Victorie Penn

June 9, 2015
Exam 1 Essay Responses
1. Describe a learning situation in part A below. In parts B and C, consider the behavior modification
approach to learning, and in parts D - F, consider the information processing approach as you develop
your response.
A. Briefly describe a learning situation in which you (or som eone you know) had (or are currently
having) difficulty achieving some desired performance. (1-3 sentences should be adequate) (3
pts)
Student X repeatedly confuses multiplication and addition in solving word problems. The
teacher has tested the student on numerous occasions with the same result. Student X is very
disappointed in himself for getting failing grades on his tests. Two examples are provided to
show how Student X answers these word problems:
Problem A: 2 apples and 4 oranges are in the basket. How many pieces of fruit are there altogether?
2 apples x 4 oranges = 8 pieces of fruit.
Problem B: Sally has 4 bags. There are 6 marbles in each bag. How many marbles does she have altogether?
4 bags + 6 marbles = 10 marbles.
B. Analyze the event in terms of the principles of behavior modification.
i. What behavior are you trying to change? (2 pts)
From looking at the Problems A and B, and assuming that all of the other problems
are similarly in error, Student X seems to be fluent in his multiplication and division facts.
Since fact fluency is not the issue at hand, this tells me that he is simply interchanging the
needed procedure to complete the problem. Therefore, the event that needs to be changed is
for Student X to use the correct operation to solve the word problem.
ii. Will this involve learning a new behavior, or increasing or decreasing the frequency of an
existing behavior? (2 pts)
In order for Student X to apply multiplication and division correctly, he will need to
do two things. First, he will need to decrease the frequency of using the operations
incorrectly. Second, he will need to increase the rate of answering problems using the
correct process. The student is not learning a new behavior, because he can already
multiply and add fluently. He will be applying the behavior he already knows in a different
manner.
iii. What is the consequence of engaging in the targeted behavior change? (3 pts)
The consequence of this behavior change is quite important to the rest of Student
Xs academic career and to his self-esteem. In order to be a successful student, he must
learn to identify the needed action to complete word problems. Additionally, seeing tests
with passing grades will boost his sense of worth as a student.
iv. What are the contingencies of reinforcement that can be implemented to bring about the
behavior change? (e.g., positive reinforcement? Negative reinforcement? Punishment?

Reinforcement removal?) If a new behavior is being learned, also consider how shaping,
chaining, and/or fading will be utilized. (5 pts)
The contingencies of reinforcement that I have decided to use are negative and
positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement will be used to get Student X to stop
answering problems with the wrong operation. When Student X answers incorrectly, there
will be three stimuli that he will want to remove, or keep from happening again. This will
encourage Student X to discontinue using the wrong procedure for the word problem. In
addition, positive reinforcement will be used to get Student X to apply the correct
operation. When Student X answers correctly, there will be two stimuli that he will want to
keep happening. This will cause Student X to use multiplication and addition correctly in
word problems.
C. How will you go about applying the contingencies of reinforcement to bring about the desired
change in behavior? (5 pts)
An existing educational computer program, MobyMax, will be used to give a series of
multiplication and addition word problems. If Student X answers the problem incorrectly, a
negative buzzer will sound and the program will explain how to appropriately answer the
problem. The whole explanation must be listened to before clicking onto the next problem. When
Student X uses the correct operation on a problem, a positive buzzer will sound and he will build
up game time to use after he completes all of the problems.
When Student Xs answer is incorrect, the program is using negative reinforcement.
Student X will avoid answering the problem incorrectly because of three factors, or stimuli:
1) No game time is given for wrong answers.
2) The buzzer has a negative tone to it.
3) Student X must listen to an explanation of the incorrect problem before
proceeding to the next problem.
On the contrary, when Student Xs answer is correct, the program is using positive
reinforcement. Student X will apply the appropriate procedure to the problem because of two
factors, or stimuli:
1) Game time is built up for each correct answer.
2) The buzzer sounds positive.
It is also evident that the Premack principle will play a role in getting Student X to
answer word problems successfully. The way that the game time builds for correct answers
encourages Student X to pay attention and use the computer program effectively. He will be
engaged in learning on the computer because he knows that he can play games (a high-frequency
behavior) after completing the problems correctly on the computer (a low-frequency behavior).
D. Describe how you would monitor your plan for effectiveness and include a description of what
you would do if the plan seemed to be ineffective. (5 pts)
Student X will use the MobyMax computer program each day during math centers until
he has mastered the concept. MobyMax has a large bank of word problems, so that Student X is
not being asked the same questions. On two separate days, Student X will need to complete the
problems with 100% accuracy to show mastery. This fixed interval approach to behavior
management was chosen over other approaches due to the need for predictability in the school
schedule. A variable ratio or interval schedule would not be appropriate in this setting. After
Student X masters the concept, it would be useful to check in with him to ensure that he has
retained the corrected behavior. This could be done by asking him to answer a few multiplication
and addition problems.

If the program appeared to be ineffective, I would have to consider if each of the

elements listed below were appropriate:
1) Behavioral Goals
-Decrease incorrectly using addition and multiplication in word problems
-Increase correctly using addition and multiplication in word problems
-No new behavior, just a change in application
-Fact fluency is not an issue
2) Reinforcers
-Positive reinforcement stimuli1) Game time is built up for each correct answer.
2) The buzzer sounds positive.
-Negative reinforcement stimuli1) No game time is given for wrong answers.
2) The buzzer has a negative tone to it.
3) Student X must listen to an explanation of the incorrect problem before
proceeding to the next problem.
3) Procedures
-MobyMax program every day until mastery (taken 2 times with 100% aim line)
From analyzing the list, it could be that the reinforcement stimuli are not appropriate for
Student X. Perhaps Student X would be more interested in earning a trip to the library or lunch
with a friend as opposed to the game time on the computer. It could also be that using MobyMax
every day is boring or tiring to Student X. He might be more engaged if the program was only
used every other day. A discussion with Student X about his interests would help to generate
additional ideas on how the program could be changed to be more effective.
E. Using the same learning episode described above, generate and describe a plan for improving
performance that is based on cognitive information processing theory. (10 pts)
If Student Xs problem is viewed through the lens of the cognitive information processing
theory, what he knows about multiplication and addition word problems has either not made its
way into his long-term memory, or he has confused the two mathematical principles through
interference. In either case, a plan that includes the reteaching of the concepts would be effective.
Because it is unknown where Student Xs misunderstanding truly lies, a comprehensive plan that
covers all facets of the two mathematical concepts will be provided. It is understood that Student
X is fluent in his facts, however, more lessons on word problems may not fix his problem if he
has also confused other elements.
This plan will include 3 steps for Student X to complete:
1) View a concept map.
2) Watch lessons that reteach multiplication and addition.
3) Practice all elements of multiplication and addition.
In the first step of reteaching, a concept map, shown below, displaying how multiplication and
addition are related will help Student X to see the main ideas and how they compare and
contrast. Secondly, lessons on the basics of multiplication and addition from Brainpop.com will
assist Student X in either strengthening what he already knows or adjusting what he has
misconceived. Finally, Student X will use the quiz feature on Brainpop.com to work out an array
of problems. A unique feature of using this website is that Student X will receive automatic
feedback after answering a question. In this last step, it is anticipated that Student Xs
misconceptions will be corrected. A quick glance at the students quizzes would allow me to see
if he was solving the word problems accurately.

Addition
Definition: Finding the sum of two or
more numbers.
Symbols: +, =
How we write it:
2+2=4
addend + addend = sum
How we say it:
two plus two equals four
Ways to add:
1) Picture

2) Number sentence
2 smileys + 3 smileys = 5 smileys
3) Word problem
Sally got 2 smiley face stickers
yesterday. She got 3 more today. How
many smiley face stickers does she have
altogether?
5 smiley face stickers
4) Using your body
+=

Buzzwords:
sum, plus, together, total, in all,
altogether

In all and
altogether are in
both addition and
multiplication.
However,
multiplication has to
do with groups.

Multiplication
Definition: Finding the product of two or
more factors.
Symbols: x, =
How we write it:
4x2=8
factor x factor = product
How we say it:
four times two equals eight or four
groups of two equals eight
Ways to multiply:
1) Picture

2) Array

3) Number sentence
3 groups x 2 stars = 6 stars
4) Repeated addition
2 stars + 2 stars + 2 stars = 6 stars
5) Word problem
Jim has 3 papers, one each paper Ms. Penn
put two stars stickers. How many star
stickers does he have in all?
6 star stickers
6) Using your body
+ + =
Buzzwords:
product, multiply, groups, number in each
group, altogether, in all

The aforementioned plan is related to cognitive information processing theory in the

following ways:
1) The program assumes that the information that Student X does not understand has not
made its way into his long-term memory, or that is not being retrieved accurately because
of interference.
2) Providing organized instruction through the use of graphic organizers has been proven
to strengthen encoding.
3) Varied practice, like the Brainpop quizzes, helps learners understand the concepts in
many ways, thus increasing the probability of proper encoding and retrieval.
4) The Brainpop videos contain instructional strategies, such as activating, that directly
relate to the student. Making multiplication and addition meaningful to Student X will
cause him to pay better attention and encode the information.

F. How does the cognitive information processing theory plan differ from your behavioral plan?
What aspects of learning are highlighted by each plan? Are they mutually exclusive, or might a
combined plan be more effective than either alone? (5 pts)
In two plans that I developed, there are some stark contrasts. The table below shows the 4
main areas of difference, including Aspects of Learning, Student Xs Motivators, Instructional
Strategies, and Assumptions:
Behavioral Plan
-Viewed as a behavior that can be
modified
-Negative and positive reinforcement
(Game time, positive/negative buzzer,
having to listen to explanation)
-Hands-off instruction through
MobyMax
-Seeking to change the behavior
-Student X is motivated by the game
time
-Word problems are the only thing that
Student X needs to change behavior on
-Behavior does not require direct teacher
assistance (he can access the program by
himself)

Areas of Difference
Aspects of Learning

Student Xs Motivators
Instructional Strategies

Assumptions

Cognitive Information Processing

Theory Plan
-Viewed as either lack of information
in the long-term memory or that the
information has been confused by
interference
-Wanting to do well on the quizzes
-Some hands-on instruction in concept
map
-BrainPop
-Seeking to get the proper information
into the long-term memory
-Student X is motivated by seeing
progress on quizzes
-The entire concepts need to be
reviewed so that Student X can see the
relationships between the ideas
-Needs some teacher assistance in
meeting his need

Each plan, standing alone, would likely work, however, a combination and tweaking of
the plans would serve Student X most successfully. An all-encompassing procedure listed below
pulls from the Behavioral Plan, Cognitive Information Processing Theory Plan, and adds a few
new twists based on effective teaching principles.
1) Pull Student X aside to review his quizzes. Ask Student X to draw a picture of one
multiplication and addition word problem as he has answered them. Show him how the
pictures should be drawn. This will hopefully cause Student X to see why his word
problem quizzes have received low grades.
2) Review the multiplication and addition concept map with Student X, paying more
attention to the word problems and buzzwords, since it seems that his issue lies with
confusing the word problems.
3) Allow Student X to keep the concept map and have him complete the modules on
multiplication and addition word problems on MobyMax. The modules contain a video
lesson and practice that gives automatic feedback. This also earns Student X game time,
which most students enjoy.
4) Spot check Student Xs performance on the computer over the next few days as he
completes the modules. If he does not seem to be making progress, try Brainpop videos
and quizzes. They are a little more interactive and help students to make connections.
5) Allow Student X to retake the quizzes when he has completed the modules.

2. How is Ausubels conception of cognitive structure similar to or different from the models of long-term
memory presented in Chapter 3 of your text? (10 pts) To illustrate your answer, select a concept (or set
of concepts) that might be the focus of instruction. Indicate how, once learned, the concept(s) would be
represented in memory, according to Ausubel versus information processing theorists. (10 pts)
The table, seen below, discusses the similarities and differences between two theories: Cognitive
Information Processing and Meaningful Learning. The major aspects described are the theorists, models,
learning, remembering, and forgetting.
Aspects
Cognitive Information
Notable Similarities
Meaningful Learning (ML)
Processing (CIP)
and Differences
Theorists
Anderson, Atkinson,
Ausubel and Mayer
Collins, Miller, Paivio,
Quillian, and Shiffrin
Model
Models are both
Sunscreen
hierarchical, however
items can be encoded
SPF
Brands
Types
and retrieved from STM
Inputs
to LTM in the CIP
Banana
4-100
Copperton
Lotion
model. Additionally, the
Boat
Sensory Memory
e
ML model can changed
Short-Term
~30 is
Neutrogen
Spray
through assimilation
Memory
best
a
theory.
Long-Term
Memory

Aerosol

Pump

Learning

Learning happens when

inputs make it through
the short-term memory
and are encoded into the
long-term memory.

Remembering

Ideas are remembered

through retrieval.

Forgetting

Forgetting happens
when information has

ML fits within the CIP

theory. In order for an
input to make it to the
long-term memory, it
must somehow relate to
the learners previous
knowledge. CIP theory
posits that selective
attention causes inputs
to be noticed.
The CIP model
postulates that we
remember through recall
(more difficult) or
recognition (easier).
The ML model theorizes
that the higher the
position in the hierarchy,
the easier it is to
remember and that it is
easier to remember right
after meaningful
learning has occurred.
ML again fits inside the
CIP theory. The mention

Learning happens when the material is

meaningful to the learner and relates to
anchoring ideas.

Ideas are remembered due to their

hierarchy in their cognitive structure
and how recent they were learned.

Forgetting happens over time and very

quickly with rote learning. Forgetting is

failed to encode, failed

to be retrieved, or it has
been interfered with
something else.

of forgetting over time

is not a position of CIP
theory, except in older
adults.

not so important to derivative learning,

but has major implications for
correlative, superordinate, and
combinatorial learning.

To further examine the similarities and differences of Cognitive Information Processing and
Meaningful Learning, an example of how a concept would be represented in memory is included below.
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Meaningful Learning Theory
Concept: Array Models in Multiplication
1. Sensory memory
1. Student engages
1. Student notices the sights and
Student decides to engage in the lesson on array
sounds of lesson.
models.
2. Short-Term Memory
2. Student has background knowledge
1. Student places selective attention
His engagement is encouraged by making
on the lesson which begins with a
connections with a concept map. He realizes that
concept map of multiplication. He
he understands most of the information on the
begins to process the patterns of
map, but does not know how arrays are related to
the words and pictures.
multiplication.
3. Long-Term Memory
The teacher further activates his thinking by
1. Student encodes information from
comparing a picture to an array model. The
the lesson, starting with the
student can clearly see the similarities.
concept map. This helps student to 3. Lesson is meaningful
make connections to things he
The lesson builds on prior knowledge, is
already knows.
organized, and provides practice for making
2. He also makes a connection when a
arrays. The student finds the lesson meaningful
picture is compared to an array
because he can see that making arrays is more
model.
simple and quicker than drawing pictures.
3. The students memory of the array
model is strengthened when he
It is also to be noted that during the lesson, the student is
completes guided practice after the
learning by correlative subsumption. He has already learned
lesson.
other aspects of multiplication, so the array concept is an
addition to this anchoring idea. A partial model of this change
is included below.
Multiplicati
on

Symbols

Ways

Words

Number
Sentence

Times

Picture
Groups

x
Array

Word
Problem

4. Consider situated cognition theory. Describe how a community of learning might be implemented in your
professional discipline. Describe who would be involved, the targeted learning, and the
implementation/functioning of the community. (15 pts)
At Middle Ridge Elementary, there is a lack of knowledge on how to use a program called Infinite
Campus effectively. All teachers are required to use the program to enter daily attendance, post grades,
standardized test results, and to record parent contacts. Administrators have noticed that there is a wide range in
how comfortable teachers are at using Infinite Campus. When they collected data on the use of the program,
they noticed the following: young teachers used the program most effectively, homeroom teachers entered the
most data, and some teachers were refusing to use the program altogether. The administrators decided that
instead of a mass teaching during a faculty meeting, which are frequently overlooked, they would create
communities of practice to meet after school for three fifteen minute sessions. These sessions would be
organized as follows:
1) Logging in and taking attendance
2) Posting grades
3) Recording parent contacts and test results
The goal of the community of practice would be to use Infinite Campus program correctly, with another
administrator check up coming a month after the completion of the sessions. Additionally, the communities of
practice would be organized based on data. The young teachers and homeroom teachers who showed correct use
of the program would co-lead the meetings. All other teachers would be divided up randomly and would be
encouraged to add to the sessions and ask questions. Groups would be kept relatively small (less than 10) so that
each teacher could collaborate easily and administrators would be completely removed so that teachers could
speak openly. Because the goal has real implications for their job, all of the members of the community of
practice are relying on each other to accomplish the task. Even the experts may learn tips and tricks of the
program from other teachers.