16 principles of remote sensing

PRINCIPLE I
For the purposes of these principles with respect to remote sensing activities:
(a) The term "remote sensing" means the sensing of the Earth's surface from space by making
use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed
objects, for the purpose of improving natural resources management, land use and the protection
of the environment;
(b) The term "primary data" means those raw data that are acquired by remote sensors borne by
a space object and that are transmitted or delivered to the ground from space by telemetry in the
form of electromagnetic signals, by photographic film, magnetic tape or any other means;
(c) The term "processed data" means the products resulting from the processing of the primary
data, needed to make such data usable;
(d) The term "analysed information" means the information resulting from the interpretation of
processed data, inputs of data and knowledge from other sources;
(e) The term "remote sensing activities" means the operation of remote sensing space systems,
primary data collection and storage stations, and activities in processing, interpreting and
disseminating the processed data.

PRINCIPLE II
Remote sensing activities shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries,
irrespective of their degree of economic, social or scientific and technological development, and
taking into particular consideration the needs of the developing countries.

PRINCIPLE III
Remote sensing activities shall be conducted in accordance with international law, including the
Charter of the United Nations, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the

Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies , and the
relevant instruments of the International Telecommunication Union.

PRINCIPLE IV
Remote sensing activities shall be conducted in accordance with the principles contained
in article I of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and
Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which, in particular,
provides that the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the
interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and
stipulates the principle of freedom of exploration and use of outer space on the basis of equality.
These activities shall be conducted on the basis of respect for the principle of full and permanent
sovereignty of all States and peoples over their own wealth and natural resources, with due
regard to the rights and interests, in accordance with international law, of other States and
entities under their jurisdiction. Such activities shall not be conducted in a manner detrimental to
the legitimate rights and interests of the sensed State.

PRINCIPLE V
States carrying out remote sensing activities shall promote international cooperation in these
activities. To this end, they shall make available to other States opportunities for participation
therein. Such participation shall be based in each case on equitable and mutually acceptable
terms.

PRINCIPLE VI
In order to maximize the availability of benefits from remote sensing activities, States are
encouraged, through agreements or other arrangements, to provide for the establishment and
operation of data collecting and storage stations and processing and interpretation facilities, in
particular within the framework of regional agreements or arrangements wherever feasible.

PRINCIPLE VII
States participating in remote sensing activities shall make available technical assistance to other
interested States on mutually agreed terms.

PRINCIPLE VIII
The United Nations and the relevant agencies within the United Nations system shall promote
international cooperation, including technical assistance and coordination in the area of remote
sensing.

PRINCIPLE IX
In accordance with article IV of the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer
Space and article XI of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, a State
carrying out a programme of remote sensing shall inform the Secretary-General of the United
Nations. It shall, moreover, make available any other relevant information to the greatest extent
feasible and practicable to any other State, particularly any developing country that is affected by
the programme, at its request.

PRINCIPLE X
Remote sensing shall promote the protection of the Earth's natural environment.
To this end, States participating in remote sensing activities that have identified information in
their possession that is capable of averting any phenomenon harmful to the Earth's natural
environment shall disclose such information to States concerned.

PRINCIPLE XI
Remote sensing shall promote the protection of mankind from natural disasters.

To this end, States participating in remote sensing activities that have identified processed data
and analysed information in their possession that may be useful to States affected by natural
disasters, or likely to be affected by impending natural disasters, shall transmit such data and
information to States concerned as promptly as possible.

PRINCIPLE XII
As soon as the primary data and the processed data concerning the territory under its jurisdiction
are produced, the sensed State shall have access to them on a non-discriminatory basis and on
reasonable cost terms. The sensed State shall also have access to the available analysed
information concerning the territory under its jurisdiction in the possession of any State
participating in remote sensing activities on the same basis and terms, taking particularly into
account the needs and interests of the developing countries.

PRINCIPLE XIII
To promote and intensify international cooperation, especially with regard to the needs of
developing countries, a State carrying out remote sensing of the Earth from space shall, upon
request, enter into consultations with a State whose territory is sensed in order to make available
opportunities for participation and enhance the mutual benefits to be derived therefrom.

PRINCIPLE XIV
In compliance with article VI of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, States
operating remote sensing satellites shall bear international responsibility for their activities and
assure that such activities are conducted in accordance with these principles and the norms of
international law, irrespective of whether such activities are carried out by governmental or nongovernmental entities or through international organizations to which such States are parties.
This principle is without prejudice to the applicability of the norms of international law on State
responsibility for remote sensing activities.

PRINCIPLE XV
Any dispute resulting from the application of these principles shall be resolved through the
established procedures for the peaceful settlement of disputes.

17- functions of gps

GPS Functions:

Giving a location: This is the whole point of a navigation system: its ability to accurately triangulate

1.

your position based on the data transmissions from multiple satellites. It will give your location in coordinates,
either latitude and longitude or Universal Transverse Mercators (UTMs). Developed by the military, UTMs are
used to pinpoint a location on a map. Most topographical maps have UTM gridlines printed on them.

Point-to-point navigation: This GPS navigation feature allows you to add waypoints to your trips.

2.

By using a map, the coordinates of a trailhead or road or the point where you're standing, you can create a pointto-point route to the place where you're headed. You will have the trip mapped out, including any stops you add
in.
3.

Plot navigation: This feature in a global positioning system allows you to combine multiple
waypoints and move point-to-point. Once you reach the first waypoint, the GPS can automatically point you on
your way to the next one. The waypoint management software comes with most handheld GPS units for easy
database management.

4.

Keeping track of your track: Tracks are some of the most useful functions of portable navigation
systems. You can map where you've already been. This virtual map is called a track, and you can program
the GPS systemto automatically drop track-points as you travel, either over intervals of time or distance. This can
be done on land or in a nautical setting and allows you to retrace your steps.

18 what is resolution . types of resolution

Remote sensors measure and record the magnitude and frequency of reflected
energy from an object where the energy is generally either electromagnetic
radiation (light) or acoustic (sound). Remote sensing devices mounted on aircraft
and satellites normally use imaging sensors that measure reflected energy from
objects under surveillance; the mostly commonly used sensors for underwater
detection use acoustic systems although the results are often presented as images.
Imaging sensors fall into two general categories: active sensors and passive
sensors. Passive sensors monitor only the natural solar reflected light or
electromagnetic energy from an object and form the majority of the airborne and
satellite based sensors in use today. Active image sensors provide their own energy

which is transmitted to the object and then reflected back to the sensor. Acoustic
systems, RADAR and LiDAR (based on a laser) are all active sensors.
Early remote sensing devices recorded photographic images on film (taken by
cameras) or traces printed onto paper rolls (sonar devices). Both routes created an
image in analogue format. These images were fixed and could not be subject to very
much manipulation (correction, change of contrast or colour etc); more recently, they
can be converted into an electronic digital format for limited manipulation. Most
modern sensors now record their information in digital format, often as digital
images. A digital image is made up of numbers, which represent image attributes
such as brightness, colour or radiated energy frequency wavelength, and position
location for each point or picture element in the image. The smallest sized picture
element on an image is called a pixel; a digital image is made up of pixels arranged
in rows and columns commonly known as a raster image. The dimensions and the
information content of these pixels are both aspects of the resolutionof the image.
Resolution has a popular meaning but is best defined in a technical sense. We
normally think of resolution as the ability to separate and distinguish adjacent objects
or items in a scene, be it in a photo, an image or real life. We often specify the
resolution in terms of the linear size of the smallest features we can discriminate
(often expressed in meters). But, contrast influences our ability to resolve between
objects: if two items are the same colour, they may be hard to separate, but if they
are sharply different in colour, tone, or brightness we can identify them more easily.
Remote sensors measure differences and variations of objects that are often
described in terms of three main resolutions, each of which affect the accuracy and
usefulness of remote sensors to habitat mapping.

Spatial resolution describes the ability of a sensor to identify the smallest

size detail of a pattern on an image. In other words, the distance between
distinguishable patterns or objects in an image that can be separated from each
other and is often expressed in meters.

Spectral resolution is the sensitivity of a sensor to respond to a specific

frequency range (mostly for satellite and airborne sensors). The frequency ranges
covered often include not only visible light but also non-visible light and
electromagnetic radiation. Objects on the ground can be identified by the different
wavelengths reflected (interpreted as different colours) but the sensor used must be
able to detect these wavelengths in order to see these features.

Radiometric resolution is often called contrast. It describes the ability of the

sensor to measure the signal strength (acoustic reflectance) or brightness of
objects. The more sensitive a sensor is to the reflectance of an object as compared
to its surroundings, the smaller an object that can be detected and identified.
When selecting a remote sensing tool for habitat mapping, it is clearly essential that
you consider the capability of the tool in terms of its ability to both resolve spatial and
textural differences in the habitats you wish to display on your final map.

What are passive and active

sensors?
19

Passive Sensors

Passive sensor

A passive sensor is a microwave instrument designed to receive and to measure

natural emissions produced by constituents of the Earth's surface and its
atmosphere. The power measured by passive sensors is a function of the surface
composition, physical temperature, surface roughness, and other physical
characteristics of the Earth.The frequency bands for passive sensor measurements
are determined by fixed physical properties (molecular resonance) of the substance
being measured. These frequencies do not change and information cannot be
duplicated in other frequency bands.
Passive sensors are patterned after radio astronomy instruments, which detect
emissions having very low power. They are particularly sensitive to accumulated
radiation from a multitude of emitters on the ground, both from within the frequency
band in which measurements are being made, and from out-of-band. Spaceborne
passive sensors provide the ability to obtain all-weather, day and night, global
observations of the Earth and its atmosphere. These spaceborne passive sensors

operate in frequency bands allocated to the Earth Exploration-Satellite Service or to

the Space Research Service.

Active Sensors

Active sensor

An active sensor is a radar instrument used for measuring signals transmitted by the
sensor that were reflected, refracted or scattered by the Earth's surface or its
atmosphere. Spaceborne active sensors have a variety of applications related to
meteorology and observation of the Earth's surface and atmosphere. For example,
precipitation radars measure the radar echo from rainfall to determine the rainfall rate
over the Earth's surface; and cloud profile radars measure the radar echo return from
clouds to provide a three dimensional profile of cloud reflectivity over the Earth's
surface.
Spaceborne active sensors operate in the Earth Exploration-Satellite Service or in
the Space Research Service. Active sensor frequency allocations are often shared
with other radar systems, as such systems are normally compatible with the
operation of the sensors.
20What

are the 3 segments of GPS Systems?

The Control Segment: This part consists of 5 worldwide unmanned base-stations that monitor the
satellites to track their exact position in space, and to make sure that they are operating correctly. The
stations constantly monitor the orbits of the satellites and use very precise radar to check altitude,

position and speed.

The Space Segment: This part consists of satellites, manufactured by Rockwell International, which
are launched into space by rockets, from Cape Canaveral, Florida. They are about the size of a car,
and weigh about 19,000lbs. Each satellite is in orbit above the earth at an altitude of 11,000 nautical
miles (12,660 miles), and takes 12 hours to orbit one time
The User Segment: This part consists of user receivers which are hand-held or, can be placed in a
vehicle. All GPS receivers have an almanac programmed into their computer, which tells them where
each satellite is at any given moment.