Susm

Su redirects here. For other uses, see Su (disam- Islam.[13] These British orientalists, therefore, fabricated
biguation).
a divide that was previously non-existent.[13] The term
Not to be confused with sophism.
Susm has, however, persisted especially in the Western
world ever since.
Susm or Taawwuf[1] (Arabic: )is dened as
the inner mystical dimension of Islam. Practitioners of
Susm, referred to as Sus (f) (/su/; ), often belong to dierent uruq or orderscongregations
formed around a grand master referred to as a mawla
who traces a direct chain of teachers back to the Islamic
prophet, Muhammad.[2] These orders meet for spiritual
sessions (majalis) in meeting places known as zawiyas,
khanqahs, or tekke.[3] Sus strive for ihsan (perfection of
worship) as detailed in a hadith: Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees
you.[4] Rumi stated: The Su is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr.[5] Sus regard Muhammad as alInsn al-Kmil, the primary perfect man who exemplies
the morality of God.[6] Sus regard Muhammad as their
leader and prime spiritual guide.

Historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word

taawwuf to identify the practice of Sus.[1] Mainstream
scholars of Islam dene Tasawwuf or Susm as the name
for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam[14] which
is supported and complemented by outward or exoteric
practices of Islam, such as Sharia.[15] In this view, it is
absolutely necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Su, because Susms methods are inoperative without Muslim
aliation.[16][17] However, Islamic scholars themselves
are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of
the word su.[18]
Sus themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia,[1] inseparable from Islam and an
integral part of Islamic belief and practice.[19] Classical Su scholars have dened Tasawwuf as a science
whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God.[20] Traditional Sus such as Bayazid Bastami, Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli,
Junayd of Baghdad, and Al-Ghazali, dene Susm as
purely based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings
of Muhammad.[18][21][22][23]

All Su orders trace many of their original precepts from

Muhammad through his cousin and son-in-law Ali with
the notable exception of the Naqshbandi, who claim to
trace their origins from Muhammad through the rst
Rashid Caliph, Abu Bakr.[7] Su orders largely follow one
of the four madhhabs (jurisprudent schools of thought) of
Sunni Islam and maintain a Sunni aqidah (creed).[8]

2 Etymology

Classical Sus were characterized by their asceticism,

especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice
of repeating the names of God, often performed after
prayers.[9] Susm gained adherents among a number of
Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early
Umayyad Caliphate (661750).[10] Sus have spanned
several continents and cultures over a millennium, originally expressing their beliefs in Arabic before spreading
into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu among dozens of other
languages.[11] According to William Chittick, In a broad
sense, Susm can be described as the interiorization, and
intensication of Islamic faith and practice.[12]

2.1 Su
Two origins of the word su have been suggested. Commonly, the lexical root of the word is traced to af (),
which in Arabic means purity. Another origin is f
(), wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks
the early Muslim ascetics wore. The two were combined
by the Su al-Rudhabari, who said, The Su is the one
who wears wool on top of purity.[24][25] Scholars generally agree that f or wool is probably the root word of
Su. This term was given to them because they wore
woollen garments. The term labisal-suf meant 'he clad
himself in wool' and applied to a person who renounced
the world and became an ascetic.(Chopra)

Terminology

The term Susm came into being, not by Islamic texts or

Sus themselves but by British Orientalists who wanted to
create an articial divide between what they found attractive in Islamic civilization (i.e. Islamic Spirituality) and
the negative stereotypes that were present in Britain about

Others have suggested that the word comes from the term
ahl a-uah (the people of the bench), who were a
group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who
held regular gatherings of dhikr. These men and women
who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some
1

HISTORY

to be the rst Sus.[26][27] Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun of Baghdad regarded Ali as sheikh of the principals and
both rejected all possibilities other than f on linguistic practices of Tasawwuf.[29]
grounds.[28]
Practitioners of Susm hold that in its early stages of development Susm eectively referred to nothing more
than the internalization of Islam.[33] According to one
3 History
perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly
recited, meditated, and experienced, that Susm proceeded, in its origin and its development.[34] Others have
Main article: History of Susm
held that Susm is the strict emulation of the way of
Muhammad, through which the hearts connection to the
Divine is strengthened.[35]

3.1

Origins

Modern academics and scholars have rejected early

orientalist theories asserting a non-Islamic origin of
Susm,[36] The consensus is that it emerged in Western
Asia. Many have asserted Susm to be unique within
the connes of the Islamic religion and contend that Susm developed from people like Bayazid Bastami, who,
in his utmost reverence to the sunnah, refused to eat
a watermelon because he did not nd any proof that
Muhammad ever ate it.[18][37] According to the late medieval mystic Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn alHanayyah (died c. 716) was the rst person to be called
a Su.[28]
Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais
al-Qarani, Hasan of Basra, Harith al-Muhasibi and Said
ibn al-Musayyib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sus in Baghdad, was also an inuential early
gure,[38][39] as was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of
early practitioners of Susm were disciples of one of the
two.[40]

Susm had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Su teachings into devotional orders (tarqt) in the early Middle Ages.[41] The
Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule
Su orders are based on the bayah (pledge of allegiance)
of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through Muhamthat was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba.
mads grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teachings
By pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the
from Muhammad to the rst Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[7]
Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God.
According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Over the years Su orders have inuenced and have
Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba have pledged allegiance been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially
Isma'ilism, which led to the Safaviyya orders converto God.[30][31]
sion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread
Sus believe that by giving bayah (pledging allegiance)
of Twelverism throughout Iran.[42] Su orders into a legitimate Su shaykh, one is pledging allegiance to
clude Ba 'Alawiyya, Badawiyya, Bektashi, Burhaniyya,
the Prophet Muhammad and therefore a spiritual connecChishti, Khalwati, Mevlevi, Naqshbandi, Ni'matullh,
tion between the seeker and the Prophet Muhammad is
Uwaisi, Qadiriyya, Qalandariyya, Rifa'i, Sarwari Qadiri,
established. It is through the Prophet Muhammad that
Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Tijaniyyah, Zinda Shah
Sus aim to learn about, understand and connect with
Madariya, and others.[43]
God. Ali is regarded as one of the major gures amongst
the Sahaba who have directly pledged allegiance to the
Prophet Muhammad and Sus maintain that through Ali,
knowledge about the Prophet Muhammad and a connec- 3.2 As an Islamic discipline
tion with the Prophet Muhammad may be attained. Such
a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Su- Susm is a mystical-ascetic aspect of Islam. It is not a
s regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad sect, rather it is considered as the part of Islamic teachsaid, I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate.[32] ing that deals with the purication of the inner self. By
Eminent Sus such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sus
a very high ranking in Tasawwuf. Furthermore, Junayd strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use
Ali is considered to be the Father of Susm in Islamic
tradition.[29]

3.4

Growth of inuence

of intuitive and emotional faculties that one must be

trained to use.[44] Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of
Islam that has always been an integral part of Orthodox
Islam. In his Al-Risala al-safadiyya, Ibn Taymiyya describes the Sus as those who belong to the path of the
Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.
Ibn Taymiyyas Su inclinations and his reverence for
Sus like 'Abd al-Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his
hundred-page commentary on Futuh al-ghayb, covering
only ve of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but
showing that he considered tasawwuf essential within the
life of the Islamic community.

3
Religious Sciences and what he termed its essence, the
Kimiya-yi sa'dat. He argued that Susm originated from
the Qur'an and thus was compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict Islamic
Lawbeing instead necessary to its complete fulllment.
Ongoing eorts by both traditionally trained Muslim
scholars and Western academics are making al-Ghazalis
works more widely available in English translation, allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the
compatibility of Islamic Law and Su doctrine. Several
sections of the Revival of Religious Sciences have been
published in translation by the Islamic Texts Society.[46]
An abridged translation (from an Urdu translation) of
The Alchemy of Happiness was published by Claud Field
(ISBN 978-0935782288) in 1910. It has been translated
in full by Muhammad Asim Bilal (2001).[47]

In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that the primacy of the Shari`a forms the soundest tradition in tasawwuf, and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early
masters, as well as more contemporary shaykhs like his
fellow Hanbalis, al-Ansari al-Harawi and `Abd al-Qadir,
and the latters own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas:The up- 3.4
right among the followers of the Pathlike the majority of the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such as Fudayl
ibn `Iyad, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Ma`ruf al-Karkhi, al-Sari
al-Saqati, al-Junayd ibn Muhammad, and others of the
early teachers, as well as Shaykh Abd al-Qadir, Shaykh
Hammad, Shaykh Abu al-Bayan and others of the later
mastersdo not permit the followers of the Su path to
depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition

Growth of inuence

Imam Ghazali narrates in Al-Munqidh min-al-dalal:

The vicissitudes of life, family aairs and
nancial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy
odds confronted me and provided me with few
moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years but wherever I had
some spare and congenial moments I resorted
to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me.
I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy
mystics) is the only truthful group who follow
the right path, display best conduct and surpass
all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the
illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the
only guidance worth quest and pursuit.

3.3

Formalization of doctrine

Towards the end of the rst millennium, a number of

manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of
Susm and describing some typical Su practices. Two
of the most famous of these are now available in English
translation: the Kashf al-Mahjb of Ali Hujwiri and the
Risla of Al-Qushayri.[45]
Two of al-Ghazali's greatest treatises are the Revival of

Afaq Khoja Mausoleum near Kashgar, China

The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the

spread of Su philosophy in Islam. The spread of Susm
has been considered a denitive factor in the spread of
Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures,
especially in Africa[48] and Asia. The Senussi tribes of
Libya and the Sudan are one of the strongest adherents
of Susm. Su poets and philosophers such as Khoja
Akhmet Yassawi, Rumi, and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145
c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture
in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.[49][50] Susm
also played a role in creating and propagating the culture
of the Ottoman world,[51] and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.[52]
Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Susm produced
a ourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic
world, a Golden Age whose physical artifacts survive.
In many places a person or group would endow a waqf to
maintain a lodge (known variously as a zawiya, khanqah,
or tekke) to provide a gathering place for Su adepts, as
well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The
same system of endowments could also pay for a complex
of buildings, such as that surrounding the Sleymaniye

Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Su seekers, a

hospice with kitchens where these seekers could serve the
poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and
other structures. No important domain in the civilization
of Islam remained unaected by Susm in this period.[53]

3.5

Present

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

back Islamic achievement in the elds of science and

technology.[58]
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Susm. One of the rst
to return to Europe as an ocial representative of a Su
order, and with the specic purpose to spread Susm in
Western Europe, was the Swedish-born wandering Su
Ivan Aguli. Ren Gunon, the French scholar, became
a Su in the early twentieth century and was known as
Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings dened the practice of Susm as the essence of Islam but
also pointed to the universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as George Gurdjie, may or may not conform to the tenets of Susm as understood by orthodox
Muslims.
Other noteworthy Su teachers who have been active in
the West in recent years include Bawa Muhaiyaddeen,
Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh,
Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaer Ozak,
Nahid Angha, and Ali Kianfar, Ahmed abdu r Rashid

Mawln Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey

Current Su orders include Alians, Bektashi Order,

Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti Order, Jerrahi,
Naqshbandi, Mujaddidi, Ni'matullh, Qadiriyya,
Qalandariyya,
Sarwari Qadiriyya,
Shadhiliyya,
Suhrawardiyya, Ashra Family, Saiah (Naqshbandiah), and Uwaisi.[43] The relationship of Su orders to
modern societies is usually dened by their relationship
to governments.[54]

Currently active Su academics and publishers include

Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah
Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarin,
Ahmed abdu r Rashid and Timothy Winter.

4 Aims and objectives

Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many

Su lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely afliated with the Ottoman Janissaries and is the heart
of Turkeys large and mostly liberal Alevi population.
It has spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania,
Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and, more recently, to the United States via
Albania.
Susm is popular in such African countries as Tunisia,
Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam.[55] Susm is traditional in Morocco but has seen a growing revival with the renewal
of Susm under contemporary spiritual teachers such as
Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi. Mbacke suggests that one
reason Susm has taken hold in Senegal is because it can
accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.[56]
The life of the Algerian Su master Abdelkader El
Djezairi is instructive in this regard.[57] Notable as well
are the lives of Amadou Bamba and El Hadj Umar Tall The tomb of Rukn-e-Alam located in Multan, Pakistan. Known
in West Africa, and Sheikh Mansur and Imam Shamil for its Su tombs, Multan is often called the City of Saints.
in the Caucasus. In the twentieth century, some Muslims have called Susm a superstitious religion that holds While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway

4.1

Teachings

to Allah and hope to become close to God in Paradise

after death and after the Last JudgmentSus also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more
fully embrace the divine presence in this life.[59] The chief
aim of all Sus is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of
tra,[60] described in the Quran. In this state nothing one
does dees God, and all is undertaken with the single motivation of ishq.

from God to man and in a state of wilayah (sanctity, being

under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Su
Qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam.[63][64] However,
this belief puts Susm in direct conict with Shia Islam,
since both the Qutb (who for most Su orders is the head
of the order) and the Imam fulll the role of the purveyor
of spiritual guidance and of Allahs grace to mankind.
The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is
taken by Sus is considered incompatible with devotion
[63]
To Sus, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to wor- to the Imam.
ship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and crimi- As a further example, the prospective adherent of the
nal lawwhat is often referred to, broadly, as "qanun". Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the
The inner law of Susm consists of rules about repen- kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1001 days prior
tance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further
evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of comgood character.[61]
pleting that instruction.[65]

4.1

Teachings

The Darbar Sharif of Shams Ali Qalandar, located in Hujra

Shah Muqeem, Pakistan
Entrance of Sidi Boumediene Mosque in Tlemcen, Algeria, built
to honor the 12th-century Su master Abu Madyan

To the Su, it is the transmission of divine light from the

teachers heart to the heart of the student, rather than
worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress.
They further believe that the teacher should attempt inerrantly to follow the Divine Law.[62]
According to Moojan Momen one of the most important
doctrines of Susm is the concept of al-Insan al-Kamil
the Perfect Man. This doctrine states that there will
always exist upon the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or Axis of the
Universe)a man who is the perfect channel of grace

Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and nonMuslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and
metaphor.[66] Although approaches to teaching vary
among dierent Su orders, Susm as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as
such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic
forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein
Nasr).
Many Su believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Susm typically requires that the disciple live
with and serve the teacher for a long period of time.
An example is the folk story about Baha-ud-Din Naqsh-

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

band Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi

Order. He is believed to have served his rst teacher,
Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until
as-Samasi died. He is said to then have served several
other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is said to
have helped the poorer members of the community for
many years and after this concluded his teacher directed
him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them.[67]

4.2

Muhammad

Devotion to Muhammad is an exceptionally strong practice within Susm.[69] Sus have historically revered
Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Su poet Saadi Shirazi stated, He who chooses
a path contrary to that of the prophet [Muhammad], shall
never reach the destination. O Saadi, do not think that
one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of
the chosen one [Muhammad].[70] Rumi attributes his
self-control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi states, I 'sewed' my two eyes shut from [desires for] this world and the next this I learned from
Muhammad.[71] Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the
greatest man and states, Muhammads wisdom is uniqueness (fardiya) because he is the most perfect existent
creature of this human species. For this reason, the command began with him and was sealed with him. He was a
Prophet while Adam was between water and clay, and his
elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets.[72] Attar
of Nishapur claimed that he praised Muhammad in such a
manner that was not done before by any poet, in his book
the Ilahi-nama.[73] Fariduddin Attar stated, Muhammad
is the exemplar to both worlds, the guide of the descendants of Adam. He is the sun of creation, the moon of
the celestial spheres, the all-seeing eye...The seven heavens and the eight gardens of paradise were created for
him, he is both the eye and the light in the light of our
eyes.[74] Sus have historically stressed the importance
of Muhammads perfection and his ability to intercede.
The persona of Muhammad has historically been and remains an integral and critical aspect of Su belief and
practice.[69] Bayazid Bastami is recorded to have been so
devoted to the sunnah of Muhammad that he refused to
eat a watermelon due to the fact that he could not establish
that Muhammad ever ate one.[75]
In the 13th century, a Su poet from Egypt, Al-Busiri,
wrote the al-Kawkib ad-Durrya f Mad Khayr alBarya (The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of
Creation) commonly referred to as Qadat al-Burda
(Poem of the Mantle), in which he extensively praised
Muhammad.[76] This poem is still widely recited and sung
amongst Su groups all over the world.[76]

The name of Muhammad in Arabic calligraphy. Sus believe the

name of Muhammad is holy and sacred.

4.2.1 Su beliefs about Muhammad

According to Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad.[6] Ibn Arabi regards that the rst
entity that was brought into existence is the reality or
essence of Muhammad (al-aqqa al-Muhammadiyya).
Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the supreme human being and master of all creatures. Muhammad is therefore the primary role-model for human beings to aspire
to emulate.[6] Ibn Arabi believes that Gods attributes and
names are manifested in this world and that the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and
names are seen in Muhammad.[6] Ibn Arabi believes that
one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad, meaning
that the divine attributes of God are manifested through
Muhammad.[6] Ibn Arabi maintains that Muhammad is
the best proof of God and by knowing Muhammad one
knows God.[6] Ibn Arabi also maintains that Muhammad
is the master of all of humanity in both this world and the
afterlife. In this view, Islam is the best religion, because
Muhammad is Islam.[6]
Sus maintain that the Prophet Muhammad is Al-Insn
al-Kmil. Sus believe that aid and support may be received from Prophet Muhammad, even today. Sus believe that the Prophet Muhammad listens to them when
they call upon him. Sus strive towards having a relationship with Prophet Muhammad and seeking to see Prophet
Muhammad in a dream is a common Su practice.

4.3 Susm and Islamic law

Sus believe the sharia (exoteric canon), tariqa
(esoteric order) and haqiqa (truth) are mutually
interdependent.[77] Susm leads the adept, called salik

4.5

Traditional and Neo-Su groups

7
Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the Sharia and discussed Susm as a method
of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation
directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Susm is complex and a
range of scholarly opinion on Susm in Islam has been
the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped
its propagation while other scholars opposed it. William
Chittick explains the position of Susm and Sus this
way:

Tomb of Salim Chishti, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Uttar Pradesh,

India

or wayfarer, in his sulk or road through dierent

stations (maqaam) until he reaches his goal, the perfect
tawhid, the existential confession that God is One.[78] Ibn
Arabi says, When we see someone in this Community
who claims to be able to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Laweven if he manifests miracles that stagger the mindasserting that his
shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we do not
even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh,
nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with 4.5
the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved. (Jami karamat
al-awliya )".[79]

In short, Muslim scholars who focused

their energies on understanding the normative
guidelines for the body came to be known as
jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided
into three main schools of thought: theology,
philosophy, and Susm. This leaves us with
the third domain of human existence, the spirit.
Most Muslims who devoted their major eorts
to developing the spiritual dimensions of the
human person came to be known as Sus.[18]

Traditional and Neo-Su groups

The Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200

leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in Amman, and adopted
by the Islamic worlds political and temporal leaderships
at the Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit
at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006,
specically recognized the validity of Susm as a part of
Islamhowever the denition of Susm can vary drastically between dierent traditions (what may be intended
is simple tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations
of Susm around the Islamic world).[80]

4.4

Traditional Islamic thought and Susm

The literature of Susm emphasizes highly subjective

matters that resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Su treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Su poetry refers to
intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage
of indirect language and the existence of interpretations
by people who had no training in Islam or Susm led to
doubts being cast over the validity of Susm as a part of

The mausoleum (gongbei) of Ma Laichi in Linxia City, China

The traditional Su orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Susm as a spiritual discipline within
Islam. Therefore, the Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and

5 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

the Sunnah are seen as crucial for any Su aspirant. One

proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous
Su masters of the past Caliphates were experts in Sharia
and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and
excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law
judges) in courts. They held that Susm was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice
Susm one must be an observant Muslim.
Neo-Susm, pseudo-Susm, and universal Susm
are terms used to denote forms of Susm that do not require adherence to Shariah, or the Muslim faith.[81][82]
The terms are not always accepted by those it is applied to. For example, the Afghan-Scottish teacher Idries
Shah has been described as a neo-Su by the Gurdjiefan James Moore.[83] The Su Order in the West was
founded by Inayat Khan, teaching the essential unity of
all faiths, and accepting members of all creeds. Susm
Reoriented is an oshoot of it charted by the syncretistic
teacher Meher Baba. The Golden Su Center exists
in England, Switzerland and the United States. It was
founded by Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work
of his teacher Irina Tweedie, herself a practitioner of both
Hinduism and neo-Susm. Other Western Su organisations include the Su Foundation of America and the
International Association of Susm.
Western Neo-Su practices may dier from traditional
forms, for instance having mixed-gender meetings and
less emphasis on the Qur'an.
The works of Al-Ghazali rmly defended the concepts of Susm
within the Islamic faith.

Theoretical perspectives

Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major

branches within the practice of Susm, and use this as one
key to dierentiating among the approaches of dierent
masters and devotional lineages.[84]

Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to

the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this
wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of
the Su way.[87]

On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the
Signier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch,
the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every cor- 5.1 Contributions to other domains of
rupting inuence that stands in the way of recognizing
scholarship
all of creation as the work of God, as Gods active Selfdisclosure or theophany.[85] This is the way of Imam AlSusm has contributed signicantly to the elaboration
Ghazali and of the majority of the Su orders.
of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellecOn the other hand, there is the order from the Signi- tual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of subtle cener to His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this ters or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-ebranch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual
and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its end- intuition.[88] In general, these subtle centers or lat'if are
point, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence to- thought of as faculties that are to be puried sequentially
wards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does in order to bring the seekers wayfaring to completion.
not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other A concise and useful summary of this system from a
branch; it simply stems from a dierent point of entry living exponent of this tradition has been published by
into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of Muhammad Emin Er.[84]
the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.[86]
Su psychology has inuenced many areas of thinking
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon
branch, attributed to the late Ottoman scholar Said Nursi three concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia
and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Su

6.1

Dhikr

transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings

are dominated by a lower self called the nafs (soul), a
faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalb (heart), and
ruh (spirit). These interact in various ways, producing the
spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual
heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by
the ruh).[89]

9
obligatory for him. My servant never ceases
drawing near to Me through supererogatory
works until I love him. Then, when I love him,
I am his hearing through which he hears, his
sight through which he sees, his hand through
which he grasps, and his foot through which he
walks.

It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed

(Aqidah),[92] and to embrace with certainty its tenets.[93]
The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins,
love of this world, the love of company and renown,
obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the
lower self. (The way in which this purication of the heart
is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be preSu cosmology and Su metaphysics are also noteworthy scribed in detail by a Su master.) The seeker must also
areas of intellectual accomplishment.
be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds
which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming
the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long
hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to
6 Devotional practices
mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and
now).
Of note with regard to the spread of Su psychology in
the West is Robert Frager, a Su teacher authorized in the
Khalwati Jerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist,
born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the
course of his practice of Susm and wrote extensively on
Susm and psychology.[90]

Su practices, while attractive to some, are not a means

for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Susm
hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is
not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of techniques is not the cause, but
instead the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if
at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by
a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker
is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all
habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam AlGhazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[94]
Su gathering engaged in Dhikr

Magic may have also been a part of some Su practices,

notably in India.[95] The practice of magic intensied during the declining years of Susm in India when the Su
orders grew steadily in wealth and in political inuence
while their spirituality gradually declined and they concentrated on saint veneration, miracle working, magic
and superstition.

The devotional practices of Sus vary widely. This is

because an acknowledged and authorized master of the
Su path is in eect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seekers impediments to knowledge and pure
intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker
a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies.
The consensus among Su scholars is that the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to 6.1 Dhikr
undertake any of these practices alone and without formal
Main article: Dhikr
authorization.[91]
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Qur'an for all Muslims through a specic devotional act,
Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its ve prescribed times such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and
each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Addi- aphorisms from hadith literature and the Qur'an. More
tionally, the seeker ought to be rmly grounded in su- generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of
pererogatory practices known from the life of Muham- meaning.[96] This includes dhikr as any activity in which
mad (such as the sunna prayers). This is in accordance the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To engage in
with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a fa- dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence
mous Hadith Qudsi:
and love, or to seek a state of godwariness. The Qur'an
refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of dhikr
My servant draws near to Me through nothof Allah (65:1011). Some types of dhikr are prescribed
ing I love more than that which I have made
for all Muslims and do not require Su initiation or the

10

6 DEVOTIONAL PRACTICES

6.2 Muraqaba
Main article: Muraqaba
The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices
of meditation attested in many faith communities.[101]
The word muraqaba is derived from the same root (rq-b) occurring as one of the 99 Names of God in the
Qur'an, al-Raqb, meaning the Vigilant and attested in
verse 4:1 of the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a person
watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires
knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine
Presence, which is ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the practice
within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:

The name of Allah as written on the disciples heart, according

to the Sarwari Qadri Order

He is to collect all of his bodily senses in

concentration, and to cut himself o from all
preoccupation and notions that inict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to
turn his full consciousness towards God Most
High while saying three times: "Ilah anta
maqsd wa-ridka matlbmy God, you are
my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I
seek. Then he brings to his heart the Name
of the EssenceAllhand as it courses
through his heart he remains attentive to its
meaning, which is Essence without likeness.
The seeker remains aware that He is Present,
Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God
bless him and grant him peace): Worship God
as though you see Him, for if you do not see
Him, He sees you. And likewise the prophetic
tradition: The most favored level of faith is to
know that God is witness over you, wherever
you may be.[102]

6.3 Su whirling
prescription of a Su master because they are deemed to
be good for every seeker under every circumstance.[97]
The Dhikr may slightly vary among each order. Some
Su orders[98] engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or
sema. Sema includes various forms of worship such
as: recitation, singing (the most well known being the
Qawwali music of the Indian subcontinent), instrumental
music, dance (most famously the Su whirling of
the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and
trance.[99]
Some Su orders stress and place extensive reliance upon
Dhikr. This practice of Dhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb (invocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea
in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been
written on the disciples heart.[100]

Main article: Su whirling

Su whirling (or Su spinning) is a form of Sama or
physically active meditation which originated among Sus, and which is still practised by the Su Dervishes of
the Mevlevi order. It is a customary dance performed
within the sema, through which dervishes (also called semazens, from Persian )aim to reach the source of
all perfection, or kemal. This is sought through abandoning ones nafs, egos or personal desires, by listening to
the music, focusing on God, and spinning ones body in
repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in the Solar System orbiting the sun.[103]
As explained by Sus:[104]
In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, the
semazens camels hair hat (sikke) represents

11
Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi
Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid
(which is usually televised on Moroccan National television). The purpose of such visitations is usually two-fold,
rst and foremost the aim is to receive spiritual guidance
and blessings from the Saint who rests in the shrine, which
helps the Seeker in his or her own path towards enlightenment. Secondly, the Saint is also approached for intercession in prayers, be it in worldly matters or religious.

7 Persecution
See also: SuSala relations

Whirling Dervishes, at Rumi Fest 2007

the tombstone of the ego; his wide, white skirt

(tennure) represents the egos shroud. By removing his black cloak (hrka), he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of
the Sema, by holding his arms crosswise, the
semazen appears to represent the number one,
thus testifying to Gods unity. While whirling,
his arms are open: his right arm is directed to
the sky, ready to receive Gods benecence; his
left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is
turned toward the earth. The semazen conveys
Gods spiritual gift to those who are witnessing
the Sema. Revolving from right to left around
the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity
with love. The human being has been created
with love in order to love. Mevlna Jalluddn
Rumi says, All loves are a bridge to Divine
love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it
do not know!"

Persecution of Sus and Susm has included destruction

of Su shrines and mosques, suppression of orders, and
discrimination against adherents in a number of Muslim
countries. The Turkish Republican state banned all Su
orders and abolished their institutions in 1925 after Sus
opposed the new secular order. The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sus, reportedly for their lack
of support for the government doctrine of "governance
of the jurist" (i.e., that the supreme Shiite jurist should be
the nations political leader). In most other Muslim countries, attacks on Sus and especially their shrines have
come from adherents of puritanical schools of thought
who believe that practices such as celebration of the birthdays of Su saints, and dhikr (remembrance of God)
ceremonies are bidah or impure innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk).[105][106][107]

7.1 History

In the Safavid dynasty of Iran, both the wandering

dervishes of 'low' Susm and the philosopher-ulama
of 'high' Susm came under relentless pressure from
powerful cleric Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699).
Majlisi"one of the most powerful and inuential
Twelver Shii ulama of all timewas famous for
(among other things), suppression of Susm, which he
and his followers believed paid insucient attention to
6.4 Visitation
Shariah law. Prior to Majlisis rise, Shiism and Susm
[108]
In popular Susm (i.e., devotional practices that have had been closely linked.
achieved currency in world cultures through Su inu- In 1843, the Senussi Su were forced to ee Mecca and
ence), one common practice is to visit or make pilgrim- Medina and head to Sudan and Libya.[10][109]
ages to the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righAccording to a 2005 article in The Guardian:
teous people. This is a particularly common practice
in South Asia, where famous tombs include those of
Afq Khoja, near Kashgar, in China; Lal Shahbaz QaBefore the rst world war there were allander, in Sindh, Ali Hajwari in Lahore Bawaldin Zikrya
most 100,000 disciples of the Mevlevi orin Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India;
der throughout the Ottoman empire. But in
Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah Jalal in
1925, as part of his desire to create a modSylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a popern, western-orientated, secular state, Atatrk
ular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia
banned all the dierent Su orders and closed

12

7 PERSECUTION

Tomb of Syed Abdul Rahim Shah Bukhari, constructed by

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb

laboration and Learning (CIRCLe, a think-tank based in

Rawalpindi).[113] At least as of 2010, the attacks have increased each year. Pro-Susm Barelvis dominate Pakistans religious landscape, and are victims of the antiAli Dede the Bosnians book Three Hundred Sixty Su Questions
Su campaigns of the Deobandi according to author John
R. Schmidt.[114][115] Deobandi and Barelvi are the two
major sub-sects of Sunni Muslims in South Asia that
their tekkes. Pious foundations were sushave clashedsometimes violentlysince the late 1970s
pended and their endowments expropriated;
in Pakistan.[116] It is not clear whether Sus are being perSu hospices were closed and their contents
secuted by Barelvi or Deobandi state banned militant orseized; all religious titles were abolished and
ganizations, since both groups have been accused of antidervish clothes outlawed. [...] In 1937,
Shia terrorism.[113][117][118]
Atatrk went even further, prohibiting by law
any form of traditional music, especially the
In 2005, militant organizations began attacking symplaying of the ney, the Sus reed ute.[110][111]
bols of the Barelvi community such as mosques, prominent religious leaders, and shrines.[113]

7.2

Current attacks

Timeline

In recent years, shrines, and sometimes mosques, have

been damaged or destroyed in many parts of the Mus- 2005
lim world. Some Su adherents have been killed as well.
Ali Gomaa, a Su scholar and Grand Mufti of al-Azhar
19 March: a suicide bomber kills at least 35 people
University, has criticized the destruction of shrines and
and injured many more at the shrine of Pir Rakhel
public property as unacceptable.[112]
Shah in remote village of Fatehpur located in Jhal
Magsi District of Balochistan. The dead included
Shia and Sunni devotees.[119]
7.2.1 Pakistan
27 May: As many as 20 people are killed and 100
Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and
injured when a suicide-bomber attacks a gathering
560 injured in 29 dierent terrorist attacks targeting
at Bari Imam Shrine during the annual festival. The
shrines devoted to Su saints in Pakistan, according to
dead were mainly Shia.[120] According to the podata compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Collice members of Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP) and

7.2

Current attacks
Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LJ) were involved.[121] Sipah-eSahaba Pakistan (SSP), were arrested from Thanda
Pani and police seized two hand grenades from their
custody.[122][123]

2006
11 April: A suicide-bomber attacked a celebration of the birthday of Muhammad (Mawlid) in
Karachis Nishtar Park organised by the Barelvi
Jamaat Ahle Sunnat. 57 died including almost the
entire leadership of the Sunni Tehrik; over 100 were
injured.[124] Three people associated with Lashkare-Jhangvi were put on trial for the bombing.[125]
(see: Nishtar Park bombing)
2007

13
8 March: Attack on shrine of famous Su poet
Rahman Baba(16531711) in Peshawar. The high
intensity device almost destroyed the grave of the
Rehman Baba and the gates of a mosque, canteen
and conference hall situated in the spacious Rehman
Baba Complex. Police said the bombers had tied
explosives around the pillars of the tombs, to pull
down the mausoleum.[131]
May 8:
shrine
destroyed.[126][132]

of

Shaykh

Omar

Baba

12 June: Mufti Sarfraz Ahmed Naeemi killed by

suicide bomber in Lahore. A leading Sunni Islamic cleric in Pakistan he was well known for his
moderate views and for publicly denouncing the
Talibans beheadings and suicide bombings as unIslamic.[133]

18 December: The shrine of Abdul Shakoor Malang

2010
Baba is demolished by explosives.[126]
2008
March 3: ten villagers killed in a rocket attack on the
400-year-old shrine of Abu Saeed Baba. Lashkar-eIslam takes credit.[126]
2009
17 February: Agha Jee shot and killed in Peshwar,
the fourth faith healer killed over several months in
Pakistan. Earlier Pir Samiullah was killed in Swat
by the Taliban 16 December 2008. His dead body
was later exhumed and desecrated. Pir Raullah was
kidnapped from Nowshera and his beheaded body
was found in Matani area of Peshawar. Pir Juma
Khan was kidnapped from Dir Lower and his beheaded body was found near Swat.[127] Faith healing
is associated with Su Islam in Pakistan and suppressing it has been a cause of extremist Muslims
there.[128]
Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs,
a term that applies to the descendants of Su
Muslim saints. Under Susm, those descendants are thought to serve as conduits to God.
The popularity of pirs as a viable healthcare
alternative stems from the fact that, in much
of rural Pakistan, clinics don't exist or are dismissed as unreliable. For the urban wealthy,
belief in a pirs powers is either something
passed down through the generations, or a
remedy of last resort, a kind of Pakistani
laetrile.[129]

22 June: Taliban militants blow up the Mian

Umar Baba shrine in Peshawar. No fatalities
reported.[126][134]
1 July: Multiple bombings of Data Durbar Complex Su shrine, in Lahore, Punjab. Two suicide
bombers blew themselves up killing at least 50 people and injuring 200 others.[126]
7 October: 10 people killed, 50 injured in a double suicide bombing attack on Abdullah Shah Ghazi
shrine in Karachi[135]
7 October: The tomb of Baba Fariddudin Ganj
Shakkar in Pakpattan is attacked. Six people were
killed and 15 others injured.[126]
25 October: 6 killed, and at least 12 wounded in
an attack on the shrine of 12th-century saint, Baba
Farid Ganj Shakar in Pakpattan.[136]
14 December: Attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Peshawar, 3 killed.[137]
2011
3 February: Remote-controlled device is triggered
as food is being distributed among the devotees outside the Baba Haider Saieen shrine in Lahore, Punjab. At least three people were killed and 27 others
injured.[126]
3 April: Twin suicide attack leaves 42 dead and almost a hundred injured during the annual Urs festival at shrine of 13th century Su saint Sakhi Sarwar
(a.k.a. Ahmed Sultan) in the Dera Ghazi Khan district of Punjab province. Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan
(TTP) claims responsibility for the attack.[126][138]

March 5: The shrine of Rahman Baba, the most

famous Su Pashto language poet, razed to the
ground by Taliban militants partly because local
2012
women had been visiting the shrine.[126][130]

14

7 PERSECUTION

21 June: Bomb kills three people and injures 31

others at the Pinza Piran shrine in Hazarkhwani in
Peshawar. A police ocial said the bomb was
planted in a donkey-cart that went o in the afternoon when a large number of people were visiting
the popular shrine.[139]

and Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Sala Islamists have destroyed musical instruments and driven musicians (music
is not Haraam under Sala Islam) into economic exile
away from Mali.[147]
International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou
Bensouda described the Islamists actions as a war
crime.[148][149]

2016
12 November: Bomb kills 52 and injures over a hundred at Shah Noorani, Balochistan[140]
7.2.2

Kashmir Valley

During the rule of Chaks and Shahmiris, the Sus were

given superior positions by the rulers and it was during
those times that six orders of Susm existed which were
Qadiria, Sahurwardia, Kibrawiya, Naqashbandia, Noorbakhshia and Rishia, The rst ve had arrived from Iran
and Turkistan and the sixth one was from Kashmir which
had all elements present in it due to dierent religious orders which included Shaivinism, and Hinduism and which
ultimately culminated into Islamic Susm due to the inspiration of Sus who had arrived here to spread Islam.
Some six places of worship have been either completely
or partially burnt in mysterious res in several months
leading up to November 2012.[141] The most prominent
victim of damage was the Dastageer Sahib Su shrine
in Srinagar which burned in June 2012, injuring 20.[142]
While investigators have so far found no sign of arson,
the journalist Amir Rana alleges that the res have occurred within the context of a surging Sala movement
which, according to Rana, preaches that Kashmiri tradition of venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside
the pale of Islam.[141]
7.2.3

Somalia

A manuscript from Timbuktu

belonging to Al-Mukhtar ibn Amad ibn Abi Bakr
al-Kunti al-Kabir

A manuscript from Timbuktu

belonging to Baba ibn Ahmad al-Alawi al-Maliki
al-Maghribi al-Shingiti

7.2.5 Egypt
A May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious endowments) of centuries old Su dhikr gatherings (devoted to the remembrance of God, and including dancing and religious songs) has been described as a another victory for extreme Sala thinking at the expense
of Egypts moderate Susm. Clashes followed at Cairo's
Al-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques between members of Su orders and security forces who
forced them to evacuate the two shrines.[105] In 2009, the
moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab, Muhammads granddaughter, was banned ostensibly over concern over the spread
of swine u[150] but also at the urging of Salas.[105]

Under the Al-Shabab rule in Somali, Su ceremonies

were banned[143] and shrines destroyed.[144] As the power
of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Su ceremonies are
said to have re-emerged.[145] Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a
Su militants, backed by Ethiopia and the federal government, control parts of central Somalia and some cities
According to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Su Orders,
in the southern regions of Gedo and Bakool.
approximately 14 shrines have been violated in Egypt
since the January 2011 revolution. According to Sheikh
7.2.4 Mali
Tarek El-Rifai, head of the Rifai Su Order, a number of
Salas have prevented Su prayers in Al-Haram. Sheikh
In the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called the Rifai said that the orders lawyer has led a report at the
city of 333 saints, UNESCO reports that as many as Al-Haram police station to that eect. In early April
half of the citys shrines have been destroyed in a dis- 2011, a Su march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein
play of fanaticism, as of July 2012. A spokesman for Mosque was followed by a massive protest before AlAnsar Dine has stated that the destruction is a divine or- Hussein Mosque, expressing outrage at the destruction
der, and that the group had plans to destroy every single of Su shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt,
Su shrine in the city, without exception.[146] In Gao led by Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has

7.2

Current attacks

15

also renounced the attacks on the shrines.[107] Accord- 7.2.9 Iran

ing to the Muslim Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com,
in 2011 a memorandum was submitted to the Armed Matthijs van den Bos discusses the status of Susm in
Iran in the 19th and 20th century.[159] According to Seyed
Forces citing 20 encroachments on Su shrines.[112]
Mostafa Azmayesh, an expert on Susm and the representative of the Ni'matullh order outside Iran, a campaign against the Sus in Iran (or at least Shia Sus)
7.2.6 Libya
began in 2005. Several books were published arguing
that because Sus follow their own spiritual leaders they
In the aftermath of the 2011 Libyan Civil War, several do not believe in the Islamic states theocratic principle
Su religious sites in Libya were deliberately destroyed of the governance of the jurist and should therefore be
or damaged.[151] In the weeks leading up to September treated as second-class citizens, not allowed to have gov2012, armed groups motivated by their religious views ernment jobs, or be red if they do.[160] Since then the
attacked Su religious sites across the country, destroy- Ni'matullh orderIrans largest Su orderhas come
ing several mosques and tombs of Su religious leaders under increasing state pressure. Three of its khanqahs
and scholars.[152] Perpetrators were described as groups have been demolished. Ocials accused it of not having
that have a strict Islamic ideology where they believe that building permits and of narcotics possessioncharges
graves and shrines must be desecrated. Libyan Interior which the Sus reject.[160]
Minister Fawzi Abdel A'al, was quoted as saying, If all The government of Iran is considering an outright ban
shrines in Libya are destroyed so we can avoid the death on Susm, according to the 2009 Annual Report of
of one person [in clashes with security forces], then that the United States Commission on International Religious
is a price we are ready to pay.[152]
Freedom.[161] It also reports:
In September 2012, three people were killed in clashes
between residents of Rajma, 50 kilometres (31 mi)
southeast of Benghazi, and Salast Islamists trying
to destroy a Su shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-La
mausoleum.[153] In August 2012 the United Nations cultural agency UNESCO urged Libyan authorities to protect Su mosques and shrines from attacks by Islamic
hardliners who consider the traditional mystical school
of Islam heretical. The attacked have wrecked mosques
in at least three cities and desecrated many graves of
revered Su scholars.[154]

7.2.7

Tunisia

In an article on the rise of Salasm in Tunisia, the media site Al-Monitor reported that 39 Su shrines were
destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011 revolution to January 2013.[155]

7.2.8

Russia, Dagestan

Said Atsayevalso known as Sheikh Said Afandi alChirkavia prominent 74-year-old Su Muslim spiritual
leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed by a suicide bombing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers. His
murder follows similar religiously motivated killings in
Dagestan and regions of ex-Soviet Central Asia, targeting religious leadersnot necessarily Suwho disapprove of violent jihad. Afandi had survived previous
attempts on his life and was reportedly in the process
of negotiating a peace agreement between the Sus and
Salas.[156][157][158]

In February 2009, at least 40 Sus in

Isfahan were arrested after protesting the destruction of a Su place of worship; all were
released within days.
In January, Jamshid Lak, a Gonabadi
Dervish from the Nematollahi Su order was
ogged 74 times after being convicted in 2006
of slander following his public allegation of illtreatment by a Ministry of Intelligence ocial.
In late December 2008, after the closure
of a Su place of worship, authorities arrested
without charge at least six members of the
Gonabadi Dervishes on Kish Island and conscated their books and computer equipment;
their status is unknown.
In November 2008, Amir Ali Mohammad
Labaf was sentenced to a ve-year prison term,
74 lashes, and internal exile to the southeastern
town of Babak for spreading lies, based on his
membership in the Nematollahi Gonabadi Su
order.
In October, at least seven Su Muslims in
Isfahan, and ve others in Karaj, were arrested
because of their aliation with the Nematollahi Gonabadi Su order; they remain in detention.
In November 2007, clashes in the western city of Borujerd between security forces
and followers of a mystic Su order resulted
in dozens of injuries and the arrests of approximately 180 Su Muslims. The clashes occurred after authorities began bulldozing a Su
monastery. It is unclear how many remain in
detention or if any charges have been brought
against those arrested. During the past year,

16

PROMINENT SUFIS

there were numerous reports of Shi'a clerics

and prayer leaders, particularly in Qom, denouncing Susm and the activities of Su Muslims in the country in both sermons and public
statements.[161]
In 2009 the mausoleum of the 19th century Su poet
Nasir Ali and an adjoining Su prayer house were
bulldozed.[162]
Not all Sus in Iran have been subject to government
pressure. Sunni dervish orderssuch as the Qhaderi
dervishesin the Sunni-populated parts of the country
are thought by some to be seen as allies of the government against Al-Qaeda.[160]

8
8.1

Prominent Sus
Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili

A manuscript of Su Islamic theology, Shams al-Ma'arif (The

Book of the Sun of Gnosis), was written by the Algerian Su master Ahmad al-Buni during the 12th century.

Geometric tiling on the underside of the dome of Haz Shirazis

tomb in Shiraz

of his birth. There, he pursued the study of Hanbali law.

Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi gave Gilani lessons in
qh. He was given lessons about Hadith by Abu Bakr
ibn Muzaar. He was given lessons about Tafsir by
Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. His Su spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim
al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left
Baghdad. He spent twenty-ve years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He
joined the teaching sta of the school belonging to his
own teacher, Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, and was
popular with students. In the morning he taught hadith
and tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the
science of the heart and the virtues of the Qur'an.

Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (died 1258), the founder of the

Shadhiliyya order, introduced dhikr jahri (the remembrance of God outloud, as opposed to the silent dhikr).
He taught that his followers need not abstain from what
Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God
has bestowed upon them,[163] in contrast to the majority
of Sus, who preach to deny oneself and to destroy the
ego-self (nafs) and its worldly desires. These two ways are
sometimes referred to as Order of Patience (TariqusSabr), as opposed to the Order of Gratitude (TariqushShukr). Imam Shadhili also gave eighteen valuable hizbs
(litanies) to his followers out of which the notable Hizb
8.3
al-Bahr[164] is recited worldwide even today.

Ahmad al-Tijani

Ahmad al-Tijani Abu al-Abbs Ahmad ibn Muhammad at-Tijn or Ahmed Tijani (17351815), in Arabic ( Sidi Ahmed Tijani), is the
Abdul-Qadir Gilani (10771166) was a Persian Hanbali founder of the Tijaniyya Su order. He was born in
jurist and Su based in Baghdad. Qadiriyya was his a Berber family,[165][166][167] in An Madhi, present-day
patronym. Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, the town Algeria and died in Fez, Morocco at the age of 80.

8.2

Abdul-Qadir Gilani

8.8

8.4

Ahmed Ullah Maizbhandari

17

Bayazid Bastami

Bayazid Bastami is a very well recognized and inuential Su personality. Bastami was born in 804 in Bastam.
Bayazid is regarded for his devout commitment to the
Sunnah and his dedication to fundamental Islamic principals and practices.

8.5

Ibn Arabi

Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al'Arabi) AH 561- AH 638 (July 28, 1165 November
10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most important Su masters, although he never founded any order
(tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya
and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the
Su orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine
Unity), though because of their recondite nature they
were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he
expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy
is that 'you should never ever abandon your servant-hood
(ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a
longing for any existing thing'.[168]

8.6

Junayd of Baghdad

Junayd of Baghdad (830910) was one of the great

early Sus. His order was Junaidia, which links to the
golden chain of many Su orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of Godintoxicated Sus like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and
Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al-Hallaj, his
former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his
fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to
the outward appearance and God knows better. He is
referred to by Sus as Sayyid-ut Taifai.e., the leader of
the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.

8.7

Moinuddin Chishti

Moinuddin Chishti was born in 1141 and died in 1236.

Also known as Gharb Nawz Benefactor of the Poor,
he is the most famous Su saint of the Chishti Order.
Moinuddin Chishti introduced and established the order
in the subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin
Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya
(each successive person being the disciple of the previous
one), constitutes the great Su saints of Indian history.
Moinuddin Chisht turned towards India, reputedly after
a dream in which Muhammad blessed him to do so. After

A Mughal-era Su prayer book from the Chishti order

a brief stay at Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan Shahb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori, and settled down
there. In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of
the city. Moinuddin Chisht practiced the Su Sulh-e-Kul
(peace to all) concept to promote understanding between
Muslims and non-Muslims

8.8 Ahmed Ullah Maizbhandari

Ahmed Ullah Maizbhanderi was born on January 15,
1826, corresponding to Magh 1, 1233 of the Bengali calendar year. Su scholar Mohiuddin Ibn Arabi was said
to have predicted the birth of Ahamed Ullah Maizbhanderi, 586 years earlier. The Tarika-e-Maizbhandari is an
order established in the Bangladesh in the 19th century
by the Gausul Azam Hazrat Shah Su Syed Ahmadullah
Maizbhandari (1826 AD 1906 AD), 27th descendent
of Muhammad. The Maizbhandari Tariqa or Maizbhandari Su Order is based on seven methods to follow which
make a man in perfect one with moral control and self
purication. They are divided into two parts like Destruction of human instincts (Fana-E Salasa) and Death
of Aptitude (Mout-E Arba).

8.9 Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya

Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya (died 801) was a autist, mystic, and
pilgrim who represents the distinctly countercultural elements of Susm, especially with regards to the status and
power of women. Prominent Su leader Hasan of Basra
is said to have castigated himself before her superior merits and sincere virtues.[169] Rabi'a was born either a slave
or a servant of very poor origin, released by her master
when he awoke one night to see the light of sanctity shining above her head.[170] Rabi'a al-Adawiyya is known for
her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of the love
of God to a holy life.[171] Running down the streets of
Basra, Iraq, she proclaimed:

18

9
O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell,
burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope
of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if
I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me
not Your everlasting Beauty.
Rabi'a al-Adawiyya

SUFI ORDERS

(singular murd), meaning desirous, viz. desiring the

knowledge of knowing God and loving God.[173]

9.1 Bektashi
Main article: Bektashi

She died in Jerusalem and is thought to have been buried The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by
in the Chapel of the Ascension.
the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly inuenced
during its fomulative period by the Huru Ali al-'Ala in
the 15th century and reorganized by Balm Sultan in the
8.10 Mansur Al-Hallaj
16th century.
Mansur Al-Hallaj (died 922) is renowned for his claim,
Ana-l-Haqq (I am The Truth). His refusal to recant
this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a
long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad
prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered
on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sus for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant.
It is said that during his prayers, he would say O Lord!
You are the guide of those who are passing through the
Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my
heresy.[172]

Su orders

Main article: Tariqa

The term Tariqa is used for a school or order of Su-

9.2 Chishti
Main article: Chishti Order
The Chishti Order (Persian: )was founded by
(Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami (the Syrian"; died 941) who
brought Susm to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east
of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning
to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the
son of the local Emir (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died
966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmads descendants,
the Chishtiyya as they are also known, ourished as a regional mystical order.

9.3 Kubrawiya
Main article: Kubrawiya
The Kubrawiya order is a Su order ("tariqa") named
after its 13th-century founder Najmuddin Kubra. The
Kubrawiya Su order was founded in the 13th century by
Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in modern Uzbekistan.[174]
The Mongols had captured Bukhara in 1221, they committed genocide and killed nearly the whole population.
Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din Kubra was among those killed by
the Mongols.

9.4 Mawlawiyya
Main article: Mawlawiyyah
Tariqat in the Four Spiritual Stations: The Four Stations,
sharia, tariqa, haqiqa. The fourth station, marifa, which is considered unseen, is actually the center of the haqiqa region. It is
the essence of all four stations.

The Mevlevi Order is better known in the West as the

whirling dervishes.

sm, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking 9.5 Muridiyya
aqqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a murshid (guide)
who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The Main article: Muridiyya
members or followers of a tariqa are known as murdn

9.7

Nimatullahi

19

Mouride is a large Islamic Su order most prominent in spread the Su teachings and the Unity of belief in God
Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy that is present in all religions and spiritual paths as ancity of Touba, Senegal.[175]
nounced by its [www.sufilive.com].

9.6

Naqshbandi

9.6.4 Naqshbandia Mujaddidia Najmiya Riyaziya

Main article: Naqshbandi

Main article: Naqshbandia Mujaddidia Najmiya Riyaziya

The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Su orders

of Islam. Formed in 1380, the order is considered by
some to be a sober order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of
dhikr common in other orders. The word "Naqshbandi"
( )is Persian, taken from the name of the founder
of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some
have said that the translation means related to the imagemaker, some also consider it to mean Pattern Maker
rather than image maker, and interpret Naqshbandi
to mean Reformer of Patterns, and others consider it to
mean Way of the Chain or "Silsilat al-dhahab".

The Naqshbandia Mujaddidia Najmiya Riyaziya [178]

Golden Chain is a lineage spiritual masters of the
Naqshbandi Islamic arqah related to each other going
back to the Prophet Muhammad. It was founded by Syed
Riyaz Ahmad Naqshbandi in 1933 in Fatehpur, India.

9.7 Nimatullahi
Main article: Nimatullahi

As mentioned below, the conception of Naqshbandi may

require more elaboration and clarity as the explanation to
this eect creating ambiguity and complicity with in it.
The meanings of Naqshbandi is to follow the pattern of
head of the former. In other words, Naqshbandi may
be taken as followup or like a ow chart of practices
exercised by the head of this school of thought.

The Ni'matullh order is the most widespread Su order of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah
Wali (died 1367), established and transformed from his
inheritance of the Ma'ruyyah circle.[179] There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and
inuential in the West following the lineage of Dr. Javad
Nurbakhsh who brought the order to the West following
the 1979 Revolution in Iran.

9.6.1

9.8 Nurbakshi

Khlidyy

Main article: Khlidyy

Khlidyy Su Order is a branch of the Naqshbandiyya
Su Silsilat al-dhahab. It begins from the time of Khalid
al-Baghdadi and continues until the time of Shaykh Ismail
ash-Shirwani
9.6.2

Slaymnyy

Main article: Slaymnyy

Slaymn arqah is an oshoot of Naqshbandi Islamic
arqah founded by Slaymn Hilmi Silistrev in
Turkey.[176] It was estimated that there were more than
two million followers in Turkey in the early 1990s.[177]
They are the most active branch in the private Hfz education in Turkey
9.6.3

Haqqnyy

Main article: Haqqn-Naqshbadyy

Haqqnyy arqah is an oshoot of Naqshbandi Islamic
arqah founded by Shaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi in order to

Main article: Noorbakshia Islam

The Noorbakshia[180] (Arabic: )also called Nubakshia is an Islamic sect and the Su order[181][182] and way
that claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain
(silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali,
by way of Imam Ali Al-Ridha. This order became famous as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nurbakhsh Qahistani who was attached with Kubrawiya order Su order (tariqa).

9.9 Owaisi (Uwaiysi)

Main article: Uwaisi
The Owaisi (Uwaiysi) order claim to be founded 1,400
years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen. Uways received the teachings of Islam inwardly through his heart
and lived by the principles taught by him, although he
had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muhammad would say of him, I feel the breath of the Merciful, coming to me from Yemen. Shortly before Muhammad died, he directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali
(the fourth Caliph) to take his cloak to Uwais. According to Ali Hujwiri, Farid ad-Din Attar of Nishapur and

20

SUFI ORDERS

Sheikh Muhammad Ghader Bagheri, the rst recipient stream philosophy is related directly to the heart and conof Muhammads cloak was Uwais al-Qarni. The 'Original templating on the name of Allah i.e. the word ( AlCloak' as it is known is thought to have passed down the lah, God) as written on own heart.[188]
generations from the prophet Abraham to Muhammad, to
Uwais al-Qarni, and so on.[183]
The Oveyssi order exists today in various forms and in
dierent countries. According to Dr. Alan Godlas of
the University of Georgias Department of Religion, a
Su Order or tariqa known as the Uwaysi is very active,
having been introduced in the West by the 20th century
Su, Shah Maghsoud Angha. The Uwaysi Order is a Shi'i
branch of the Kubrawiya.

9.12 Maizbhandari
Main article: Tarika-e-Maizbhandari

The Maizbhandari Tariqa or Maizbhandari Su Order is

a liberated Susm order established in the Bangladesh in
the 19th century by the Gausul Azam Hazrat Shah Su
In Pakistan several branches of owaisi silsila exist, notably Syed Ahmadullah Maizbhandari (1826 AD 1906 AD),
the Silsila of Shams Ali Qalandar owaisi, qadri, noshahi 27th descendent of Hazrat Ahmad Mustaba Muhammad
with followers present all over the world, articles on ta- Mustafa.
sawuf are given on orders ocial site.[184]
Godlas writes that there are two recent and distinct con9.13
temporary branches of the Uwaysi Order in the West:
Uwaiysi Tarighat, led by Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Anghas
daughter, Seyyedeh Dr. Nahid Angha, and her husband
Shah Nazar Seyed Ali Kianfar. Dr. Angha and Dr. Kianfar went on to found another the International Association
of Susm (IAS) which operates in California and organizes international Su symposia.
There is also an international non-prot organization,
the MTO Shahmaghsoudi led by Hazrat Salaheddin Ali
Nader Angha has over ve-hundred thousand students
with centers spanning ve continents. With the use of
modern technology and reach of the internet, weekly webcasts of the orders lecture and zekr sessions are broadcast live through the orders ocial website.[185]

9.10 Qadiri
Main article: Qadiriyyah
The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Su Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (10771166), a
native of the Iranian province of Gln. The order is one
of the most widespread of the Su orders in the Islamic
world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans
and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have
not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical
experience.

9.11 Sarwari Qadri

Senussi

Main article: Senussi

Senussi is a religious-political Su order established by
Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Muhammad ibn Ali asSenussi founded this movement due to his criticism of
the Egyptian ulema. Originally from Mecca, as-Senussi
left due to pressure from Wahhabis to leave and settled
in Cyrenaica where he was well received.[189] Idris bin
Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was later recognized
as Emir of Cyrenaica[190] and eventually became King
of Libya. The monarchy was abolished by Muammar
Gadda but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi.

9.14 Shadiliyya
Main article: Shadhili
The Shadhili is a Su order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ashShadhili. Murids (followers) of the Shadhiliyya are often
known as Shadhilis.[191][192]

9.15 Suhrawardiyya
Main article: Suhrawardiyya
The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: )is a Su
order founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097
1168). The order was formalized by his nephew, Shahab
al-Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi.

The Sarwari Qadri order[186] was founded by Sultan

Bahu[187] which branched out of the Qadiriyyah order. 9.16 Tijaniyya
Hence, it follows the same approach of the order but unlike most Su orders, it does not follow a specic dress Main article: Tijaniyyah
code, seclusion, or other lengthy exercises. Its main-

21
The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture
and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of
the disciple (murd). [192]

10

Symbols associated with the

Su Orders

The symbolic emblem of

the Naqshbandi Su Order

Safaviyya star from ceiling

of Shah Mosque, Isfahan

A symbol from the Mughal Empire: an amulet comprising magic squares, Quranic
verses (including Al-Baqara 255 (Throne Verse)
(2:255) running around the frame), and invocations
to God, with a depiction of Zulqar at the center

Seal of the Chishti Order

Grave of Ma Yuanzhang, the Su

Grand Master, in China

Symbol of the Mevlevi Order

11 Reception
11.1 Critique
of
Susms
materialistic aspects

anti-

Certain aspects of Su philosophy are controversial and

often debated, chief among them is the anti-materialistic
strain within its ethos. Gamal Marzouq, Professor of
Islamic Philosophy in Ain-Shams University, in his paper titled The eect of Christianity on the rst emer
Allah's essence within a disciples heart, gence of Islamic Susm, has highlighted the monastic
and anti-materialist trends within Susm, calling attenassociated with the Sarwari Qadri Order
tion to their abandoning materialism and living only for
praying, something similar to monasticism.[193]
Conversely, the Quran calls out monasticism as a human invention not prescribed by God in the verse 57:27:
monasticism, which they innovated; We did not prescribe it for them.... Furthermore, there is much emphasis on physical laws of the universe within the Quran,
urging believers to study and understand the signs of

Mirror calligraphy, symboliz- God in the physical world (e.g. verse 2:164), which preing the Su Bektashi Order of the Dervish
cludes the possibility of avoiding or shunning the material
world. Ibrahim B. Syed has called attention to the fact

22

11 RECEPTION

that the only denition of the word alim in the Quran, a

word commonly understood to mean religious leader
today, is actually referring to scientists, indicating the
high importance aorded by the Quran to the material
world and the act of engaging with it, so as to understand
Gods universe.[194] There are also the active aspects of
the Qurans teachings which urge believers to seek to improve the human condition and work to establish the laws
of God within human society (verse 22:41), a mission that
does not t well with the hermetic and monastic tendencies within Susm.

11.2

Perception outside Islam

ings, has favoured Su groups in its battle against Muslim

extremist currents. The inuential RAND Corporation,
an American think-tank, issued a major report titled
Building Moderate Muslim Networks, which urged the
US government to form links with and bolster[200] Muslim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report
stressed the Su role as moderate traditionalists open to
change, and thus as allies against violence.[201][202] News
organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston
Globe have also seen Susm as a means to deal with violent Muslim extremists.[203]
Idries Shah states that Susm is universal in nature, its
roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.[204]
Shahs views have however been rejected by modern
scholars.[36] Such modern trends of neo-Sus in Western
countries allow non-Muslims to receive instructions on
following the Su path, not without opposition by Muslims who consider such instruction outside the sphere of
Islam.[205][206]

11.3 Inuence on Judaism

See also: Jewish philosophy
Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. However,
there is evidence that Susm did inuence the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. A
great inuence was exercised by Susm upon the ethical
A choreographed Su performance on a Friday in Sudan
writings of Jews in the Middle Ages. In the rst writing of
this kind, we see Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'i al-ulub,
Su mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the
Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was
[195]
Western world, and especially its Orientalist scholars.
translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the tiFigures like Rumi have become well known in the United
tle " Ha-lle".[207]
States, where Susm is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam.[195][196] Orientalists have proposed
The precepts prescribed by the Torah numa variety of diverse theories pertaining to the nature of
ber
613
only; those dictated by the intellect are
Susm, such as it being inuenced by Neoplatonism or
innumerable.
as an Aryan historical reaction against "Semitic" cultural
inuence.[23] Hossein Nasr states that the preceding theories are false according to the point of view of Susm.[23] This was precisely the argument used by the Sus against
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which their adversaries, the Ulamas. The arrangement of the
works towards the integration of Europe and Muslims, book seems to have been inspired by Susm. Its ten secsees Susm as particularly suited for interreligious dia- tions correspond to the ten stages through which the Su
logue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and had to pass in order to attain that true and passionate
pluralist societies; it has described Susm as a symbol love of God which is the aim and goal of all ethical selfof tolerance and humanismnondogmatic, exible and discipline. A considerable amount of Su ideas entered
non-violent.[197] According to Philip Jenkins, a Profes- the Jewish mainstream through Bahya ibn Paqudas work,
sor at Baylor University, the Sus are much more than which remains one of the most popular ethical treatises
tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the in Judaism.
greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Muslim nations. Likewise, several governments and organisations have advocated the promotion of Susm as a
means of combating intolerant and violent strains of Islam.[198] For example, the Chinese and Russian[199] governments openly favor Susm as the best means of protecting against Islamist subversion. The British government, especially following the 7 July 2005 London bomb-

It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sus

Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which treat
of the same subjects as those treated in the "ovot haLebabot and which bear the same titles: e.g., Bab alTawakkul"; Bab al-Taubah"; Bab al-Muasabah"; Bab
al-Tawau'"; Bab al-Zuhd. In the ninth gate, Baya
directly quotes sayings of the Sus, whom he calls Perushim. However, the author of the Ha-lle

23
did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the The followers of this path, which they called, interSus, although he showed a marked predilection for their changeably, Hasidism (not to be confused with the [later]
ethical principles.
Jewish Hasidic movement) or Susm (Tasawwuf), pracThe Jewish writer Abraham bar iyya teaches the asceti- ticed spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivacism of the Sus. His distinction with regard to the ob- tion. The Jewish Sus maintained their own brotherhood,
[208]
servance of Jewish law by various classes of men is essen- guided by a religious leaderlike a Su sheikh.
tially a Suc theory. According to it there are four prin- Abraham Maimunis two sons, Obadyah and David, concipal degrees of human perfection or sanctity; namely:
tinued to lead this Jewish-Su brotherhood. Obadyah
Maimonides wrote Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya (The Treatise of the Pool)an ethico-mystical manual based on
1. of Shari'ah, i.e., of strict obedience to
the typically Su comparison of the heart to a pool that
all ritual laws of Islam, such as prayer, fasting,
must be cleansed before it can experience the Divine.
pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is
The Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the
the lowest degree of worship, and is attainable
15th century with the 5th generation of Maimonidean
by all
Sus, David ben Joshua Maimonides, who wrote Al2. of ariqah, which is accessible only to a
Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment),
higher class of men who, while strictly adherwhich includes numerous extracts of Suhrawardi's Kaliing to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of
mat at-Tasawwuf.
religion, rise to an inward perception of mental power and virtue necessary for the nearer
approach to the Divinity
3. of "aikah, the degree attained by those
who, through continuous contemplation and inward devotion, have risen to the true perception of the nature of the visible and invisible;
who, in fact, have recognized the Godhead, and
through this knowledge have succeeded in establishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
4. of the Ma'arifah, in which state man communicates directly with the Deity.

12 In popular culture
12.1 Films

The Jewel of the Nile (1985), the eponymous Jewel

is a Su holy man.
In Hideous Kinky (1998), Julia (Kate Winslet) travels to Morocco to explore Susm and a journey to
self-discovery.

In Monsieur Ibrahim (2003), Omar Sharif's characAbraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewter professes to be a Muslim in the Su tradition.
ish philosopher Maimonides, believed that Su prac Bab'Aziz (2005), a lm by Tunisian director Nacer
tices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblical
Khemir, draws heavily on the Su tradition, containprophets. See Sefer Hammaspiq, Happerishuth, Chaping quotes from Su poets such as Rumi and depictter 11 (Ha-mmaaq) s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth
ing
an ecstatic Su dance.
mua'a zo, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah
13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelbergs
translation, The Way of Serving God (Feldheim), p.
429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 12.2 Music
(Iqquim), s.v. wa-halo yoea atta; in The Way of
Serving God, p. 371. There are other such references
in Rabbi Abrahams writings, as well. He introduced into
the Jewish prayer such practices as reciting Gods names
(dhikr).
Abraham Maimunis principal work is originally composed in Judeo-Arabic and entitled "
"Kitb Kifyah al-'bidn (A Comprehensive
Guide for the Servants of God). From the extant surviving portion it is conjectured that Maimunis treatise was
three times as long as his fathers Guide for the Perplexed.
In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for,
and anity to, Susm. Followers of his path continued to
foster a Jewish-Su form of pietism for at least a century,
and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic
Friday evening ceremony at Dargah Salim Chisti, India
school, which was centered in Egypt.

24

14

GALLERY

Abida Parveen, a Pakistani Su singer is one of the foremost exponents of Su music, together with Nusrat Fateh
Ali Khan are considered the nest Su vocalists of the
modern era. Sanam Marvi another Pakistani singer has
recently gained recognition for her Su vocal performances.
A. R. Rahman, the Oscar-winning Indian musician, has
several compositions which draw inspiration from the
Su genre; examples are the lmi qawwalis Khwaja Mere
Khwaja in the lm Jodhaa Akbar, Arziyan in the lm
Delhi 6 and Kun Faya Kun in the lm Rockstar.
Bengali singer Lalan Fakir and Bangladeshs national poet
Kazi Nazrul Islam scored several Su songs.
Junoon, a band from Pakistan, created the genre of Su
rock by combining elements of modern hard rock and
traditional folk music with Su poetry.
In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Su rock song called
"Bulla Ki Jaana", which became a chart-topper in India
and Pakistan.[209][210]

A 17th-century miniature of Nasreddin, a Seljuk satirical gure,

Madonna, on her 1994 record Bedtime Stories, sings a currently in the Topkap Palace Museum Library
song called "Bedtime Story" that discusses achieving a
high unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows
an ecstatic Su ritual with many dervishes dancing, Araand 1934. Al-Marifa informed among others about Su
bic calligraphy and some other Su elements. In her 1998
moral and wisdom.
song Bittersweet, she recites Rumis poem by the same
name. In her 2001 Drowned World Tour, Madonna sang
the song Secret showing rituals from many religions,
including a Su dance.

13 Modern and contemporary Su

American rock band mewithoutYou draw heavily on all

of the Abrahamic religions in their music, with a heavy
scholars
focus on Susm. Their 2009 album Its All Crazy! Its
All False! Its All a Dream! Its Alright is based on the
Further information: List of modern Su scholars
teaching of Su mystic Bawa Muhaiyaddeen.
Singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt's record The Mask
and Mirror (1994) has a song called The Mystics
Dream that is inuenced by Su music and poetry.
Tori Amos makes a reference to Sus in her song Cruel.

14 Gallery

Mercan Dede is a Turkish composer who incorporates

Susm into his music and performances.
British folk singer Richard Thompson is a long-time Su.

12.3

Literature

The Persian poet Rumi, who was born in present-day

Afghanistan, has become one of the most widely read
poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published by Coleman Barks.[211]
Elif afak's novel The Forty Rules of Love tells the story
of Rumi becoming a disciple of the Persian dervish
Shams Tabrizi. Furthermore, between 1910 and 1911
one of the rst Su journals, called Hikmet, was published
in Istanbul by Ahmad Hilmi of Filibe. Another Suoriented journal was published in Egypt between 1931

Shrine of Sultan Bahu of the

Sarwari Qadiri

The Golden Chain of the

Naqshbandi order

25

Tomb of Khwaja Ghulam

Farid at Mithankot

An illustration of Ibrahima Fall, leader

of the Mouride Order

The Mughal Emperor Jahangir

preferring a Su shaikh to kings

Mazar e Soltani, Bidokht,

Gonabad County. Shrine of four Qutbs (masters)
of the Nimatullahi Su order

Kaygusuz Abdal

Mausoleum of Makhdoom
Shah Daulat (d. 1608). Ibrahim Khan, the Mughal
governor of Bihar, completed his mausoleum in
1616 during the reign of the Mughal Emperor
Jahangir.

The shrine of Shah Arzani

constructed during the reign of the Mughal Emperor
Jahangir

Su mosque in Srinagar,
Kashmir

The Great Mosque of

Touba, home of the Mouride Su order of Senegal

Haqqani Anjuman Faquiri

Huzra Mubarak in Bagmari, Kolkata (State:WB,
County:Ind), established in 1876 by Maulana Su
Mufti Azangachhi Shaheb

Wali tomb, south of Karima,

Sudan

The
Konya, Turkey

Rumi

Museum

in

26

16

REFERENCES

[5] Gamard 2004, p. 171.

[6] Fitzpatrick & Walker 2014, p. 446.
[7] Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham (2004). Classical Islam
and the Naqshbandi Su Tradition. Islamic Supreme
Council of America. p. 557. ISBN 1-930409-23-0.

Pir Dastgir from the Mughal Empire

[8] Schimmel, Annemarie (2014-11-25). Susm | Islam.

Britannica.com. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
[9] A Prayer for Spiritual Elevation and Protection (2007) by
Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi, Suha Taji-Farouki
[10] G. R Hawting (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The
Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN 978-0-203-13700-0.
[11] Sells 1996, p. 1.

Sheykh of the Rufai Su Order

[12] Chittick 2007, p. 22.

[13] Chittick (2008), p.6
[14] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Susms Many Paths,
2000.
[15] Gunon 2001.
[16] Glass 2008, p. 500.

Marabout of West Africa

[17] World Su Mission

[18] Chittick 2007.

15

See also

Etiquettes of Companionship - an English translation of Adab as-Suhbah by Imam ash-Sha'rani

Dala'il al-Khayrat
Index of Susm-related articles
Tawassul
List of Su saints
World Su forum
Al-Marifa (magazine)

[19] Chittick (2008), p.3,4,11

[20] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson.
The Principles of Susm. Amal Press. 2008.
[21] Corrections of Popular Versions of Poems From Rumis Divan
[22] Ibrahim Gamard, Rumi and Self-Discovery
[23] Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1993-01-01). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. ISBN
9780791415153. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
[24] The Naqshbandi Su Tradition Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions, p. 83, Muhammad Hisham Kabbani,
Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, 2004
[25] Susm in Islam. Mac.abc.se. Archived from the original on April 17, 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.

16

References

[1] Qamar-ul Huda (2003), Striving for Divine Union: Spiritual Exercises for Suhraward Sus, RoutledgeCurzon, pp.
14
[2] Editors, The (2014-02-04). tariqa | Islam. Britannica.com. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
[3] Glass 2008, p. 499.
[4] Bin Jamil Zeno, Muhammad (1996). The Pillars of Islam
& Iman. Darussalam. pp. 19. ISBN 978-9960-897-127.

[26] The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies by Clinton

Bennett, p 328
[27] Origin of susm Qadiri. Su Way. 2003. Retrieved
13 August 2012.
[28] Rashid Ahmad Jullundhry, Qur'anic Exegesis in Classical
Literature, pg. 56. New Westminster: The Other Press,
2010. ISBN 9789675062551
[29] Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib - Ali, The Father of Susm Alim.org. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
[30] Taking Initiation (Bay`ah), Naqshbandi Su Way

27

[31] Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the

Naqshbandi Su tradition, Islamic Supreme Council of
America, p. 644
[32] Shaykh Tariq Knecht, Journal of a Su Odyssey, Tauba
Press
[33] IslamOnline.net Archived July 24, 2009, at the Wayback
Machine.
[34] Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p.
104.
[35] Imam Birgivi, The Path of Muhammad, WorldWisdom,
ISBN 0-941532-68-2
[36] Encyclopdia Britannica, Retrieved on August 1st, 2016
[37] Nasr, Hossein (1993). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-15153.

[50] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Ch. 1)
[51] Dina Le Gall, A Culture of Susm: Naqshbandis in the
Ottoman World, 14501700, ISBN 978-0-7914-6245-4.
[52] Arthur F. Buehler, Su Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian
Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Su Shaykh,
ISBN 978-1-57003-783-2.
[53] Victor Danner, The Islamic Tradition: An introduction.
Amity House. February 1988.
[54] Masatoshi Kisaichi, The Burhami order and Islamic
resurgence in modern Egypt. Popular Movements and
Democratization in the Islamic World, pg. 57. Part
of the New Horizons in Islamic Studies series. Ed.
Masatoshi Kisaichi. London: Routledge, 2006. ISBN
9781134150618
[55] Babou 2007, p. 1846.
[56] Mback & Hunwick 2005.

[38] Ridgeon, Lloyd (2010). Morals and Mysticism in Persian

Susm: A History of Su-Futuwwat in Iran. Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-136-97058-0., p. 32

[57] Chodkiewicz 1995, p. introduction.

[39] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by

William McGuckin de Slane. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by Institut
de France and Royal Library of Belgium. Vol. 3, p. 209.

[59] Susm, Sus, and Su Orders: Susms Many Paths.

uga.edu. Retrieved 26 August 2015.

[40] Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Susm: The Formative Period, pg.

58. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
[41] J. Spencer Trimingham, The Su Orders in Islam, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5.
[42] Daftary |Farhad |2013 |A History of Shi'i Islam |New
York NY |I.B. Tauris and Co ltd. |page 28 |ISBN
9780300035315 |4/8/2015
[43] The Jamaat Tableegh and the Deobandis by Sajid Abdul
Kayum, Chapter 1: Overview and Background.
[44] Trimingham (1998), p. 1
[45] The most recent version of the Risla is the translation
of Alexander Knysh, Al-Qushayris Epistle on Susm: Alrisala Al-qushayriyya Fi 'ilm Al-tasawwuf (ISBN 9781859641866). Earlier translations include a partial version by Rabia Terri Harris (Su Book of Spiritual Ascent)
and complete versions by Harris, and Barbara R. Von
Schlegell.
[46] Home. Fons Vitae. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
[47] The Alchemy of Happiness at archive.org
[48] For the pre-modern era, see Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of
the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Susm, ISBN
978-0-292-71209-6; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr,
Su and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali
Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood, ISBN 978-0-8101-12261.
[49] Leonard Lewisohn, The Legacy of Medieval Persian Susm, Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992.

[58] Susm Oxford Islamic Studies Online. oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 26 August 2015.

[60] Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (1993). The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 978-0-94662157-6.
[61] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Su Path, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-1-6
[62] Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons; see also Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Su Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1, which reproduces the spiritual lineage (silsila) of a living Su master.
[63] Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shii Islam:
The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5., page 209
[64] Mohammad Najib-ur-Rehman Madzillah-ul-Aqdus
(2015). Sultan Bahoo: The Life and Teachings. Sultan ul
Faqr Publications. ISBN 978-969-9795-18-3.
[65] See Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Su Path, Shif Publishers, 2008,
ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description of
the practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual retreat.
[66] See examples provided by Muzaar Ozak in Irshad: Wisdom of a Su Master, addressed to a general audience
rather than specically to his own students.
[67] Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and
the Naqshbandi Su Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1
[68] Carl W. Ernst (2010), p. 125

28

16

REFERENCES

[69] Carl W. Ernst, The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad,

Muammad as the Pole of Existence, Cambridge University Press, p. 130

[90] See especially Robert Frager, Heart, Self & Soul: The Su
Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmony, ISBN 9780-8356-0778-0.

[70] Gholamreza Aavani, Glorication of the Prophet Muhammad in the Poems of Sa'adi, p. 4

[91] Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Su Healing, ISBN

978-0-89281-043-7

[71] Gamard 2004, p. 169.

[92] For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as espoused by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf,
The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi, ISBN 978-0-97028439-6, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi, Imam
Abu Hanifas Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, ISBN 978-1933764-03-0.

[72] Ibn Arabi, The Seals of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam), Aisha

Bewley
[73] Fariduddin Attar, Ilahi-nama The Book of God, John
Andrew Boyle (translator), Thou knowest that none of the
poets have sung such praise save only I.
[74] Fariduddin Attar, Ilahi-nama The Book of God, John
Andrew Boyle (translator)
[75] The Signs of a Sincere Lover (PDF), p. 91
[76] Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych, The Mantle Odes: Arabic
Praise Poems to the Prophet Muhammad, Indiana University Press

[93] The meaning of certainty in this context is emphasized in

Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-09815196-0-9.
[94] See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu
Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII
and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences, ISBN
978-0-946621-43-9.

[77] Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-09815196-0-9.

[95] Akbar Ahmed, Diiscovering Islam, Making sense of Muslim History and Society, ISBN 0-415-28525-9(Pbk)

[78] Schimmel 2013, p. 99.

[96] Abdullah Jawadi Amuli, Dhikr and the Wisdom Behind

It

[79] (source: [pp. 778795 of The Reliance of the Traveller,

by Shaykh Nuh Ha Meem Keller])

[97] Hakim Moinuddin Chisti The Book of Su Healing, ISBN

978-0-89281-043-7

[80] The Amman Message Summary. Retrieved on Feb 2,

2010.

[98] The Naqshbandi Way of Dhikr. web.archive.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.

[81] Universal Susm, by Johan Witteveen; see also the

commentary by Ken Shaw

[99] Touma 1996, p.162

[100] What is Remembrance and what is Contemplation?

[82] Elwell-Sutton, L. P. (May 1975). Susm & Pseudo[101] Muraqaba.
Susm. Encounter XLIV (5): 16.
[83] Neo-Susm: The Case of Idries Shah by James Moore. [102] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Su Path, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, p.
gurdjie-legacy.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
77.
[84] Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Su Order, Shif Publishers, 2008, ISBN [103] The Sema of the Mevlevi. Mevlevi Order of America.
Retrieved 2009-03-26.
978-0-9815196-1-6
[104] The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi
[85] For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart
that are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take [105] Sala intolerance threatens Sus |Baher Ibrahim
root, see Hamza Yusuf, Purication of the Heart: Signs,
|guardian.co.uk |10 May 2010
Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart,
[106] Mir, Tariq. Kashmir: From Su to Sala. November 5,
ISBN 978-1-929694-15-0.
2012. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 20
[86] Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the
February 2013.
concept of attraction (jadhba), see especially the Introduction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of [107] Sala Violence against Sus. Islamopedia Online. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-001830-9.
[108] Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shii Islam:
The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiism. Yale Uni[87] Muhammad Emin Er, al-Wasilat al-Fasila, unpublished
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5., pages 115116
MS.
[88] Realities of The Heart Lataif
[89] Schimmel 2013.

[109] Yadav, Rama Sankar (2007). Global Encyclopaedia of

Education (4 Vols. Set). Global Vision Publishing House.
p. 406. ISBN 9788182202276.

29

[110] Dalrymple, William (5 November 2005). What goes

round.... The Guardian. London.

Commercial Capital"]. Terrorism Monitor

April 20, 2012. Jamestown Foundation.
Retrieved 4 March 2013.)

[111] Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Momen, Moojan, Yale Univer[119] Timeline:

Persecution of religious minorities
sity Press, 1985 p.14-16
|DAWN.COM |4 November 2012
[112] Sala destruction of shrines and public property unacceptable. Ikhwanweb. 3 April 2011. Retrieved 24 [120] Pakistani Shiite massacre: Pakistan Bari Imam shrine.
May 27, 2005. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
February 2013.
[113] Sunni Ittehad Council: Sunni Barelvi activism against [121] Azeem, Munawer (14 August 2011). Two involved in
Bari Imam suicide attack arrested. Dawn. Retrieved 4
Deobandi-Wahhabi terrorism in Pakistan by Aarish U.
March 2013.
Khan. lubpak.com. Retrieved May 18, 2016.
[114] Rana, Amir. Where susm stands. 1 August 2010. Ex- [122] Raja, Mudassir (31 July 2011). Bari Imam Shrine attack
2005: Police await suspects on judicial remand in another
press Tribune Blogs. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
case. Express Tribune. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[115] John R. Schmidt states, although most Deobandis are no
more prone to violence than their Christian fundamental- [123] Bari Imam blast: Masterminds belong to LJ linked group
By Shahzad Malik |14 June 2005
ist counterparts in the West, every jihadist group based in
Pakistan save one is Deobandi, as are the Afghan Taliban.
The Unraveling: Pakistan in the Age of Jihad |John R. [124] Three LJ activists indicted in Nishtar Park blast case,
Dawn (newspaper), 2 September 2009
Schmidt |2011
[116] Behuria, Ashok K. (27 February 2008). Sects Within [125] Tanoli, Ishaq (5 February 2012). Six years on, Nishtar
Park carnage trial remains inconclusive. Dawn. ReSect: The Case of DeobandiBarelvi Encounter in Paktrieved 5 March 2013.
istan. Strategic Analysis. Taylor & Francis. 32 (1): 57
80. doi:10.1080/09700160801886330.
[126] [http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_
ttnews{[}tt_news{]}=37826 single | The Jamestown
[117] Chakrabarty, Rakhi (Dec 4, 2011). Sus strike back.
Foundation"]. Jamestown.org. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
The Times of India. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
[118] Researcher Amir Rana (a researcher and editor quarterly
research journal Conict and Peace Studies. What is
young Pakistan thinking?) claims than Deobandi themselves are often Su, as "Naqshbandi, the major Su
cult in Pakistan, is mainly comprised of the Deobandis
(source: Rana, Amir. Where susm stands. 1 August
2010. Express Tribune Blogs. Retrieved 4 March 2013.).
Maulana Qasim Nomani, the Rector of Deobandi seminary Darul Uloom Deoband has denied either that his
school is anti-su or promotes militancy, stating Deoband
scholars like Ashraf Ali Thanwi, and others were Su
saints as well and they had their Khanqahs (Su hospice).
Who said we are against Susm? We very
much follow the Su traditions and all of our
elders were Su practitioners of Su tradition
(source: Ali, Md. Deoband hits back, rejects baseless charge of radicalizing Muslim youth. 19 October 2011. TwoCircles.net. Retrieved 4 March 2013.)
According to the Jamestown Foundation, Deobandi have
also been victims of sectarian strife.
Scores of Deobandi leaders and members
of Ahle Sunnat wal Jamat (ASWJ, formerly
the banned Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan) have
been assassinated in Karachi in recent years.
Police sources say that the Sunni Tehrik,
a Barelvi organization, is behind most of
these assassinations. (source: Jamal, Arif.
[http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_
cache=1&tx_ttnews{[}tt_news{]}=39288
Karachis Deadly Political and Sectarian
Warfare Threatens the Stability of Pakistans

[127] PESHAWAR: Another faith healer shot dead in Peshawar

|By Ali Hazrat Bacha |dawn.com |18 February 2009
[128] Faith Healing and Skepticism in Pakistan: Challenges
and Instability |Ryan Shaer |csicop.org |Volume 36.6,
November/December 2012
[129] Rodriguez, Alex (29 March 2012). In Pakistan, faith
healers have no shortage of believers. Los Angeles Times.
[130] Terrorism Monitor Brief, March 19, 2009
[131] And now Sunni vs Sunni Riaz ul Hassan |circa July 2010
[132] Al-Alawi, Irfan. Urbanised Islam behind Pakistans Su
shrine bombings. 15 March 2011. Lapidomedia. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
[133] Sarfraz Naeemi. lubpak.com. Retrieved May 18, 2016.
[134] Express Tribune, June 22, 2010
[135] Haque, Jahanzaib (October 7, 2010). Twin suicide attacks at Abdullah Shah Ghazi shrine. Express Tribune.
Retrieved 5 March 2013.
[136] Blast at Baba Farids shrine kills six. Express Tribune.
October 26, 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
[137] Extremist Deobandis attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Peshawar. lubpak.com. 14 December 2010. Retrieved
May 18, 2016.
[138] Masood, Salman; Gillani, Waqar (April 3, 2011). Blast
at Pakistan Shrine Kills Dozens. New York Times.
[139] Three killed in Peshawar shrine blast. The News. 22
June 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2013.

30

16

REFERENCES

[140] Attack on Shah Noorani shrine in Pakistan kills dozens. [160] Esfandiari, Golnaz. Wednesday, February 27, 2013 FeaAl Jazeera. 12 November 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
tures Susm Under Attack In Iran. February 27, 2013.
rferl.org. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
[141] Rana, Amir. Kashmir: Su and Wahabbi Islam in Conict. Pulitzer Center. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[161] United States Commission on International Religious
Freedom (May 2009). Annual Report of the United
[142] Ahmad, Mukhtar (June 25, 2012). Fire destroys historic
States Commission on International Religious Freedom:
shrine, triggering anger in Kashmir. CNN. Retrieved 7
Iran (PDF). USG. Retrieved 25 December 2010.
March 2013.
[162] Schwartz, Stephen (30 April 2013). Iran Continues
[143] Libya and Mali: Sala Islamists destroying shrines courCrackdown on Sus. 04/30/2013. Hungton Post. Retesy of Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Modern Tokyo Times.
trieved 6 May 2014.
26 August 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[163] Thareeqush Shukr. Shazuli.com. Retrieved 13 August
[144] Al Shabab of Somalia Destroy the Graves of Su Saints
2012.
YouTube. youtube.com. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
[164] Deen islam -Hizb ul Bahr Litany of the Sea. Retrieved
[145] Susm re-emerges in Somalia as al-Shababs control
27 September 2014.
wanes. BBC News. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
[165] Jestice, Phyllis G. (2004-12-15). Holy people of the world:
[146] Timbuktus Destruction: Why Islamists Are Wrecking
a cross-cultural encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 858. ISBN
Malis Cultural Heritage |By Ishaan Tharoor|time.com
9781576073551.
|July 02, 2012
[166] Willis, John Ralph (2012-10-12). Studies in West African
[147] Susm and Salasm, Malis deep religious divide.
Islamic History: Volume 1: The Cultivators of Islam, VolTheafricareport.com. 21 December 2012. Retrieved 24
ume 2: The Evolution of Islamic Institutions & Volume 3:
February 2013.
The Growth of Arabic Literature. Routledge. p. 234.
ISBN 9781136251603.
[148] Destroying the Shrines of Timbuktu: Some Arab Responses. Islamopedia Online. Retrieved 24 February [167] Gibb, H. A. R. (1970-01-01). Mohammedanism. OUP
2013.
USA. p. 116. ISBN 9780195002454.
[149] Timbuktu shrine destruction 'a war crime'". Telegraph. [168] K. al-Wasa'il, quoted in The Unlimited Mercier, Stephen
London. 2 July 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
Hirtenstein, p. 246
[150] Leila, Reem (2329 July 2009). Moulid ban The annual [169] Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam. Yale Unicelebration of birth of Sayeda Zeinab has been banned
versity Press, 1992, p. 112.
amid concern over the spread of swine u. Al Ahram.
Retrieved 20 February 2013.
[170] Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam. Yale University Press, 1992, p. 133.
[151] Libya S.O.S.: Democracy Arrives in Libya: Su religious sites attacked and destroyed by Salas. Libyasos. [171] Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam. Yale Uni26 August 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
versity Press, 1992, p. 87.
[152] Libya: Stop Attacks on Su Sites |hrw.org |31 August [172]
2012
[173]
[153] Libya clashes break out over Su shrine attack |bbc.co.uk
|7 September 2012

Memoirs of the Saints, p.108

SILVA FILHO, Mrio Alves da. A Mstica Islmica em
Terr Brasilis: o Susmo e as Ordens Sus em So Paulo.
Dissertao (Mestrado em Cincias da Religio). So
Paulo: PUC/SP, 2012.

[154] UNESCO urges end to attacks on Libyan Su mosques,

[174] Saif ed-Din Bokharzi & Bayan-Quli Khan Mausoleums.
graves. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
Retrieved 15 February 2015.
[155] Benoit-Lavelle, Mischa (30 January 2013). Tunisian
Salas on the Rise. al-monitor. Retrieved 18 April 2013. [175] Mourides Celebrate 19 Years in North America by
Ayesha Attah. The African magazine. (n.d.) Retrieved
[156] Sheikh Murdered Over Religious Split Say Analysts |
13 November 2007.
Russia | RIA Novosti. En.rian.ru. 30 August 2012. Re[176] Barry Rubin (2010), Guide to Islamist Movements, M.E.
trieved 24 February 2013.
Sharpe. p410
[157] Su scholar, 5 others killed in Dagestan suicide bomb
attack. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
[177] Banu Eligr (2010), The Mobilization of Political Islam
in Turkey, Cambridge University Press
[158] single The Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 27
September 2014.
[178] http://www.ghuncha-e-marfat.org/stn.html
[159] Bos, Matthijs van den (2002). Mystic Regimes: Susm and [179] Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). The Garden of Truth. New
the State in Iran, from the Late Qajar Era to the Islamic
York, NY: HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-06162599-2.
Republic. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12815-6.

31

[180] Sua Noorbakhshia. Sua Noorbakhshia. Retrieved 15 [199] Tom Partt (23 November 2007). The battle for the soul
February 2015.
of Chechnya. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
[181] Aggarwal, Ravina (2004). Beyond Lines of Control: Performance and Politics on the Disputed Borders of Ladakh, [200] Susm: Of saints and sinners. The Economist NewspaIndia. Duke University Press. pp. 197. ISBN 0-8223per. Dec 18, 2008. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
3414-3.
[201] MUSLIM NETWORKS AND MOVEMENTS IN
[182] Kumar, Raj (2008). Encyclopaedia of Untouchables AnWESTERN EUROPE. Pew Research Center. Governcient, Medieval and Modern. Gyan Publishing House. p.
ment Promotion of Susm. September 15, 2010. Re345. ISBN 978-81-7835-664-8.
trieved 26 June 2014.
[183] Dr. Ronald Grisell (1983). Susm. Ross Books. pp. 23.
[202] Angel Rabasa, Cheryl Benard, Lowell H. Schwartz, PeISBN 978-0-89496-038-3
ter Sickle (2007). Building Moderate Muslim Networks
(PDF). RAND Corporation. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
[184] Hazrat Shams Ali Qalandar.
[185] The Expansion of M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi. MTO [203] ALI ETERAZ (June 10, 2009). State-Sponsored SuShahmaghsoudi. Retrieved 26 December 2011."Through
sm. FP. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
Hazrat Pirs deep commitment to his fathers wish, the
M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi, School of Islamic Susm, which [204] Munn, Richard C. (JanuaryMarch 1969). Reviewed
work(s): The Sus by Idries Shah. Journal of the Amerhe now leads, has developed into an international nonican Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 89 (1):
prot organization with over 500,000 students who attend
279281. doi:10.2307/598339. JSTOR 598339.
centers located throughout ve continents in America, Europe, Australia, Africa and Asia.
[205] Susm, Sus, and Su Orders: Susms Many Paths.
[186] Sarwari Qadiri Order. India: General Books LLC. ISBN
Uga.edu. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
9781158473861.
[206] Idries Shah, The Sus, ISBN 0-385-07966-4
[187] Sult n Mohammad Najib-ur-Rehman. Sultan Bahoo: The
Life and Teachings. Sultan-ul-Faqr Publications. ISBN [207] A Su-Jewish Dialogue: Philosophy and Mysticism in
978-9-699-79518-3.
Bahya ibn Paqudas Duties of the Heart, Diana Lobel
[188] Sult n Bh (1998). Death Before Dying: The Su Poems
[208] Mireille Loubet. Jewish pietism of the Su type.
of Sultan Bahu. University of California Press. ISBN 978bcrfj.revues.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
0-520-92046-0.=
[189] Metz, Helen Chapin. The Sanusi Order. Libya: A [209] Zeeshan Jawed (4 June 2005). Soundscape for the soul.
The Telegraph. Calcutta. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
[210] Bageshree S. (26 March 2005). Urban balladeer. The
Hindu. Chennai, India. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
[190] A. Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia Tripoli Bel Suol
d'Amore Mondadori 1993, p. 415
[211] Curiel, Jonathan (6 February 2005). Islamic verses / The
[191] Hazrat Sultan Bahu. yabahu.com. Retrieved 26 August
inuence of Muslim literature in the United States has
2015.
grown stronger since the Sept. 11 attacks. SFGate.
[192] Home ZIKR. zikr.co.uk. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
[193] Karimah Suwaydan (2014-11-10). 25. Monks and Islamic Susm | Arab West Report. Arabwestreport.info.
Retrieved 29 May 2015.
[194] Quran Inspires Modern Science. Ir.org. 2001-11-19.
Retrieved 29 May 2015.
[195] Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane
Idleman Smith: Islam and the West Post 9/11, Ashgate
Publishing Ltd., p. 67
[196] Corbett, Rosemary R. (2016). Making Moderate Islam:
Susm, Service, and the Ground Zero Mosque Controversy. Stanford University Press.
[197] Jamal Malik, John R. Hinnells: Susm in the West, Routledge, p. 25
[198] Philip Jenkins (January 25, 2009). Mystical power.
Globe Newspaper Company. Retrieved 26 June 2014.

17 Bibliography
Babou, Cheikh Anta (2007). Susm and Religious
Brotherhoods in Senegal. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 40 (1): 184.
Chittick, William (2007). Susm: A Beginners
Guide. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074052-2.
Chodkiewicz, Michel (1995). The Spiritual Writings
of Amir Abd al-Kader. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-07914-2446-9.
Fitzpatrick, Coeli;
Walker, Hani (2014).
Muhammad in History, Theory, and Culture.
ABC-Clio.

32

18

Gamard, Ibrahim (2004). Rumi and Islam: Selections from His Stories, Poems, and Discourses, Annotated & Explained. SkyLight Paths Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-59473-002-3.
Glass, Cyril (2008). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman & Littleeld Publishers. ISBN 9780-7425-6296-7.
Gunon, Ren (2001). Insights Into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism. Sophia Perennis. ISBN 978-0900588-43-3.
Mback, Khadim; Hunwick, John O. (2005). Susm
and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal. Markus
Wiener Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55876-342-5.
Rahimi, Sadeq (September 2007). Intimate Exteriority: Su Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in Turkey. Journal of Religion and Health.
Springer. 46 (3): 409421. doi:10.1007/s10943006-9073-2. JSTOR 27513026.
Schimmel, Annemarie (2013). Mystical Dimension
of Islam. Noura Books. ISBN 978-979-433-797-4.
Schmidle, Nicholas (December 2008). Pakistans
Sus Preach Faith and Ecstasy. Smithsonian magazine.
Sells, Michael (1996). Early Islamic Mysticism:
Su, Quran, Miraj, Poetic and Theological Writings.
Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-3619-3.
Chopra, R.M.,SUFISM (Origin, Growth, Eclipse,
Resurgence), 2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New
Delhi, ISBN 978-93-85083-52-5

18

External links

Susm Oxford Islamic Studies Online

Susm at DMOZ
Susm, Sus, and Su Orders Susms Many
Paths
Extensive photo Essay on Susm by a National Geographic photographer
A Survey Of Decisive Arguments And Proof For
Tasawwuf Susm in Islam
Susm and Love

EXTERNAL LINKS

33

{{int:Coll-attribution-page|
Susm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism?oldid=758370451 Contributors: Kpjas, Mav, Bryan Derksen, RK, Christian List,
William Avery, Anthere, Apollia, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Pgunn, Nixdorf, Menchi, Kalki, IZAK, Frank Shearar, GTBacchus, Delirium, Skysmith, Bdonlan, Ronz, Kingturtle, Usedbook, Kh7, Cimon Avaro, Deisenbe, Alex756, GCarty, Rl, Rob Hooft, Ehn, Timwi,
Janko, WhisperToMe, Nv8200pa, Mir Harven, Jose Ramos, Bloodshedder, Jason M, Pakaran, Finlay McWalter, UninvitedCompany, Carbuncle, Jeq, Lumos3, Robbot, Goethean, Altenmann, Nurg, Sam Spade, Nkv, Mayooranathan, Chris Roy, Mirv, Chiramabi, Rursus,
ThaGrind, Blainster, Sunray, GeerBawks, Refdoc, DigiBullet, Cyrius, Oobopshark, Carnildo, Enochlau, Snobot, Fabiform, Kim Bruning,
WiseWoman, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Zigger, Peruvianllama, Supergee, Zora, Varlaam, Andris, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Mboverload,
Katangoori, Ojl, Jackol, Ragib, Neilc, Stevietheman, Gadum, Sonjaaa, GeneralPatton, Quadell, Antandrus, Mustafaa, JoJan, LudwigVan,
DNewhall, Rdsmith4, Bharatcit, Cihan, Bumm13, Kara Kadija, Sam Hocevar, Cynical, Tomte~enwiki, Zeeshanhasan, DaveSeidel, Kim ,
Stephensj74, Hadj, Shotwell, Mike Rosoft, Shahab, D6, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Haiduc, Jiy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Paulr~enwiki,
Ardonik, Ahkond, Arthur Holland, Dbachmann, Bender235, Ntennis, Andrejj, Ground, El C, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, KuriosD, Sietse
Snel, Kotuku33, IFaqeer, Yono, Renice, Sole Soul, Bobo192, NetBot, Mike Schwartz, Johnkarp, Func, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, C ozen, Palmiro, Giraedata, A1kmm, Flammifer, Daf, Jaredfaulkner, Idleguy, Ral315, Krellis, Watung, Darubaru~enwiki,
Ogress, Palecur, OneGuy, Alansohn, Bmeacham, Diego Moya, Jeltz, Cjthellama, Derumi, Noosphere, Wtmitchell, BanyanTree, Ish ishwar,
Grenavitar, Versageek, Gene Nygaard, Zereshk, Blaxthos, Kazvorpal, Abdassamad, TShilo12, Shimeru, Hijiri88, Sam Vimes, Zntrip, Kennethmyers, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Firsfron, Vashti, Woohookitty, TigerShark, S36e175, Jerryfern, The Brain, Je3000, Mpatel,
Wikiklrsc, Alchemistoxford, Striver, Asifshiraz, Abhisham, Plrk, GalaazV, Toussaint, Farhansher, Allen3, Tydaj, Turnstep, Fleetham, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Kbdank71, Zoz, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Staecker, Gawain~enwiki, TheRingess, Feydey,
Metatree, Ryk, Kalogeropoulos, Mjsedgwick, Brighterorange, Afterwriting, The wub, Bhadani, Yuber, Sarabseth, FayssalF, FlaBot, Psemmusa, GnniX, Dauerad, Nadzir, Codex Sinaiticus, Joonasl, Kaashif, Mounir~enwiki, SimpleMan, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Vmenkov, Wavelength, Sceptre, Ojcb2, Deeptrivia, Bilaljaery, Redjen, Ramiel.rashidi, RussBot, Anonymous editor, Pigman, Chuck Carroll, Akamad,
Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Chaos, Pseudomonas, William Przylucki, Alynna Kasmira, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Bachrach44,
Siddiqui, Dforest, Welsh, Muwaaq, Yoninah, Bektashi110, Farmanesh, Straight, Syrthiss, Mkill, M2k41, McKhan, Morgan Leigh, DeadEyeArrow, Nescio, Chaabant, Szhaider, Nlu, David Underdown, KateH, Urger48400, Vpendse, MCB, Wiqi55, Zzuuzz, Sorna Doon, Ninly,
RDF, Sam sheyma, SFGiants, Closedmouth, Fang Aili, JoanneB, Aamrun, Kubra, Kungfuadam, Alexanderj, RG2, Elijahmeeks, Sangak1,
Eshmunazar, Street Scholar, Eog1916, Sardanaphalus, Initpaul, SmackBot, Kaaashif, Nahald, YellowMonkey, Paco758, Elonka, Avengerx,
Reedy, Prodego, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Wegesrand, Jagged 85, Spasage, Vonbondie3000, RobotJcb, Kintetsubualo, BiT,
Pasha Abd, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, M.Imran, Rncooper, ParthianShot, ATIYAH, Starcrossdromeo, Schmiteye, Anachronist, Chris the
speller, Davigoli, TimBentley, Jungli, MK8, Ksenon, Jprg1966, Snori, Miquonranger03, Justin C., Hibernian, Bazonka, Ikiroid, Ninonino, Tonipares, Zachorious, Mladilozof, Zsinj, OrphanBot, Simbobo, Allan McInnes, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Fuhghettaboutit, Gwaka
Lumpa, Al-Zaidi, IrisKawling, Tomtom9041, Wizardman, Kukini, Ged UK, Mrdallaway, The Ungovernable Force, Snowgrouse, Lambiam, Yonderboy~enwiki, Nishkid64, Mukadderat, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Kashk, Easytoremember, Kuru, Generator~enwiki, Cronodevir, Jeremiah Cornelius, Ru~enwiki, Sheidaei, Kashmiri, Lisapollison, Debbarh, Mitso Bel, IronGargoyle, Deviathan~enwiki, Stoa,
Deanahmad, Tkhan, A. Parrot, Bless sins, Beetstra, SQGibbon, Ferhengvan, Sir192, Arahmim1, Blondlieut, Sharnak, Halaqah, Peyre,
Hu12, DabMachine, Focomoso, BranStark, Iridescent, WGee, Joseph Solis in Australia, Digitalsurgeon, Nightrider083, Metinb~enwiki,
Beve, Sam Li, LadyofShalott, Phoenixrod, Linkspamremover, Sinhautkarsh, Idriskamal, Woodshed, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Silver
crescent, Afghana~enwiki, Hotmomo, Szfski, JForget, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Snorkelman, Insanephantom, Iced Kola, Wiki mn, Lmcelhiney, Matthew Auger, Thgore, DanielRigal, Itaqallah, David Traver, Abrar47, Rohita, Pratikthakore, Gregbard, Faridshahi79, Equendil,
Arrataz, Cabolitae, Cydebot, A876, Wadkdc, Mato, Peterdjones, Maizbhandarsharif, Gogo Dodo, Kosunen, Hebrides, Jayen466, Myasa,
Sa.vakilian, Doug Weller, FinnBjo, Roberta F., DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Ameliorate!, DBaba, Zer0faults, Jacob..., Algabal, Niculaegeorgepion~enwiki, PKT, Jareer, TheDarkLordSeth, Dogaroon, Tom49, Steve Dufour, Anupam, Peter Deer, Esowteric, Bobblehead, Daraazii,
Bardon Dornal, Itsmejudith, Second Quantization, -=PhotoN=-, Mercuriallinguist, GregMinton, Amitprabhakar, Adam255, J. W. Love,
Killbillsbrowser, Pakiguy, Ericmachmer, Dawnseeker2000, Auc~enwiki, Leesonma, DBlakeRoss, Hcanon, Noctivagant, Niduzzi, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Ajaleel, Luna Santin, AUddin, Djalo24, Eeking1, Neumannk, Cacahuate, Ownlyanangel, Fayenatic london, Wahabijaz, Uchohan, MikeLynch, Deadbeef, JAnDbot, Gatemansgc, Faith hope4peace, Ekabhishek, Geneisner, MER-C, Kedi the tramp,
OR~enwiki, OmarKN, Epeeeche, Avaya1, Scythian1, Hassanfarooqi, Mohammad ihs, Gerash77, Tariqrasheed, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Yahel Guhan, Wasell, Dildar Hussain, Bakhtawar, Magioladitis, Dwatson888, Bongwarrior, Msml, AbdulGhani, Liverpool Scouse,
Kajasudhakarababu, Faizhaider, Minrice2099, Steven Walling, Prestonmcconkie, Truthspreader, KConWiki, Indon, Mowglee, KBtoys09,
Xtremeownage, Loonymonkey, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Mo5tar, Omidrezaei, ArmadilloFromHell, Vssun, DAVIDY, Nlight2, Poormun,
Rickard Vogelberg, FisherQueen, MartinBot, Irfan454454, Nazroon, Patch Cable, David matthews, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
Fconaway, J.delanoy, Herrymardian, Kimse, Fowler&fowler, EscapingLife, Neutron Jack, Rrostrom, Arrow740, Bogey97, Hans Dunkelberg, JPLeonard, Jonpro, Sayvandelay, Aaliyah Stevens, Hjonjon, WarthogDemon, Laplandian, Nurmir, Maproom, Buhadram, Abhijitsathe, DarkFalls, McSly, MezzoMezzo, Crocodile Punter, Waqbi, Bannanabarbara, Chiswick Chap, Sheiknazim2, Absalambracho, Jermaine4109, NewEnglandYankee, Dierk Lange~enwiki, Sohrob nabatian, Abronkeeler, Heyitspeter, Student7, Abiadam, Hab1994, Nctrlaltdel, KylieTastic, BenJau, Remember the dot, Barastert, Ghostbear616, Unicorn144, S (usurped also), Abduzzhaahir, Mateus Soares de
Azevedo, Feer, Naqshabandi, CardinalDan, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Mosaaa, UnicornTapestry, Adeoskar, VolkovBot, Galibibulent, DSRH, Muzza212, Je G., Alexandria, BoogaLouie, Ataxerxes, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Verneo, Adnanramin, Roomie, Editorsfromthatplace, Sturunner, Bilal.hamed, IPSOS, Oxfordwang, Siraatulmustaqim, Ahsanjafri, Martin451, Cathedral77, Nicholas77, Jackfork, Shabiha, Ghulammustafamubashar, Justinfr, MH-Aryan, Jarpirate, Noor Aalam, West Bank Boy, Earthdirt, Aj3, Bilquees, Raqaaiq,
Tommytocker, MCTales, Zikrullah, Faqir baba, Iheartbio1, Xexnoctemx, Annedesiecle, Hasam, Struway, Finnrind, Meerinti, Mahayogini,
AdRock, Manzarakbar, GoonerDP, SieBot, Dbert123 93, Tommyfenton, MuzikJunky, Nubiatech, Fishgirl noreen, Tiddly Tom, Euryalus,
Talatkamran, Temp07, Gerakibot, Caltas, Ibnzubair, Yintan, Jarad pk, S711, David Plum, Atari400, Oxymoron83, DoNNNald, Rafchile,
Fratrep, OKBot, Maelgwnbot, Vice regent, Reneeholle, StaticGull, Cyfal, Alefbe, Hamiltondaniel, WikiLaurent, Asikhi, Gr8opinionater,
OsamaLd, FayssalK, Deavenger, RegentsPark, Kinkyturnip, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Toby Benson, ClueBot, Fyyer, Khabir786, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Helenabella, IceUnshattered, Podzemnik, Neshamah Jami, J.Kelly Hayden, Susa, Jdb00, Comradesadi, Freebullets, Drmies, Artyom, Der Golem, VQuakr, M a razvi, TheOldJacobite, J8079s, Ahlusunah, Boing! said Zebedee, Timberframe,
Niceguyedc, Arunsingh16, Aniseg, SamuelTheGhost, DragonBot, Deselliers, Naqshsta, Desiderius82, Arabshaykh, Eeekster, Ernobe,
Horizonwards, MuradeFerozi, Takabeg, Dralansun, Aitias, Omirocksthisworld, Chadoh, Editor2020, Parves.inamdar379, Musfaad, DumZiBoT, Jpople, Mrghazi411, Saeidmousavi, BarretB, XLinkBot, Al-Fan, WikHead, Rabbani786, Profmafzal, Lemmey, UnknownForEver,
Falconkhe, Addbot, Broadman, Su kash sb, Some jerk on the Internet, Macshealbhaich, Misaq Rabab, Reidlophile, Ronhjones, Raheelkaghzi, Sarkozila, Laurinavicius, Ahmetan, Ryan.waheed, Sise2, Lihaas, XLOVExHATEx, Favonian, JamesMMc, Solange Silverman,

34

18

EXTERNAL LINKS

Hashim.i.mohamed, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tuzk, NocturneSoul~enwiki, Lightbot, Xizzling, Krano, Zorrobot, Jarble, Hiram111, Spiritualism, Tanyildizi~enwiki, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, 2D, Ajmerchishty, Sikandro, Ssrout, Fs11, Syedmohammad, KamikazeBot,
Ghurabadeen, Nasiryounus, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Sulzliu, Stracalai, Robmlogic, Jim1138, Scythian77, AdjustShift, Dexterisme, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Secular Anarchist, Citation bot, Dcapurro, Kngwa83, Dewan357, LilHelpa, Matthiashess, Xqbot, Ekwos,
4twenty42o, Canberkyuksel, Grim23, Anna Frodesiak, Locos epraix, Anonymous from the 21st century, Greenmtncville, Xashaiar, Gangasrotogati, Omnipaedista, Cyborgwittgenstein, Wasifwasif, GorgeCustersSabre, Earlypsychosis, Mahmagin, RibotBOT, Spirituality Guy,
Sael, Shadowjams, Eugene-elgato, RavShimon, Nikil44, Mudassir Rizwan, FrescoBot, Samir.warsi, LucienBOT, Tobby72, AbuIlyas,
Balkhi13, Bruce Elphinston Robertson, Age Happens, Annexatious, Kwiki, Sakimonk, Mahakala achoui, Winterst, Rustum4u2u, Interestedinfairness, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Kapilsidhu, B97036, 10metreh, SpeechlessOcean, Blubro, Datteln, Fat&Happy,
Impala2009, Tahir mq, AttahUllahFan, SirMoo, Wixit, Lifewater000, Villabosphor, Rajendrakgupta, Jandalhandler, Vkg12, Comancheros,
Khayati, Ashutoshchaturvedi07, Jade Harley, N998, HyperGaruda, Lotje, Javierito92, Qawwalilover, Dinamik-bot, Mohall76, Kuailong,
Jigglydders, Abie the Fish Peddler, Indoscholar, Farhikht, Joodeak, ColbertsSweetness, Ali Muratovic, Damsirigi99, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Italiano2012, ADDFL, RjwilmsiBot, Mzsabusayeed, Sam.rizae, WernerAs, Msin10, Blakeross, J36miles, EmausBot,
Artefactual, John of Reading, Snakeeater330, WikitanvirBot, Elsacosta, Sikander.alis, Ajraddatz, Jujhar.pannu, Kuuhkuuh, GoingBatty,
RA0808, Luckyaim, Boyfats, Loso3898, NoisyJinx, Rarevogel, Roctour, BeUnknown, Mazjoob, ZxxZxxZ, Satyakti121, Mynuddeenster,
Rahmatgee, SexyKick, K6ka, AsceticRose, Turkiyem, Lilac Cotton, Greatscots, Arab4Ever, Sarabsethh, F, Josve05a, Ilikenoodles12,
Aqkiajib, Wellrung, Laur8927, Iwanttoeditthissh, Mar4d, 888chuli, UeMusic, Azhar Mehmood, Access Denied, Walks on Water, Webasura, Makecat, Thine Antique Pen, Someone65, Arman Cagle, Talibghaari, Alamukht, MansurHallaj, Erget2005, Donner60, Rmchopra, Basantptolani, Pun, Zain dakhan, Ash wki, ChuispastonBot, Crown Prince, Spicemix, Hundredpeaks, Bbeehvh, Cgt, ClueBot
NG, Hyiltiz, Jack Greenmaven, Tanbircdq, Goldenbeehive, MelbourneStar, Code16, -sche, Webbi527, Masher13, Waddick, Zhuravlei,
O.Koslowski, Patapsco913, Widr, Nijam121, Suninthegarden, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Omer123hussain, Wbm1058,
Asfak95, Tsovas, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, TheBlindOwl, HyperEssence, Wahunjra, Dzlinker, Metricopolus,
AbuSophia, Kamrul jami, Mark Arsten, , Nijam122, Africanarab21, Peapub, Mughal Lohar, William4433, LuckyDukeSeven,
RajaPakhralMinhas, Sethneha2007, Itsurnemesis, The Almightey Drill, Sparthorse, Saiadarbar, Adomhoar, Asrefaei, KingQajar, Caduon,
Glacialfox, Safwanzulqar, Docsu, Klilidiplomus, Mirjam Amalthea, Carinae986, Woo2786, Priyanjana Roy, BattyBot, Isashake, Laodah, David.moreno72, RichardMills65, PabloGParera, HacksBack, Williamteoh97, Gazkthul, Cyberbot II, Wnsqstv, GAYousefSaanei,
Conorman123, Louey37, Torvalu4, Su2400, Khazar2, BlueLupine, KhanzadaKhanzada, TheSeeking1, Hassaankhi, Jawad physics, Abdean, CHISTHI.ZA, JYBot, Mohital23, Trobor, StrongChristianEurope, Pirhayati, FoCuSandLeArN, Sminthopsis84, Nissanleaf, Mogism,
Love4Colombia, Medu321, Susm786, Tausif04, AbstractIllusions, Charan Gill, Corinne, RexAustralis, Rupert loup, Faizan, Soulspeaksproductions, ChristianChivalry, I am One of Many, BreakfastJr, Lsmll, Attarirazavi208, Julian Felsenburgh, Eppagh121, Melonkelon,
Iztwoz, Tentinator, Sunnibarelvi, Daavar h, Jasimmahbubi, Johan Tristan Aslim, Harishoney, LouisAragon, Faizanhb2, Aasim001, Am
Not New, Kayelldee, YiFeiBot, Ksoban20, 2wikibot, Truthandfaith, Fitzcarmalan, Sobanhazarwi, AddWittyNameHere, Faz.shah, FH87,
Kingdomjoel, Sudisciple, StuandTruth, Skr15081997, Ejaz92, Moramayelp, Imfeelyoung, Monkbot, Attar-Aram syria, VictoriaGrayson,
Filedelinkerbot, P-123, BethNaught, Kashem555, Dguzzo, , Umarjifriya, Shabu5, Alsheikh ziauddin, Mehdi ghaed, ANONYMOUS103, Aktiwari96, JugniSQ, Bektashi, Aclarke9913, Shuayb Sahib, Habharchi, Translatio.Uni-Bonn, Raheem7864, Trueelcat,
Umar7175, Oxherdn, Ibnebatuta, AnonymousBusterBoyBusterBoy, 468SM, Mzoyeb, Mysagaym, Shadab salam1, Trueager, Pprr777, Mbcap, SanKhan, Outrgrav, Human3015, Pixarh, Muhammad b. Abdallah, Xtremedood, Themidget17, Elioun, Mj thenovelatre, WikiBulova,
B-Moose, Kazi zahir uddin mohammed babar, KasparBot, Yasu ibn Luqman, Zeanali12, Capankajsmilyo, 468Shahi, Samm.jutt, Hurbad,
Mckburton, Harbingersweet, Markaz-e-ettihad, Paska su, Markangle11, Dorpater, Chishtiyasu, Tom29739, Vavoottan, Dohmewtwo1,
Award1066, ScholarM, Tessaractelectronix, Su Faqeer Zulqar Ali Qadri, Vintuuu55555, Aglesaquila, Montaine888888, Mazharullah,
Eperoton, Hulegudarrrrrrrrr, Ameerzainameer, Shaibu5, Ibrahim canan, GreenC bot, Fenrir77, Socialistmark, Menan akc, Pouyeh, Motivao, Post2qamar, Hairyfairyscary, Bender the Bot, Ayexhab, A picture of a dead sh, Kalpavsinha, Prayingstinkbug, Audius, Morning
Wood and Anonymous: 1650
|
File:'Ali_Dede_al-Busnawi_-_Three_Hundred_Sixty_Su_Questions_-_Walters_W585_-_Closed_Top_View_A.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/%27Ali_Dede_al-Busnawi_-_Three_Hundred_Sixty_Sufi_
Questions_-_Walters_W585_-_Closed_Top_View_A.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a
href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.
svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_
filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='128'
data-le-height='128'
/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/7580' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist:
'Ali Dede al-Busnawi (died 1007 AH/AD 1598)
Mustaf ibn al-Hajj Muhammad
File:1Wali_tomb,El_Kurru.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/1Wali_tomb%2CEl_Kurru.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bertramz
File:5741-Linxia-Huasi-Gongbei.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/5741-Linxia-Huasi-Gongbei.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Vmenkov
File:A_view_of_darbar_sharif.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/A_view_of_darbar_sharif.JPG
License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: [//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Anasahmed24&action=
edit&redlink=1 Anasahmed24]
File:Allah-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on
4 February 2003. Originally described as Copied from Public Domain artwork. Original artist: ?

35

File:Allah_logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Allah_logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

File:Allah1.png Original artist: Tauhid16; Originally uploaded by Ibrahim ebi of the png picture.
File:Al.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Al%C4%AB.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Ibrahim ebi
File:Basmala.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Basmala.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Creator: ( previous version Baba66)
File:Bichitr_-_Jahangir_Preferring_a_Sufi_Shaikh_to_Kings,_from_the_St._Petersburg_album_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Bichitr_-_Jahangir_Preferring_a_Sufi_Shaikh_to_Kings%2C_from_
the_St._Petersburg_album_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 7QF0PV3LXqTQbw at Google Cultural
Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Creator:C.I.P CENNY
File:Bidokht_8810_(19)-W.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Bidokht_8810_%2819%29-W.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eppagh121
File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_marabout_TMnr_20031376.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_marabout_TMnr_20031376.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen Original artist: ?
File:Calligraphic_representation_of_Muhammad{}s_name.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/
Calligraphic_representation_of_Muhammad%27s_name.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from ar.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Bakkouz at Arabic Wikipedia
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Darbarsharif.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Darbarsharif.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Author Original artist: User:Luckyaim
File:Dhikr_Rifa-iyya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Dhikr_Rifa-iyya.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://golib.narod.ru/obnov/mistyk/10.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Friday_Evening_Qawali_at_Dargah_Salim_Chisti,_Fatehpur_Sikri,_UP,_India.theora.ogv
Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Friday_Evening_Qawali_at_Dargah_Salim_Chisti%2C_Fatehpur_Sikri%2C_UP%2C_India.
theora.ogv License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: user:Fowler&fowler. Taken with my own camera, held in my own hands, viewed
through my own eyes, and guided by my own aesthetic judgment. <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler'
class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 16:27, 11 December 2011 (UTC)
Original artist: Fowler&fowler at English Wikipedia
File:Golden_chain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Golden_chain.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Seka
File:Grave_of_Ma_Yuanzhang_and_his_son_at_Xuanhuagang.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/
c1/Grave_of_Ma_Yuanzhang_and_his_son_at_Xuanhuagang.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Page 92 of Familiar strangers:
a history of Muslims in Northwest China By Jonathan Neaman Lipman http://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&printsec=
frontcover&dq=familiary+strangers&hl=en&ei=2xxBTKjCNsGB8gakzd2gDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=grave%20ma%20yuanzhang%20son%20at%20xuanhuagang&f=false Original artist:
Unknown,
photographed in Republic of China
File:Haqqani_Anjuman3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Haqqani_Anjuman3.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: https://scontent-b.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xap1/v/t1.0-9/1513687_751717101530557_5500001056084354901_
n.jpg?oh=575597d6f45737899fb43392989eb9a1&oe=5568A4E8 Original artist: Haqqani Anjuman
File:IbrahimaFall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/IbrahimaFall.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Erica Kowal
File:Isma_allah_zat-new.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Isma_allah_zat-new.png License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rizwantdf
File:Kashgar-apakh-hoja-d04.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Kashgar-apakh-hoja-d04.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Kaygusuz_Abdal.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Kaygusuz_Abdal.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Unknown Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Khawaja_Ghulam_Farid_tomb_at_Kot_Mithan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Khawaja_
Ghulam_Farid_tomb_at_Kot_Mithan.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Photo by Paranda uploaded to Wikipedia Original artist:
Paranda
{{int:Coll-image-attribution|File:Mausoleum_of_Makhdoom_Shah_Daulat,_Maner,_Patna,_19th_century.jpg|https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Mausoleum_of_Makhdoom_Shah_Daulat%2C_Maner%2C_Patna%2C_19th_century.
jpg|Public domain|British Library [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000004321u00012000.html|Thomas
Daniell}}

36

18

EXTERNAL LINKS

File:Mevlana_Konya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Mevlana_Konya.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mevlanax.jpg Original artist: User:Intension
File:Mirror_Calligraphy.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Mirror_Calligraphy.png License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Qarmatia
File:Mosque02.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Mosque02.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. DarkPhoenix assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Munqidh_min_al-dalal_(last_page).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Munqidh_min_al-dalal_
%28last_page%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Ab Hmid al-Ghazzl
File:Naqshbandi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Naqshbandi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BePhoto
File:Nasreddin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Nasreddin_%2817th-century_miniature%29.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Downloaded from http://www.business-with-turkey.com/hoca/hoca-big.htm Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Pir_Dastgir.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Pir_Dastgir.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.aspx?objectid=231810&partid=
1&searchText=mughal&fromADBC=ad&toADBC=ad&numpages=10&images=on&orig=%2fresearch%2fsearch_the_collection_
database.aspx&currentPage=7 Original artist: Mughal Style
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Porte_mosquee_Sidi_Boumediene_Tlemcen.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Porte_
mosquee_Sidi_Boumediene_Tlemcen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: own work of author Original artist: Noureddine Gori
File:Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pentocelo
File:Rumi_museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Rumi_museum.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Safavid-star.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Safavid-star.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: myself
File:Sayed_Hussain_Khwarzmy.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Sayed_Hussain_Khwarzmy.JPG
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oniongas
File:Shahrukne_Alam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Shahrukne_Alam.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machinereadable author provided. Zeeshan.javeed~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Shams_al-Ma'arif.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Shams_al-Ma%27arif.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Danieliness
File:Sheykh_of_the_Rufai_Dervishes.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Sheykh_
of_the_Rufai_Dervishes.jpg
License:
Public
domain
Contributors:
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O916938/
sheykh-of-the-rufai-dervishes-watercolour-anonymous-greek-artist/ Original artist: anonymous Greek artist, ca. 1809
File:Shi'i_stamped_amulet.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Shi%27i_stamped_amulet.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Shrine_of_Abdul_Qadir_Jilani..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Shrine_of_Abdul_Qadir_
Jilani..jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: VrMUSLIM
File:Soefi_symbool.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Soefi_symbool.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Sudan_sufis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Sudan_sufis.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Original artist: Steve Evans from Bangalore, India
File:Sufi_Prayer_Book_LACMA_M.87.21.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Sufi_Prayer_Book_
LACMA_M.87.21.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Image: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31972672-O3.jpg Original artist: ?
File:Sufi_calligraphy.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Sufi_calligraphy.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Qarmatia
File:Syariah-thariqah-hakikah2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Syariah-thariqah-hakikah2.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by Sreejithk2000 Original artist: Herry Mardian a.k.a. Herrymardian
at en.wikipedia

37

File:Syed_Abdul_Rahim_Shah_Bukhari.jpg Source:
Bukhari.jpg License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:
Provided by the author
Original artist:
Syed Fawad Gohar Bukhari

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/06/Syed_Abdul_Rahim_Shah_

File:Talisman_Louvre_MAO905.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Talisman_Louvre_MAO905.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a> (India)
File:The_Desire_of_the_Aspirant_WDL9677.pdf Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/The_Desire_of_
the_Aspirant_WDL9677.pdf License: Public domain Contributors:
http://dl.wdl.org/9677/service/9677.pdf
Original artist: Baba ibn Ahmad al-Alawi al-Maliki al-Maghribi al-Shingiti
File:The_Rewards_of_the_Enlightened_for_their_Defense_of_the_Status_of_Gods_Chosen_Saints_WDL9663.pdf
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/The_Rewards_of_the_Enlightened_for_their_Defense_of_the_Status_of_
God%E2%80%99s_Chosen_Saints_WDL9663.pdf License: Public domain Contributors:
http://dl.wdl.org/9663/service/9663.pdf
Original artist: al-Mukhtr ibn Amad ibn Ab Bakr al-Kunt al-Kabr, Sayyid
File:The_shrine_of_Shah_Arzani,_Patna,_1814-15.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/The_shrine_
of_Shah_Arzani%2C_Patna%2C_1814-15.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Library Original artist: Sita Ram
File:TombSalimChisti.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/TombSalimChisti.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SK Desai
File:Touba_moschee.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Touba_moschee.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: tinofrey
File:Whriling_dervishes,_Rumi_Fest_2007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Whriling_dervishes%
2C_Rumi_Fest_2007.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: diaz
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
|
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
}}