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Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
Chapter Seven
Implantable Computers
and Information Security:
A Managerial Perspective1
Abstract. The interdisciplinary field of information security (InfoSec)
already draws significantly on the biological and human sciences;
for example, it relies on knowledge of human physiology to design
biometric authentication devices and utilizes insights from psychology to predict users vulnerability to social engineering techniques
and develop preventative measures. The growing use of computers
implanted within the human body for purposes of therapy or augmentation will compel InfoSec to develop new or deeper relationships with fields such as medicine and biomedical engineering, insofar as the practices and technologies that InfoSec implements for
implantable computers must not only secure the information contained within such devices but must also avoid causing biological
or psychological harm to the human beings within whose organisms
the computers are embedded.
In this text we identify unique issues and challenges that implantable computers create for information security. By considering the
particular scenario of the internal computer controlling a retinal implant, we demonstrate the ways in which InfoSecs traditional concepts of the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information
and the use of physical, logical, and administrative access controls
become intertwined with issues of medicine and biomedical engineering. Finally, we formulate a novel cybernetic approach that
provides a useful paradigm for conceptualizing the relationship of
For an investigation of information security for implantable computers (and especially those
contained within or connected to neural implants) that explores these issues in more depth than
is possible within this text, see Gladden, The Handbook of Information Security for Advanced Neuroprosthetics (2015).
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
Introduction
Although the public perception of information security (or InfoSec) often
focuses on the fields extensive body of theory and practice relating to computer science and information technology, information security is in fact a
transdisciplinary field in which InfoSec teams such as those maintained by
large businesses must not only possess expertise with a wide array of hardware and software systems but must also be knowledgeable about such diverse
fields such as law, ethics, management, finance and accounting, and building
architecture and maintenance. InfoSec also draws significantly on insights
from the biological and social sciences. For example, it relies on a knowledge
of human physiology in order to design (and later, secure) biometric accesscontrol systems that are capable of identifying and authenticating human users based on traits such as their voice patterns, handwriting patterns, hand
shapes and vascular patterns, fingerprints, facial features, iris patterns, or retinal blood-vessel patterns.2 Similarly, InfoSec relies on insights from the field
of psychology to predict users vulnerability to social engineering techniques
such as phishing and to develop effective measures for prevention, detection,
and response.3
A new phenomenon that InfoSec will need to robustly address during the
coming years is the growing use of implantable computers that operate within
the human body for purposes of therapeutic treatment or human augmentation. The expansion of this new technological frontier creates unique challenges that will compel information security to develop relationships with
fields such as medicine and biomedical engineering that are closer, richer, and
more critically important than those that have existed in the past. The rise of
implantable computing will elicit a qualitative change in these relationships;
InfoSec personnel will need to work closely with the doctors and biomedical
engineers who are designing and implanting such devices, in order to:
Understand the design and functioning of computers which after
their implantation the InfoSec personnel will likely be unable to
physically inspect or manipulate and which may utilize specialized
proprietary hardware, operating systems, and software applications.
Understand an implantable computers connections with the biological systems of its human host, in order to recognize both the kinds of
information (if any) that the device is gathering regarding the hosts
biological and cognitive processes, the kind of information (if any)
2
3
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
that the device is transmitting to the mind of its human host, and any
other effects that the device is capable of having on its human host.
Develop InfoSec practices and technologies for use with implantable
computers that not only secure the information contained within such
devices but which also avoid creating biological or psychological
harm (or even the danger of such harm) for the human beings within
whose organisms the computers are embedded.
To explore this growing interconnection of information security, medicine,
and biomedical engineering, we begin by identifying unique issues and challenges that implantable computers create for information security. By considering the scenario of a computer that is contained within a sensory neuroprosthetic device in the form of a retinal implant, we then demonstrate the ways
in which InfoSecs traditional concepts of the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of information and the use of physical, logical, and administrative
access controls become intertwined with issues of medicine and biomedical
engineering. Finally, we suggest that in order to analyze these issues further
and develop effective avenues of communication between the fields of information security and biomedical engineering, it may be useful to employ the
concept of celyphocybernetics, which views both the human body and any
implantable computers embedded within it as a single cybernetic system for
communication and control that supports the mind of the human being to
whom the body belongs.
Gasson, Human ICT Implants: From Restorative Application to Human Enhancement (2012);
Gasson, ICT Implants (2008).
5
Gasson et al., Human ICT Implants: From Invasive to Pervasive (2012); Gasson (2008).
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
increasingly operate in rich and complex biocybernetic control loops with the
organism of their human host, allowing, for example, the physiological and
cognitive activity of their host to be detected, analyzed, and interpreted for
use in exercising real-time control over computers or robotic devices.6 The
growing sophistication of the computers contained within such implantable
devices means that they increasingly serve as sites for the reception, storage,
processing, and transmission of large amounts of highly sensitive information7 regarding their human hosts everyday interactions with the environment, internal biological processes, and even cognitive activity.
Fairclough, Physiological Computing: Interfacing with the Human Nervous System (2010);
Park et al., The Future of Neural Interface Technology (2009).
7
Kosta & Bowman, Implanting Implications: Data Protection Challenges Arising from the Use
of Human ICT Implants (2012); Li et al., Advances and Challenges in Body Area Network
(2011); Rotter & Gasson, Implantable Medical Devices: Privacy and Security Concerns (2012).
8
Gasson et al. (2012); Merkel et al., Central Neural Prostheses (2007).
9
McGee, Bioelectronics and Implanted Devices (2008); Gasson et al. (2012).
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
the CIA Triad model for understanding information security.10 In the contemporary world of the Internet and Internet of Things, Big Data, and nearly
ubiquitous computing, securing information often means securing the computerized systems that are used to gather, store, process, and transmit data.
However, in its broader scope InfoSec also seeks to ensure the confidentiality,
availability, and integrity of information that is maintain in other systems
such as printed files and records, magnetic audio tapes, or even within the
human mind (e.g., confidential business information known to a companys
employees which practitioners of corporate espionage might attempt to educe
through bribery, coercion, or social engineering). Within large businesses or
government agencies, InfoSec departments seek to ensure information security through the design and implementation of comprehensive approaches
that incorporate practices and techniques such as strategic planning, risk management, training, configuration management, incident response, and the use
of physical, logical, and administrative security controls.11 Key concepts and
best practices for the field are described by industry-leading standards such as
those found in NIST SP 800-10012 and ISO/IEC 27001:2013.13
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
need to create comprehensive InfoSec frameworks that account for such realities will thus likely become more critical in the coming years.
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
See NIST Special Publication 800-53, Revision 4: Security and Privacy Controls for Federal Information Systems and Organizations (2013), p. F-122-F-123.
20
Koops & Leenes, Cheating with Implants: Implications of the Hidden Information Advantage
of Bionic Ears and Eyes (2012).
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
The retinal implants raw visual data and processed visual output contain
highly sensitive information that must be secured. While such legal requirements were generally not implemented specifically with implantable computers in mind, various regulations already exist around the world requiring that
(often quite stringent) practices and mechanisms be put in place to secure the
21
The kinds of retinal implants have been approved by the FDA for use in human patients are
currently extremely limited in the quantity of data that they can transmit to the patients retinal
ganglion cells, thus the devices computers must radically compress and simplify received video
images before transmitting to the patients brain. However, it is anticipated that retinal implants
utilizing new electrode designs and neuronal stimulation techniques will provide their users
with a level of vision adequate for navigating within an environment, reading text, and recognizing faces. See Weiland et al., Retinal Prosthesis (2005); Jumper, FDA Approves Worlds
First Artificial Retina (2013); Schmid & Fink, Operational Design Considerations for Retinal
Prostheses (2012); and Schmid et al., Simultaneous vs. Sequential and Unipolar vs. Multipolar
Stimulation in Retinal Prostheses (2013). In the hypothetical scenario described here, we assume
that the CEO possesses retinal implants of that more advanced sort which are expected to become available within the coming years.
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
sort of personal and medical data that implantable computers will contain. 22
However, because the technology of implantable computers is still relatively
new and experimental, a specialized and comprehensive set of InfoSec standards has not yet been developed for the industry. Moreover, especially during
the initial iterations of such technologies, the laboratories developing such
implantable devices may understandably be focusing their energy and attention simply on trying to produce devices that function effectively, without yet
understanding or successfully addressing the full implications of their devices
for information security.23 Thus the manufacturer of our hypothetical CEOs
retinal implants may or may not have been able to incorporate robust security
features into those devices or to offer detailed guidance regarding their secure
use.
In particular, the manufacturer may purposefully have included either publicly known mechanisms or hidden backdoors within the given model of implant that allow its internal computer to be accessed via a remote wireless
connection for purposes of downloading logfiles from the device, carrying out
diagnostic tests, updating the devices software, or transmitting particular visual content to the device for purposes of training its user or calibrating the
implant. The designers of the device may assume that these remote access
mechanisms are secure, simply because they utilize some internal proprietary
transmitter, software, or protocol developed within the laboratory and because they assume that no unauthorized outside parties would possess the desire or ability to illicitly access a retinal implant while it is in use. However, in
principle, a hacker with enough knowledge, skill, and motivation might be
able to remotely access an implants internal computer and could potentially
be able to exploit the devices existing programming (or reprogram the device)
so that unbeknownst to the CEO his retinal implants would wirelessly
transmit a live video stream of everything seen by the CEO to an external
computer controlled by the hacker. This would severely compromise the confidentiality of the information passing through the device.
If InfoSec personnel wished to restrict or eliminate the devices ability to
transmit data to external systems, they could safely do so only in consultation
with physicians and biomedical engineers who understand the extent to
which such data transmissions may need to occur for legitimate medical purposes.
22
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
INTEGRITY
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
It might appear unnecessary to give the retinal implants internal computers specialized physical access controls, if the computers are located inside the
CEOs head and can only be directly accessed by unauthorized parties by subjecting the CEO to a complex surgical procedure. However, there are indeed
issues relating to physical controls that InfoSec personnel would need to consider. First, the retinal implants may exist as integrated components of a larger
system that includes external computers that are more readily physically accessible. The implants might, for example, have a permanent wireless connection to some handheld external controller that can be used by the CEO to
monitor or recalibrate the units. If this were the case, the CEOs InfoSec team
would need to implement physical controls to ensure that the handheld controller would always be secured and not left lying around unattended in a location where unauthorized parties could gain access to it. Second, it might be
the case that particular kinds of magnetic fields, patterns of light projected at
the CEOs eyes, or other kinds of environmental phenomena can alter or disrupt the functioning of the retinal implants. InfoSec personnel would need to
work with the biomedical engineers who designed the devices to understand
any such possibilities and ensure that there were physical controls in place to
protect the CEOs retinal implants from such interference, insofar as possible.
LOGICAL CONTROLS
Efforts to secure the CEOs retinal implants would also include a focus on
logical controls, such as the mechanisms built into the implants software that
require any remote systems or users attempting to connect to the device to be
identified, authenticated, and given access only to the systems or information
which they are authorized to access. Because the retinal implants internal
computers may be highly specialized, idiosyncratic devices rather than the
off-the-shelf computers running operating systems like Windows, Mac OS,
Android, or Linux it may or may not be technologically possible for the
companys InfoSec team to install their preferred security software on the retinal implants. Moreover, the need to secure the implants computers must also
be balanced against the need to ensure the implants proper and efficient functioning as prosthetic medical devices; the CEOs medical team may not allow
security software to be installed on the implants that has the potential to unacceptably slow down, degrade, or otherwise impair their functioning as medical devices. The companys InfoSec team would need to work closely with
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
Similarly, when designing countermeasures that can be employed against unauthorized parties who may attempt to use their own implantable computers
as instruments for carrying out illicit surveillance or corporate espionage
against a company, such medical expertise would be needed by the companys
InfoSec personnel in order to design countermeasures that neutralize such
threats without causing biological or psychological injury to those suspected
adversaries for which the company and its InfoSec personnel could potentially
be held liable.
Conclusion
In this text we have considered the manner in which the field of information security will need to draw increasingly on expertise from medicine
and biomedical engineering in order to address the unique ways in which the
24
25
Wiener, Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (1961).
From the Ancient Greek , meaning shell, sheath, husk, or pod.
Implantable Computers and Information Security: A Managerial Perspective, excerpted from Gladden, Matthew E.,
Posthuman Management: Creating Effective Organizations in an Age of Social Robotics, Ubiquitous AI, Human Augmentation, and Virtual Worlds (Second Edition).
Indianapolis: Defragmenter Media, 2016, pp. 285-300. ISBN 978-1-944373-05-4 (print edition) and 978-1-944373-06-1 (ebook).
growing use of implantable computers are expected to reshape the information security landscape. Not only will implantable computers create new
kinds of InfoSec vulnerabilities and risks for individuals who use them, but
they will offer powerful new tools for those who would attempt to carry out
illicit activities such as corporate espionage or illegal surveillance. By utilizing
knowledge from the fields of medicine and biomedical engineering, InfoSec
professionals will be able to recognize the information security characteristics
of implantable computers that they cannot directly access, understand such
implantable computers connections to the biological and cognitive processes
of their human hosts and the medical implications of such interfaces, and develop InfoSec practices and technologies that secure the information contained within implantable computers without placing the devices hosts at risk
of physical or psychological harm. The field of information security has already demonstrated an interdisciplinary ability to successfully incorporate
knowledge from diverse fields and adapt to ever-changing technological, social, and legal demands, and it is well-positioned to secure a future in which
implantable computers will become an increasingly important element of human life.
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