the dry poljes is rarely flooded, if at all.
Poljes exhibit complex hydrological and hydrogeological
features and characteristics, such as permanent and temporary
springs and rivers, losing and sinking rivers, and swallow
holes and estavelles. Estavelles are the karst openings that
may function as either a sink or a spring, depending on
the groundwater level in their environment. Bonacci (1987,
2004b) classified poljes into four basic types based on their
inflows and outflows: (1) closed polje; (2) upstream-open
polje; (3) downstream-open polje; and (4) upstream- and
downstream-open polje. In closed and upstream-open poljes,
only underground drainage exists. In downstream- and upstream- and downstream-open poljes, both underground and
surface drainage are present. However, in this type, underground drainage is mostly not important or nonexistent.
From the hydrologichydrogeologic perspective, a polje
is to be considered as part of a wider system. It cannot be
treated as an independent system, but only as a subsystem
in the process of surface and groundwater flow through
the karst massif. Poljes play an important role in the
hydrologichydrogeologic water balance of larger karst
areas. Calculating a water budget for a polje in karst is complicated by the influence of the surface and groundwaters
of higher and lower horizons under different hydrologic
conditions.

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116

Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

Special difficulties arise during the flooding periods.

Hydrologichydrogeologic conditions in this situation are
especially complex. The inflow can be strongly influenced by
flood backwater, and groundwater levels that change in time
and space around and below the polje. At the same time, the
outflow (the swallow-hole capacity) is influenced by abovementioned groundwater levels (mostly unknown). A poljes
hydrologicalhydrogeological processes cannot be studied
adequately without establishing a dense network of continuously gauged points within the surrounding karst massif, and
in the poljes themselves. If the studied polje represents one
terrace in the system of several terraced poljes, hydrological
and hydrogeological measurements should be organized in
all surrounding poljes. In order to check groundwater levels, it
is very commonly necessary to use very deep piezometers
(4100 m).
Poljes are regularly flooded in the cold and wet periods of
the year. Flooding of the poljes in the Dinaric karst in natural
conditions lasts on average from 3 to 7 months per year,
mostly between October and April, but there are cases when
flooding can even persist for 10 months. Poljes may be flooded when: (1) the groundwater level rises above their
bottoms; (2) inflow exceeds the maximum capacity of the
outflow structures (ponors or swallow holes); or (3) both
occur simultaneously.
The Zafarraya Polje (Spain) is a tectonic depression situated in the limestone massif of Sierra Gorda (the Betic Cordillera) where both causes of flooding occur simultaneously.
Lopez Chicano et al. (2002) and Gisbert et al. (2003) stressed
that the polje is mainly flooded by rising groundwater.
Flooding occurs first in two depressions located in the
northwestern and southwestern terminus of the polje, when
the inflow exceeds the maximum capacity of the swallow
holes of the polje, which is about 3.5 m3 s1. Filling of both
depressions starts with surface water and during this phase
two separated temporary lakes are formed. At the same time,
the groundwater of the underlying karst aquifer raises sharply,
reaching equilibrium between the surface water level in the
depressions and the groundwater in the karst aquifer. In the
southern lake, the swallow holes then operate as estavelles.
During this phase, one single lake is present. Gisbert et al.
(2003) stressed that groundwater is mainly responsible for
flooding, although surface water provides an important supply
that increases the volume of water retained in the temporary
lakes. Surface water causes rare minor flooding, as long as
the evacuation capacity of swallow holes is insufficient, but
it never causes more extensive flooding, which is caused by
groundwater rising.

6.11.4

Definition of a Ponor and Its Swallow

Capacity

Ponors or swallow holes represent fissures in the karst massif

through which the water sinks underground (Bonacci, 2004c).
In this way, they play a crucial role not only from the hydrologichydrogeologic standpoint but also because of their
ecological and environmental roles aspects of karst sustainable development that have been recognized in recent
decades. Field (2002) gave the following two definitions for

the ponor: (1) a hole or opening in the bottom or side of a

depression where a surface stream or lake flows either partly or
completely underground into the karst groundwater system
(2) a hole in the bottom or side of a closed depression,
through which water passes to an underground channel.
Ponors are situated commonly close to the terminus of a polje.
Milanovic (1981) gave the following classification of
ponors from a morphological viewpoint: (1) large pits and
caves; (2) large fissures and caverns; (3) system of narrow
fissures; and (4) alluvial ponors. It should be stressed that all
underground phenomena (jamas, karst conduits, caves, and
even bedding planes) can take over the function of ponors.
Jamas most commonly function as ponors and present a
pathway for fast and direct contact of the surface water with
the karst underground.
Figure 4 gives a schematic explanation of a ponor swallow
capacity PQO (in m3 s1) as a function of a water level H in a
flooded polje. When the flow in the main karst channel is not
under pressure (HoH), a ponors discharge curve has a form
indicated in Figure 4 as (PQO f(H  H1)). When the flow in
the main karst channel comes under pressure (H4H), the
discharge curve changes suddenly (point H, Q in Figure 4).
Then the ponor swallow capacity depends exclusively upon
the difference DH3 between the water level in the polje H and
the level of the spring exit H3. In this case, the equation for the
ponor discharge curve is
P QO

p
cA 2g H  H3

where c is the discharge coefficient (usually ranging between

0.7 and 0.9), A is the average cross-sectional area of the
main channel in m2, g is the acceleration of gravity in m s2,
while the dimension of difference (DH3 H  H3) is given in
meters.
If there is a large cave system in the karst massif that is
never completely filled with water, that is, if flow under
pressure does not exist all the way up to the spring level, then
the difference between water levels DH2 is less than DH3 and
the discharge coefficient c2 is different from c3. In general, c3
exceeds c2.
This explanation is valid for the case where the ponor
swallow capacity is not under the influence of the groundwater level in the adjacent karst massif. When the groundwater
level HGWL is higher than the water level H in the polje, the
ponor acts as an estavelle. When the groundwater HGWL is
lower than H, the ponor swallows water and its capacity
depends upon the difference (DH H  HGWL).
The total sink capacity of the Popovo Polje (Bosnia and
Herzegovina) ponors is more than 300 m3 s1. The capacity of
the largest single ponor in it, the Doljasnica Ponor, exceeds
60 m3 s1. The maximum swallow capacity of the ula Ponor
(Croatia), through which the Upper Dobra River sinks, is
between 80 and 90 m3 s1. The maximum swallow capacity
of the Biograd Ponor in the Nevesinjsko Polje (Bosnia
and Herzegovina) is about 110 m3 s1, whereas the maximum capacity of the Slivlje Ponor in the Niksicko Polje
(Montenegro) is about 120 m3 s1. The reasons for limited
swallow capacity are both local and regional: water level H in
the polje cannot rise above a certain level, dimensions of the

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Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

117

Water level-H
(m)
Water-level
gauging
station
PQO

H
H*

H1

PQO

H1

H2

= c2 A 2g H2

H3

PQO

H2

= f (HH1)

= c3 A 2g H3

Cave
Ponor swallow
capacity - PQO
(m3 s1)

H2 < H3
C2 > C3
Main karst channel

H3
Q*

Figure 4 Schematic explanation of a ponor swallow capacity PQO, ponor swallow capacity; c, discharge coefficient; A, average cross-sectional
area of the main channel; g, acceleration of gravity; H, water level in the polje; H1, level of the ponor surface entry: DH1 (H  H1); H2, level in
cave: DH2 (H  H2); H3, level of the spring exit: DH3 (H  H3); H, level when the flow in main karst channel comes under pressure.

Hp
(m asl)
D

Water level in the Drenicko Polje

445

HD

444

H = HpHG

443
HC
442

Ponors
2 and 3
Hp
B

441

Hp

HB
HG

A
440
(a)

Q0 (m3 s1)

Outflow discharge

Bottom of the
(b)

Groundwater

Level in the
karst

Drenicko Polje
Ponor 1

Figure 5 Explanation of hydraulic and hydrogeologic functioning of the ponors 1, 2, and 3 in the Dreznicko Polje as shown in Figure 2.
(a) general shape of the discharge curve of the ponors; (b) schematic presentation of the ponors, water level in the flooded part of the
Dreznicko Polje and groundwater level in the karst hinterland.

karst conduits are limited, and the flow is under pressure

(Bonacci, 2001).
Figure 5(a) shows the general form of the ponor zone
discharge curve expressed as a function of the water level for
the Dreznicko Polje. The schematic explanation of their
hydraulic and hydrogeologic functioning in the Dreznicko
Polje is given in Figure 5(b). Between points A and B
(Figure 5(a)) only ponor zone 1 (see Figure 2) is active. Its
swallow capacity depends exclusively upon the water level Hp

in the Dreznicko Polje. When the water level in the polje

reaches altitude HB, the groundwater level in the surrounding
massif influences the outflow discharges. Interval BC is
characterized by groundwater level rising strongly. At point C
(when the water level in the polje reaches altitude HC), two
ponor zones at higher altitude (2 and 3 in Figure 2) start to
operate. Point D represents the maximum water level in the
flooded part of the Dreznicko Polje (Bonacci and Plantic,
1997).

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118

6.11.5

Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

Catchment Area

The determination of the catchment boundaries and the

catchment area is the starting point for all hydrological analyses and is essential therefore as the basis for water resource
protection, management, understanding, and modeling of
water circulation through the karst massif. This classical and
relatively simple hydrological problem in other more homogeneous types of terrain represents an extremely complex and
sometimes unsolvable task for water circulation in karst,
which is especially the case for poljes. The differences between
the topographic and hydrologic catchments in karst terrain
are, as a rule, so large that data about the topographic catchment are useless in hydrological and hydrogeological analyses
and water management practice.
Complex conduit organization is an inherent characteristic
of the karst aquifer (Perrin and Luetscher, 2008). The full
characterization of the conduit network is the only way to
establish accurately the polje catchment and hence to protect
their water resources. Perrin and Luetscher (2008) advocated
using multitracer experiments under different flow regimes to
discover the structure of the conduit network in karst aquifers.
In general, the position of the karst catchment boundaries
depends upon the rapidly fluctuating groundwater levels.
In some situations of very high groundwater level (caused
by heavy rainfall and during karst flash floods), fossil and
inactive underground karst conduits that are inactive under
normal conditions become activated, causing the redistribution of catchment areas, that is, overflow from one to the
other catchment.
Karst aquifers are generally continuous. However, numerous subsurface morphologic features in karst (caves, jamas,
fractures, faults, impermeable layers, and karst conduits)
strongly influence the continuity of the aquifer, so that an
aquifer commonly does not function as a continuum in a
catchment, especially during periods of abrupt groundwater
rise. One of the most important characteristics of karst
aquifers is the high degree of heterogeneity in their hydraulic
properties.
Karst aquifers develop in soluble rocks. Their triple permeability (matrix, fissures and fractures, and conduits) results
in heterogeneity and anisotropy. Water flowing through a karst
aquifer continuously dissolves the surrounding rocks and
expends the dimensions of preferable voids. This process of
karstification is temporally variable and relatively rapid by
comparison with most geological processes. Each karst aquifer
has its specific hydrogeologic, hydrologic, and hydraulic
characteristics. In karst aquifers, generally, it is not possible to
define representative elementary volume, as it is case in other
nonkarstic aquifers.
This great variability of the shape of surface and underground karst, as well as the interplay of pervious and impervious layers within the karst massif, creates practically
endless possibilities for contact between two or more karst
aquifers that can belong to and feed different karst springs in
different karst poljes. Karst aquifers can be very deep (hundreds of meters) with endless cracks, fractures, joints, bedding
plains, and conduits serving as groundwater pathways. In
the last 100 or so years, and especially in recent decades,
anthropogenic influences have created new and very rapid

redistribution of surface water and groundwater in karst areas,

which had caused changes of connections between aquifers of
neighboring (in some cases, distant) karst springs and poljes
(Bonacci, 2004a). Milanovic (1986) found that the submergence of the karst spring zone caused by the construction
on the Bilece Reservoir on the Trebisnjica River (Bosnia and
Herzegovina) affects the dynamics and emptying of the large
karst aquifer. It should be stressed that construction of reservoirs influences poljes that are located not only downstream
but even upstream.
Determination of the catchment to a karst spring is an
unreliable procedure due to the unknown morphology of
underground karst features (mainly karst conduits and characteristics of karst aquifers) and their connections with surface
karst forms. The variability across time and space of a karst
aquifer, as well as conduit parameters, makes this process
extremely sensitive and complex.
The discharge from karst springs integrates the signal of
geological and hydrological processes over large areas and
long periods of time, and because of this it provides an indirect source of information about the source area (Manga,
2001). By using a variety of techniques and approaches
(e.g., geological information, karst aquifer hydrogeology, isotopic tracers, water chemistry, discharge, and water temperature), it is possible to determine the mean-residence time of
water, infer the spatial pattern and the extent of groundwater
flow, and estimate basin-scale hydraulic properties (Perrin and
Luetscher, 2008). All of this can help in the study of karst
spring as well as polje catchments.

6.11.6

Anthropogenic Influences on Polje

Anthropogenic influences on the hydrologicalhydrogeological

regime of the poljes can be considered under the following
four categories: (1) water storage; (2) increase in the capacity
of outlet structures; (3) surface hydrotechnical aspects (melioration, drainage and irrigation, and river regulation); and
(4) other works (land-use change, urbanization, industrialization, construction of motorways, quarry, groundwater
pumping, and others). It should be borne in mind that poljes
are generally linked to other adjacent upstream and downstream poljes and/or karst regions. For this reason, technical
and environmental damage in some cases has exceeded the
benefits. The most common technical damages could be the
following: (1) land subsidence; (2) collapse of natural and
artificial surface and underground structures (Waltham et al.,
2005); (3) drying up of karst springs; and (4) overflow of
groundwater from one catchment to another. Groundwater
pollution, destruction of habitats, and threatening of karst
subterranean ecosystems, which can cause the disappearance
of endangered species most of which are endemic, are very
often negative consequences of anthropogenic activities in
poljes.
With the objective of flood prevention in poljes, attempts
have been made to increase the capacity of ponors. Such attempts have usually failed because the capacity of ponors
depends on the conduit system to which they drain and on the
groundwater level as well as their size. There have been more

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Poljes, Ponors and Their Catchments

119

34
Hmax = 32.65
Maximum water level (m asl)

32
193973

29.59

30

19742006

28
26.49
26

23.61
24

192738

22
Hmin = 20.15
20
2010

2005

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

1975

1970

1965

1960

1955

1950

1945

1940

1935

1930

1925

t (year)
Figure 6 Time series of maximum annual water levels measured in the Vrgorsko Polje (southeastern part of Dinaric karst, Croatia) at the
Krotusa water level gauging station during the 19262006 period (missing data for 195761). The Vrgorsko Polje is the lowest in the cascade
poljes system.

unsuccessful attempts to isolate or surface seal ponors than

successful ones (Bonacci, 1987; Milanovic, 2004a).
The most effective measure to prevent the flooding or to
reduce duration of floods is the construction of a tunnel.
Figure 6 shows a time series of maximum annual water levels
measured in the Vrgorsko Polje (Croatia) at the Krotusa water
level gauging station during the 19262006 period (data
missing for 195761). During the natural state until 1938
(subperiod 192638), the average maximum water level was
29.59 m asl. After the tunnel construction during the second
subperiod (193973), it decreased by 3.10 m to 26.49 m asl.
The tunnel capacity was increased in 1974, and, consequently,
the average maximum annual water level in the Vrgorsko Polje
in the subperiod 19742006 was 23.61, a further decrease of
2.88 m relative to second subperiods or 5.98 m relative to its
natural state. The tunnel operation significantly reduced the
durations of flooding, but did not eliminate them entirely. Its
maximum capacity was eventually increased to about
36 m3 s1, whereas the maximum average inflow discharges
during the three subperiods remained unchanged at an average value of 95 m3 s1. The maximum observed inflow into
the Vrgorsko Polje reached 154 m3 s1. Floods in the polje are
caused by the fact that the maximum capacity of the open
streamflow does not exceed 50 m3 s1. Flooding of the upper
and middle part of the Vrgorsko Polje is not caused by the
insufficient swallow-hole capacity.

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Biographical Sketch
Ognjen Bonacci is a professor of hydrology, ecohydrology, and karst hydrology at the Faculty of Civil Engineering
and Architecture, University of Split (Croatia). He has authored the following books: Karst Hydrology with Special
Reference to the Dinaric Karst (Springer Verlag, 1987); Rainfall Main Input into Hydrological Cycle (in Croatian,
1994); and Ecohydrology of Water Resources and Open Streamflows (in Croatian, 2003). He has also contributed to
the following leading scientific journals (with more than 35 papers): Hydrological Sciences Journal, Hydrological
Processes, Journal of Hydraulic Research, Environmental Geology, Engineering Geology, Ground Water, Regulated Rivers:
Research and Management, Journal of Hydrology, Ecohydrology, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, and Acta
Carsologica.