CN 301 Lectures Notes - 1 PDF

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering
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Prepared by:
Mohd Zamri Bin Jamaludin
Civil Engineering Department
Environmental Engineering Programme
Sultan Idris Shah Polytechnic
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Preface
Course Teaching and learning Information
4
3
Lecture 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Definition
1.2
1.3
Related Legislation on geoenvironmental Engineering

Related issue on Geoenvironmental engineering
Lecture 2: SOIL FORMATION AND IDENTIFICATION
6
7
2.1
Soil Formation
2.2
2.3
Mineralogy composition in soil

Fundamental properties of soils
10
13
2.4
2.5
Identification of fundamental characteristic Soils

Soil test
Lecture 3: CONTAMINANT MIGRATION PATHWAY
15
16
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Process of waste mixes with soil

Mass Transport
Mass Transfer Mechanism
Equation for mass Transport & flow through porous media by Darcy Law
17
19
22
28
3.5
Application of Mass Transport and Transfer

Lecture 4: GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING SITE INVESTIGATION
32
4.1
Principle Site Investigation
33
4.2
4.3
4.4
Investigation phases
Preparing for Fieldwork and Soil Sampling for Site Investigation
Soil-sampling techniques
Lecture 5: LAND REMEDIATION
34
37
45
5.1
5.2
Physical and chemical processes treatment

Biological Remediation
48
52
5.3
Thermal Treatment Technologies
56
5.4
5.5
5.6
Groundwater In-situ Barrier

Leachate Collection and Removal
in-situ and ex-situ remediation techniques
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62
63
5.7
Importance of Risk Assessment
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72
References And Further Reading
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PREFACE
In the name of Allah the most merciful. Salawat to Muhammad Rasululah the savior of the
Ummah.
Geoenvironmental engineering as all engineering efforts to place, contain, control, or clean up
contaminants below the ground surface. The range, properties, and variability of both the
contaminants and the geologic materials that contain them are vast. (Reddi,2000) define it as a
field that encompasses the application of science and engineering principles to the analysis of
the fate of contaminants on and in the ground; transport of moisture, contaminant, and energy
through geomedia; and design and implementation of schemes for treating, modifying, reusing,
or containing wastes on and in the ground.
Obviously, the material covered in this note is too wide to be covered in a single
geoenvironmental engineering course. This note is only a guide for teaching and learning
process. Most of all depend on the student effort to enhance the learning in order to achieve
the course outcome. In the last notes is given the references for student as a guide to further
reading. Comment and suggestion is considered to improve this notes.
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GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING course solves problems of subsurface waste containment;

groundwater contamination and site remediation are now a major focus. This course includes the topics
mainly components of types, properties, soil drainage systems, transport mechanism of contaminants in
soils, remediation for contaminated ands and the risk assessment and site monitoring. The students
will be learn basic laboratory tests on soils and site investigation methods to overcome
geoenvironmental problem.
Topic
INTRODUCTION
Week
1
This topic begins with the definition of geo-environmental engineering and also
discusses related issues and acts. The effect and sources of soil pollution will be
discussed.
SOIL FORMATION AND IDENTIFICATION
This topic familiarizes the students in basic issues relating to soil mineralogy and soil
formation including the properties and composition of soils.
CONTAMINANT MIGRATION PATHWAY
This topic explains various types of soil contaminants transportation methods

(advection, diffusion and dispersion) and its effects on the quality of surface waters
and groundwater. It also explains contaminant transfer in soil.
GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING SITE INVESTIGATION
This topic explains the principles of site investigation for contaminated land to
overcome geo-environmental problem. The tool and sampling method for site
investigation also will be explained.
LAND REMEDIATION
This topic discusses various techniques used for land remediation.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Correctly state the regulations, the acts, standards and equipments used in geo-environmental
studies voluntarily.
2. Briefly explain the formation process, the characteristics and compositions of the soil.
3. Briefly describe the transportation of contaminants and the effects of it to surface water and
groundwater quality.
4. Briefly explain how the site investigations and the test used to overcome geoenvironmental
problems.
5. Briefly explain the treatment technology, the risk assessment and the appropriate mitigation
measures for land remediation.
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT (CA):
Quiz
20%
Test
40%
Others Assessment task

i. End of Chapter Problem
40%
ii. Presentation
FINAL EXAMINATION (FE):
Final examination is held at the end of the semester.
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Lectures 1
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Definition
Geoenvironmental engineering as all engineering efforts to place, contain, control, or clean up
contaminants below the ground surface. Examples include solid and hazardous waste disposal in
landfills, entombment of radioactive wastes, and remediation of brownfields and superfund sites.
The range, properties, and variability of both the contaminants and the geologic materials that
contain them are vast.
The subject matter of geoenvironmental engineering crosses many traditional academic
disciplines, including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, chemical
engineering, materials engineering, hydrogeology, microbiology, environmental science, soil
science, and applied mathematics. As the scope and complexity of the problems encountered is
often beyond the bounds of any one discipline, geoenvironmental engineering is truly an
interdisciplinary field in which a team of specialists are often required to arrive at an optimal
problem solution.
1.2 Related Legislation on geoenvironmental Engineering
United State of America (USA) - the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act or, as it is more
commonly referred to, (RCRA), requires all operators of hazardous waste management facilities
to apply to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or an authorized state agency for a
permit to operate the facility. This part of the law instructs EPA to avoid administrative and
enforcement duplication by integrating the program of (RCRA) regulations to the maximum extent
possible with applicable provisions of the:
Clean Water Act
Safe Drinking Water Act
Clean Air Act
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act
United Kingdom Of Great Britain (UK) - Environmental Protection Act 1990
Denmark Denmarks Contaminated Sites Act 1983
Europe - after Concentrated Action on Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites (CARACAS)
and many acts has been develop to managing the contaminated land.
1.2.1
Related Legislation in Malaysia

There is no established comprehensive legislative framework for management of
contaminated land is Malaysia. There is no statutory requirement to report existence or
ownership of contaminated sites and there are no clean up standards in Malaysia. Currently,
pollution of soil is addressed to some extent in Environmental Quality Act (EQA), 1974.
1.2.1.1 Environmental Quality Act, 1974

i. The environmental Quality (schedule Wastes) Regulation 2005
ii. The environmental Quality (Prescribe Activities) Environmental Impact assesement,1987
iii. The environmental Quality (Prescribe Premises) (schedule Waste Treatment and
disposal Facilities), order 1987.
iv. The Environmental Quality Act Regulation 2 P.U. (A) 294 of Environmental Quality
(Designated Transporter).
1.2.1.2 Mineral Development act 1994: Part 3 Regulation of Exploration and Mining Fossicking, panning, exploration, mining and mineral processing shall be carried out in
accordance with good and safe practices and such environmental standards as may be
prescribed under this Act and any written law relating to environment.
1.2.1.3 Solid Waste Management and Public cleaning Board 2007 Solid waste management
and Guidelines for Solid waste disposal.
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1.2.1.4 National Strategic Plan for Solid Waste Management in Malaysia - forms the basis for
solid waste policy and practice in Peninsular Malaysia until 2020, and a foundation for future
development in the ensuing years. This Strategic Plan is to serve as a guide in planning and
allocating resources with consideration of priorities in the sector concerned.
1.2.1.5 Water Supply Enactment 1955 empower the state water supply authorities to supply to
domestic and commercial and protect water source.
1.3 Related issue on Geoenvironmental engineering
1.3.1
Soil Pollution - source of pollution:

i. Agriculture chemical fertilizer, pesticide, Soil additives, effluent from animal farm.
ii. Contaminant from urban areas urban population, waste disposal, use of chemical
iii. Industrialization waste from industry, chemical release and emission, chemical use and
explosion.
iv. Landfill leachate, chemical release and emission.
1.3.2
Example of soil pollution :

i.
Russia (1992) 15% of Russias territory has become unsafe for human habitation due
to effects of toxic waste dumping
ii. United Kingdom of Great Britain In 1999 UK environmental agency estimated about
300000 hectares of land in UK contaminated (approximately 1.2% of the UK land area).
Common sources of contamination are landfill sites which generated methane gas.
Other sources of pollution are from heavy industry plant and military.
iii. Australia Over 80 000 contaminated site in urban site in Australia are polluted.
Common source of contamination are industry, transportation and landfill. Australia
country spends millions of dollars per year for contaminated site.
iv. Malaysia - The illegal dumping of aluminium dross at Felda Bukit Gatom in Labis, Johor
occurred in 2006 (i.e. which has become a national issue and public outcry due to
ammonia vapour) and impact of pollution source to soil and groundwater was conducted
at landfill located in Ampar Tenang, Dengkil. Ampar Tenang Landfill site is located
approximately 4km to the south of Dengkil in Selangor, Malaysia. The site was once an
active open tipping (9 years in operation), and received about 100 tons per day of mainly
domestic waste.
v. China- According to a scientific sampling,150 million mi (100,000 square kilometres) of
Chinas cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to
irrigate a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mi
(1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area
accounts for one-tenth of Chinas cultivatable land, and are mostly in economically
developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy
metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).
vi. Netherlands- In 1995 there is 300000 sites has been contaminated and the estimates
cost for remediation is about13 billion Euros.
1.3.3
Effect of soil pollution

Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals,
salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant
growth and animal health. There are thousands of contaminant sources and pollutant types,
but the following list is illustrative (pollutants indicated by parentheses):
Petroleum hydrocarbons from rupture of underground storage tanks (benzene, ethyl
benzene, toluene, xylene, alkanes, alkenes, MTBE)
Spillage or leakage of solvents and dry cleaning agents (acetone, trichloroethylene,
formaldehyde) and perchloroethylene
Leaching of contaminants from solid waste disposal sites (lead, mercury, chromium,
cadmium, bacteria, hydrocarbons)
Water runoff which carries pollutants and may deposit them at a point of percolation
Percolation into soils from pesticides and herbicides uses (wide variety of chemicals
including DDT, lindane, organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, cyclodienes)
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Deposition of dust from smelting operations and coal burning power plants (zinc,
cadmium, lead, mercury)
Lead deposition from lead abatement or construction demolition (lead)
Leakage of transformers (Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)).
Target
People
Plant
Animal
Building
1.3.4
Table 1.1: Common routes exposure

Ways of expose
By in direct contact with soils such as residences, parks, schools and
playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include contamination of
drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil
contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, most
commonly to reduce crop yields. soil conservation
From grazing on contaminated land
By chemical Attack of contaminants on foundation and services installed
in aggressive ground.
Common source of pollutant

a. Waste Disposal - Most solid wastes are disposed of in landfills. Nearly all such landfills
have plumes of contaminated groundwater below them containing both solvents and
metals, because even household garbage may contain small amounts of both heavy
metals and organic contaminants.
b. Hazardous wastes -which contain high levels of contaminants, which must have even
greater protection against possible leaching.
c. Wastewater - From our sinks, toilets, bathtubs, as well as industry - is typically treated
one of two ways:
i.
in larger towns and cities, a Sewage treatment facility receives this water
through a sewer system, which is then treated and discharged,
ii.
In the country wastewater drains into a series of perforated pipes buried in
the yard of each house referred to as a septic disposal system.
d. Industrial Wastes - Many industrial wastes are not suitable for land application because
they contain toxic materials, and under DOE they must be disposed of in approved
landfills, or recycled or incinerated.
e. Agriculture - Agriculture activities have been known using various types of chemicals as
pesticides and fertilizers there are many types of pesticides being used and mainly to
control weeds, insects, rats and other pests. The main activity for agriculture is
dominated by oil palm plantation, followed by rubber, piggeries, poultry, aquaculture,
cattle and orchards.
f. Mining -Tin mining, followed by sand mining from the alluvia deposits, could cause
reduction in the aquifer yield through introduction of slime and clay particles into the
aquifer.
A: Direct Soil Ingestion - Some
metals, such as lead and arsenic
B: Leaching to Ground Water Many organic contaminants
C: Runoff to Surface Water - Many
organic contaminants
D: Plant Uptake - Some metals,
such as cadmium, and radionuclides
E: Animal Uptake - Some metals,
such as lead/mercury,
organics/PCBs, radionuclides
Figure 3.8: Pollutant movement and risk pathways for soil contaminants
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Lectures 2
2.1 soil formation
Soils are formed by the disintegration (or more precisely, evolution) of rock material of the earths
relatively deeper crust, which itself is formed by the cooling of volcanic magma. The stability of
crystalline structure governs the rock formation. As the temperature falls, new and often more
stable minerals are formed. For instance, one of the most abundant minerals in soils known as
quartz acquires a stable crystalline structure when the temperature drops below 573C. The
intermediate and less stable minerals (from which quartz has evolved) lend themselves to easy
disintegration during the formation of soils.
The disintegration process of rocks leading to the formation of soils is called weathering. It is
caused by natural agents; primarily wind and water (note that these are the same agents that aid
the evolution and life in other kingdoms). The specific processes responsible for weathering of
rocks are:
i.
Erosion by the forces of wind, water, or glaciers, and alternate freezing and thawing of
the rock material.
ii. Chemical processes, often triggered by the presence of water. These include:
Hydrolysis (reaction between H- and OH- ions of water and the ions of the rock
minerals),
Chelation (complexation and removal of metal ions),
Cation exchange between the rock mineral surface and the surrounding medium
Oxidation and reduction reactions,
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Carbonation of the mineral surface because of the presence of atmospheric CO .
iii. Biological processes which, through the presence of organic compounds, affect the
weathering process either directly or indirectly.
Once the rock material is weathered, the resultant soil may either remain in place or may be
transported by the natural agencies of water, air, and glaciers. In the former case, the soils are
called residual soils. Depending on the natural agent involved, the transported soils are called
alluvial or fluvial (water-laid), aeolian (wind-laid), or glacial (ice-transported) soils. Several
subdivisions are often made based on the transportation and deposition conditions.
The properties of the soil deposits formed depend on the soil-forming factors. In general, five
independent variables may be viewed as governing soil formation:
Climate - Amount of moisture available, temperature, chemical reaction speed and rate of
plant growth
Organisms present - Organisms influence the soil's physical and chemical properties and
furnish organic matter to soil
Topography - Angle: like Steep is poorly developed soils but flat to undulating surface is
the best. Orientation (direction the slope is facing) - soil temperature and
Moisture
The nature of the parent material - Original mineral makeup and important in young soils.
Residual soilfrom bedrock. Transported soilcarried
from elsewhere
Time - varies for soils in different climates, locations
It is generally established in the soil sciences literature that any property of soil is invariably
linked to these five fundamental soil forming factors. Soil formation due to weathering of rocks
and subsequent transportation and deposition yields us the first scheme for soil composition.
The deposition of soils occurs in layers and each layer possesses unique properties reflecting
the parent material from which it arose. A host of environmental factors which were responsible
for its formation, including climate, ground slope, and the presence of organic matter, are
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reflected in the properties of each of these layers. The composition of soil in terms of the various
layers is usually illustrated in what is known as a soil profile.
2.2 Mineralogy composition in soil
Although different classification schemes could be used, mineralogists have determined that first
separating minerals into groups based on their chemical composition gives classes with the
greatest similarities in many other properties. Thus, minerals are first divided into classes
depending upon the dominant anion or anionic group.
Five mains groups of mineral composition in soil (regular structure elements and atomic
elements) are:
i.
Carbonates calcite and dolomite usually use in cement
ii.
Oxides
iii.
Hydrous Oxides gibbsite and brucite minus OHs sheet in clay minerals
iv.
Phosphate using for fertilizer
v.
Silicate 90% of all soil
Figure 2.1 Soil Compositions Schematic Diagram

2.2.1 Silicate mineral class
The silicate mineral class is an extremely large and important group of minerals. Nearly 40 of the
common minerals are silicates, as are most minerals in igneous rocks. Silicates constitute well
over 90% of the earth's crust. The fundamental unit of all silicate structures is the SiO4
2tetrahedron. It consists of four O ions at the apices of a regular tetrahedron coordinated to one
4+
2Si at the center. The individual tetrahedral are linked together by sharing O ions to form more
complex structures.
2.2.1.1 Silica tetrahedron: The silica tetrahedron consists of four oxygen ions and one silica ions. The
molecular arrangement is such that the four oxygen ions are spaced at what would be the
corners and tip of a three-dimensional, three-sided pyramid, with the silicon located within the
pyramid. Oxygen ions at the base are shared by adjacent tetrahedrons, thus combining and
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forming a sheet. The thickness of a silica sheet is 5 x 10 mm or 5-Angstrom units (1 Angstrom
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unit = 1 x 10 ).
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V= Valens
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O = oxygen (V=-2)
Si = Silica (V = +4)
Figure 2.2: Silica Tetrahedron

2.2.1.2 Common silicate mineral in soil
i. Quartz Commonly found in soil and the mineral composition SiO2.The Quartz shape are in
three dimensions and each of quartz cannot absorb in acid and cannot break easily. There is
no isomorphous substitution in quartz, and each silica tetrahedronis firmly and equally braced
in all directions. As a result, quartz has no planes of weakness and is very hard and highly
resistant to mechanical and chemical weathering. Quartz is not only the most common
mineral in sand and silt-sized particles of soils, but quartz or amorphous silica is frequently
present in colloidal (1 to 100 nm) and molecular (< 1 nm) dimensions.
ii. Feldspar - some of the silicon atoms are replaced by aluminum. This results in a negative
charge and in distortion of the crystal structure, because A1 atoms are larger than Si atoms.
+
+
+
The negative charge is balanced by taking in cations such as K , Na , and Ca in orthoclase,
albite, and anorthite feldspars, respectively. The distortion of the lattice and the inclusion of
the cations cause cleavage planes that reduce the resistance of feldspars to mechanical and
chemical weathering. For these reasons, feldspars are not as common as quartz in the sand, silt-, and claysized fractions of soils, even though feldspars are the most common
constituent of the earth's crust.
iii. Mica - Common micas such as muscovite and biotite are often present in the silt- and sandsized fractions of soils. In a unit sheet of mica, which is 1 nm thick, two tetrahedral layers are
linked together with one octahedral layer. In muscovite, only two of every three octahedral
sites are occupied by aluminum cations, whereas in biotite all sites are occupied by
+4
+3
magnesium. In well-crystallized micas one fourth of the tetrahedral Si are replaced by A1 .
The resulting negative charge in common micas is balanced by intersheet potassiums. In a
face-to-face stacking of sheets to form mica plates, the hexagonal holes on opposing
tetrahedral surfaces are matched to enclose the intersheet potassiums.
2.2.1.3 Alumina octahedrons: The alumina octahedron consists of six-oxygen and one-aluminum.3
oxygen is in the top place of the octahedrons, and three are in the bottom plane. The
aluminum is within the oxygen grouping. It is possible that the aluminum ion may be replaced
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with magnesium, iron, or other neutral ions. The aluminum sheet is 5 x 10 mm thick. Oxygen
from the tip of a silica tetrahedron can share an alumina sheet, thus layering sheets. Different
sheet arrangements are then combined to form the different clay minerals. The composition
and typical properties of the more commonly occurring clay minerals are Kaolinite, Illite and
Montmorillonite.
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Figure 2.3: Alumina Octahedrons

2.2.2.1 Common clay mineral
i. Kaolinite- is a common mineral in soils and is the most common member of this subgroup.
A Kaolinite is the most prevalent clay mineral and is very stable, with little tendencies for
volume change when exposed to water. Kaolinite layers are stack together to form
relatively thick particle. Particles are plate shaped. Because of the strong bonding,
kaolinite does not exhibit swelling in water. The composition is one-silica, one alumina
sheet that is very strongly bonded together. Kaolinites have very little isomorphous
substitution in either the tetrahedral or octahedral sheets and most kaolinites are close to
the ideal formula Al2Si2O5 (OH) 4.
Figure 2.4: Kaolinite Diagram

ii. Illite - has irregular plate shape, more plastic than kaolinites. Its does not expand when
exposed to water unless potassium deficiency exists. This clay is most prevalent in
marine deposits. The composition is an alumina sheet sandwiched between two silica
sheets to form a layer. Potassium provides the bonds between the layers.
Figure 2.5: Illite Diagram

iii. Montmorillonite - has irregular plate shapes or is fibrous because of the weak bond
between layers this clay readily absorbs water between layers. This mineral has a great
tendency for large volume change. The composition is an alumina sheet sandwiched
between two silica sheets to form a layer. Iron or magnesium may replace the alumina in
the aluminum sheet.
Figure 2.6: Montmorillonite Diagram
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Table 2.1: Soil Common Clay Minerals
2.3 Fundamental properties of soils

The soil type or category is based on particle size, however, where the soil particle size is too
small to be observed, an additional physical property, known as plasticity is utilized as a criterion
for evaluation. Soil properties are not always controlled by particle size and plasticity. Studies
have shown that soil structure and mineralogical composition, including the interaction with water,
can also significantly influence the properties and behaviors of soils. Recognizing and
understanding the influence of the various soil properties is vital for design and construction
involving soils.
Soil is all the material located above bedrock and can be grouped into four major categories or
types including gravel, sand, clay and silt. These four categories can be reduced to two groups
termed coarse-grained soil and fine-grained soil. Coarse-grained soil includes gravel and sand,
which have individual particles that are large enough to be viewed without magnification. Clay and
silt are termed fine-grained soil because of their small particle sizes, which are too small to be
seen without enhancement.
The accepted standard ranges for the classification of the major soil types is determined by
various standards development systems including the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and
the United States Agricultural Department (USDA).
Table 2.2: Particle Grain Size
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The particle size classification systems also provide ranges for particles larger than 76.2 mm,
known as cobbles and boulders. In general, cobbles range from 76.2 mm to 400 mm and
particles larger than 400 mm are considered boulders.
For coarse-grained soils (> 65% sand and gravel) the soil name is based on the particle sizes
present. For fine-grained soils (> 35% silt and clay sizes) it is based on behavioral
characteristics.
2.3.1 Particle Size and Shape
Particle size and shape affects the mechanical behavior of soils, however, the effect of varies for
coarse-grained and fine-grained soils. The size and shape of the granular soil particles can
increase or decrease the tendency of particles to fracture, crush and degrade. Round particles
will not interlock where as angular particles will; flat particles when oriented might form planes of
weakness inducing potential for failure.
The grading of gravels and sands may be qualified in the field as well graded (good
representation of all particle sizes from largest to smallest). Poorly graded materials may be
further divided into uniformly graded (most particles about the same size) and gap graded
(absence of one or more intermediate sizes).
Figure 2.7: Soil shape

2.3.2 Soil structure
Soil structure is the shape that the soil takes based on its physical and chemical properties; it is
the geometric arrangement of soil particles with respect to one another. The process of
sedimentation or rock weathering creates the initial soil structure. Among the many factors that
effect soil structure is the shape, size, and mineral composition of the soil particles, and the
nature and composition of soil water. The basic terminology used to define the soil structure are
single-grained, honeycombed, flocculated and dispersed with variations dependent upon the
composition of the soil.
2.3.2.1 Cohesionless Soils
The particle arrangement of cohesionless soils (gravel, sand and silt) has been likened to
arrangements attained by stacking marbles, or single-grained. In single grained structures
soil particles are in a stable position, with each particle in contact with the surrounding ones.
For similar sized particles large variations in the void ratio are related to the relative position of
the particles.
2.3.2.2 Cohesive Soils
The term cohesive is used for clay soils, which have an inherent strength, based on their
particle structure which provides considerable strength in an unconfined state. The
cohesiveness of a clay is due to its mineralogy and is a controlling factor determining the
shapes, sizes, and surface characteristics of a particle in a soil. It determines interaction with
fluids. Together, these factors determine plasticity, swelling, compression, strength, and fluid
conductivity behavior
2.4 Identification of fundamental characteristic Soils
Coarse grained soils are easy to identify. Fine grained soils are identified on the basis of some
simple tests for dry strength, dilatancy and toughness. Dry strength is a qualitative measure of
how hard it is to crush a dry mass of fine grained soil between the fingers. Clays have very high
dry strength and silts have very low dry strength. Dilatancy is an indication of how quickly the
moisture from a wet soil can be brought to the surface by vibration. Here, a pat of moist clay is
placed on the palm and struck against the other hand several times. In silty soils, within a few
strikes water rises to the surface making it shine. In clays, it may require considerable effort to
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make the surface shiny. In other words, dilatancy is quick in silts and slow in clays. Toughness is
a qualitative measure of how tough the soil is near its plastic limit (where the soil crumbles when
rolled to a 3 mm diameter thread). Toughness increases with plasticity. Silty soils are soft and
friable (crumble easily) at Plastic Limits (PL), and clays are hard at PL. The fines can also be
identified by feeling a moist pat; clays feel sticky and silts feel gritty. The stickiness is due to the
cohesive properties of the fines, which is also associated with the plasticity, and therefore clays
are called cohesive soils. Gravels, sands and silts are called granular soils.
The grain size distribution of a coarse grained soil is generally determined through sieve analysis,
where the soil sample is passed through a stack of sieves and the percentages passing different
sizes of sieves are noted. The grain size distribution of the fines are determined through
hydrometer analysis, where the fines are mixed with distilled water to make 1000 ml of
suspension and a hydrometer is used to measure the density of the soil-water suspension at
different times. The time-density data, recorded over a few days, is translated into grain size and
percentage finer than that size. Hydrometer analysis is effective for soil fractions down to about
0.5 m.
Figure 2.8: Typical particle size distribution of soils.
Figure 2.9: Textural classifications of soils.

Three limits are in general used to characterize the clayey soils:
Shrinkage limit, which is the water content at which the soil passes from solid to semisolid
state
Plastic limit, which is the water content at which transition from semisolid to plastic state
takes place
Liquid limit, which indicates the water content required in order for the clayey soil to begin
exhibiting flow characteristics like liquids
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2.5 Soil test

The BS 5930:1999 (Code of Practice for Site Investigations) summarizes the purposes of
laboratory testing to be to describe and classify the samples, to investigate the fundamental
behavior of the soils in order to determine the most appropriate method to be used in the
analysis, and to obtain soil parameters relevant to the technical objectives of the investigation.
The laboratory tests for soils commonly carried out include:
Moisture content, which read in conjunction with liquid and plastic limits gives an
indication of undrained strength;
Liquid and plastic limits to classify fine grained soil and the fine fraction of mixed
soils;
Particle size distribution to give the relative proportions of gravel, sand, silt and
clay;
Organic matter which may interfere with the hydration of Portland cement;
Mass loss of ignition which measures the organic content in soil, particularly peat;
Sulfate content which assesses the aggressiveness of the soil or groundwater to buried
concrete;
pH value which is usually carried out in conjunction with sulfate contents tests;
California bearing ration (CBR) used for the design of flexible pavements;
Soil strength tests such as Triaxial compression, unconfined compression and vane shear;
Soil deformation tests;
Soil permeability tests.
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Lectures 3
3.0 Principal geochemical processes affecting contaminants mobility in the ground and their
impact on groundwater and surface waters quality
Figure 3.1: Sources of groundwater contamination

3.1 Process of waste mixes with soil
Contaminant can enter soil through:
i. Dissolve in liquid phase in soil
ii. Absorb inorganic matter in soil
iii. From mineral structure residue.
Figure 3.2: Adsorption of contaminant in soil

The ways of in which contaminant sorbed into soil and sediment varies with the nature of the
contaminant and the makeup of the soil and sediment. The composition of soil and sediment
includes both mineral matter and organic matter as the primary constituents.
In the presence of water with many contaminants, water is adsorbed on the surface of mineral
matter, whereas, contaminants are absorbed into the organic matter by a partition process.
Under relatively dry conditions, the soil/sediment mineral matter acts as an adsorbent, where the
sorbed organic compounds are held on the surface of the mineral grains. The soil/sediment
organic matter (SOM) acts as an absorbent, or a partition medium, where the sorbed organic
compounds dissolve (partition) into the matrix of the entire SOM. The soil or sediment, then, is
characterized as a dual-function sorbent, in which the mineral matter sorbs the contaminant by
adsorption while the SOM sorbs the contaminant by a partition process.
Consider a natural water system with many organic contaminants present. Adsorption to
soil/sediment mineral matter occurs as a consequence of the competition between all species,
including water. In the presence of water, the soil/sediment mineral matter prefers to adsorb
water because of their similar molecular polarities, while the soil organic matter prefers to absorb
the contaminants (organic solutes) in water. This means that the (nonionic) organic
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contaminants are not signicantly adsorbed to minerals, and that the partition of a contaminant
is not affected by water or by other contaminants. So two processes are at work:
i.
The organic contaminants are competitively prevented by water from adhering to the
surface of the soil mineral matter, while at the same time,
ii.
The organic contaminants are able to partition independently into the SOM. Because
so many environmental contaminants are transported by ground water and surface
water, it is important to understand the unique function of the soil organic matter
within these aquatic systems and how the partition processes affect the fate of
common environmental contaminants.
3.1.1 Contaminant substance in Soil - Key Properties of Contaminants :

Water Solubility
Solubility is defined as maximum amount of a contaminant that can be dissolved in the
water at a specified temperature. The solubility of a compound tends to be inversely
proportional to the amount of sorption that the contaminant can undergo.
Polarity of the Compound
The polarity of a compound plays a major role in mobility of the compound. Polar
Substances and, therefore adsorb to soil particles less.
Kow ( Octanol Water Partition Coefficient)
Water partition coefficient, is simply a measure of the hydrophobicity (water repulsing) of
an organic compound. The more hydrophobic compound, the less soluble it is, therefore
the more likely it will adsorb to soil particles.
3.1.2 Chemical Fate
Chemical fate is the eventual short-term or long-term disposition of chemicals, usually to another
chemical or storage. Some examples that fit the concept of short-term and long-term fate are
given in Table 3.1. If a polychlorinated biphenol (PCB) compound is in groundwater, the media
are soil and water. The short-term fate will be that the PCB will primarily adsorb to the soil. The
long-term fate is that the chemical will desorb, when the PCB-laden water has left, and
eventually be bioremediated by microbacteria looking for carbon sources. If this PCB is in the
atmosphere, it will be adsorbed primarily to aerosols and particles in the short term, whereas its
long-term fate will probably be photocatalyzed degradation.
There are as many or more examples of short-term and long-term fate as there are chemical
media combinations. An important consideration for this topic is whether we are interested in
short-term or long-term fate. This is often a question to be answered by toxicologists. We will, for
example, take the results of their computations and experiments and track the more toxic forms
of a spill. Sometimes this involves a short-term fate, and sometimes this involves a long-term
fate. The time scale of the calculations is important in determining how we deal with the problem
or how we set up our solution.
Table 3.1: Examples of short-terms and long term fates
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3.2 Mass Transport

Soil, the fragile and fertile interface between the atmosphere and the subterranean realm, is
characterized by massive transfers of mass and energy. Energy and mass fluxes through this
porous medium of the soil are not only significant for the healthy functioning of soil as the clean
and productive base for agriculture, but also they are critical for the role that the soil plays in
protecting the environment of both underground and surface reserves of water.
3.2.1 Mass and Transport in soil
The Objectives of mass and transport in soil to determine how contaminant is migrates in the
subsurface relatives to pore water. The transport of dissolved contaminant is via advection. The
Important factor for advection is the direction of the hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient can
show the direction of dissolved contaminant transport. The pore velocity (Darcy velocity divided
with porosity) is an important indicator because when a chemical with the concentration (Co) is
introduced into soil system, the contaminant migrates as a sharps front at a velocity equal to the
pore velocity.
In reality, there are other mechanisms augmenting advection. The saturated soil system
possesses concentration gradients in addition to hydraulic gradient because of the localized
presence of the dissolve chemical. These concentration gradients exercise kinetics activity and
provide for an additional mechanism transport namely diffusion.
3.2.2. Transport Processes
A transport process, as used herein, is one that moves chemicals and other properties of the
fluid through the environment. Diffusion of chemicals is one transport process, which is always
present. It is a spreading process, which cannot be reversed (without the involvement of another
media such as in reverse osmosis). Diffusion is the flux of solute from a zone of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration due to the Brownian motion of ionic and molecular
species.
Figure 3.1: Illustration of convection and diffusion of a chemical cloud along x-space coordinate (x-axis).
Molecular Diffusion- the molecular scale movement of a chemical within a medium (i.e., soil, air,
water) can be conceptualized as a spontaneous mixing process. Loss of spatial unevenness in
the distribution of mass (or concentration), heat, or other attributes of a system is a
manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics, i.e., in the absence of an external energy
source, entropy of a system increases until equilibrium is reached:
a. In other words, molecules will tend to rearrange themselves so that the system has the
lowest energy.
b. Molecules thus move from regions of high chemical potential to regions of low chemical
potential.
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Figure 3.2: Model for diffusion. At time = 0, a chemical is released into one end of the narrow tube filled
with water. The time = t, the chemical will have moved through the water filled tube. No net movement
occurs when the system has reached equilibrium (entropy is maximized; free energy is minimized.
Convection or advection is the transport of chemicals from one place to another by fluid flow.
The convection and diffusion of a chemical cloud, as represented in Figure 3.1, are the
movements of the cloud and spreading of the cloud over time.
Turbulent diffusion is actually a form of advection, but the turbulent eddies tend to mix fluid with
a random characteristic similar to that of the diffusion process, when viewed from enough
distance. The representation given in Figure 3.1 could also be used to represent convection and
turbulent diffusion, except that the pace of turbulent diffusion is normally more than one order of
magnitude greater than diffusion.
Molecular diffusion is important mainly on the microscopic scale; it brings reactants into contact
with each other and causes transport of chemicals across boundaries (e.g., across a cell
membrane; from water onto a particle surface; across the air-water interface). On a macroscopic
scale (rivers, lakes, aquifers), molecular diffusion is extremely slow in causing transport. Over
large distances, transport is caused by the motion of the fluid itself, i.e., advection; only at very
short distances, where viscosity inhibits fluid motion, does transport by molecular diffusion
become relevant (such areas exist in the pore space of sediments and at the various interfaces)
This higher pace of turbulent diffusion means that diffusion and turbulent diffusion do not
normally need to be considered together, because they can be seen as parallel rate processes,
and one has a much different time and distance scale from the other. If two parallel processes
occur simultaneously, and one is much faster than the other, we normally can ignore the second
process.
Dispersion is the combination of a nonuniform velocity profile and either diffusion or turbulent
diffusion to spread the chemical longitudinally or laterally. Dispersion is something very different
from either diffusion or turbulent diffusion, because the velocity profile must be nonuniform for
dispersion to occur. The longitudinal dispersion of a pipe flow is illustrated in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Illustration of longitudinal dispersion of a tracer plane at t =0 to a dispersed cloud at t =

T, C is the cross-section mean concentration.
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The nonuniform velocity profile creates a dispersion that is much greater than would occur with
diffusion alone. The other important difference is that dispersion reflects the spreading of a crosssectional mean concentration, while diffusion represents the spreading of a local concentration. In
some contexts, typically in atmospheric applications, turbulent diffusion is also considered to be a
form of dispersion. This is only a semantic difference, and herein we will continue to distinguish
between turbulent diffusion and the dispersion of a mean concentration.
Interfacial transfer is the transport of a chemical across an interface. The most studied form of
interfacial transfer is absorption and volatilization, or condensation and evaporation, which is the
transport of a chemical across the airwater interface. Another form of interfacial transfer would
be adsorption and desorption, generally from water or air to the surface of a particle of soil,
sediment, or dust.
Finally, there is multiphase transport, which is the transport of more than one phase, usually
partially mixed in some fashion. The settling of particles in water or air, the fall of drops, and the
rise of bubbles in water are all examples of multiphase transport. Figure 3.4 illustrates three flow
fields that represent multiphase transport.
Figure 3.4: Illustration of multiphase transport.

3.2.3 The Importance of Mixing
Mixing is a rate-related parameter, in that most rates of reaction or transport are dependent on
mixing in environmental systems. When mixing is dominant (the slowest process), the first-order
rate equation can be described as
Rate of process = Mixing parameter Difference from equilibrium
Thus, we need two items to compute the rate of the process: the equilibrium concentrations for
all species involved and the mixing rate parameter. A common example would be dissolved
oxygen concentration in aquatic ecosystems.
3.2.4. Resistance to Transport
An important concept for environmental transport is resistances. The inverse of a rate

parameter is a resistance to chemical transport. Or, in equation form:
1/Rate parameter = Resistance to chemical transport = R
Figure 3.5 gives an example of the adsorption of a compound to suspended sediment,
modeled as two resistances in series. At first, the compound is dissolved in water. For
successful adsorption, the compound must be transported to the sorption sites on the surface
of the sediment. The inverse of this transport rate can also be considered as a resistance to
transport, R1. Then, the compound, upon reaching the surface of the suspended sediment,
must find a sorption site. This second rate parameter is more related to surface chemistry than
to diffusive transport and is considered a second resistance, R2, that acts in series to the first
resistance. The second resistance cannot occur without crossing the first resistance of
transport to the sorption site; so, they must occur in series.
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Figure 3.5: adsorption analogy to resistance series (adsorption of an organic compound to sediment)
Figure 3.6: Transport to sorption site and the resistor analogy.
Figure 3.6 illustrates this concept with the transport of a compound from the water body to a
sorption site on a solid. In the bulk solution, there is diffusion and turbulent diffusion occurring
simultaneously. Transport can occur from either process, so there are two different paths that may
be followed, without the need of the other path. These transport processes are operating in
parallel, and the faster transport process will transport most of the compound. When the
compound comes close to the solid, however, the turbulent diffusion dissipates, because eddies
become so small that they are dissipated by viscous action of the water. Now, we are back to one
transport path, with the act of sorption and diffusion acting in series. Thus, the slowest transport
path once again becomes the important process.
3.3 Mass Transfer Mechanism
As specific chemical element and compound may exist in groundwater in any of the following forms:
a. Free ion surrounded by water molecules
b. Insoluble species. Example Ag2S
-2
c. Metal ligand complexes. Example Al(OH)
d. Absorbed species
e. Species held on ion exchange
+2
f.
Species that differ by oxidation state. Example Fe
The various chemical existing in one or more of these from, thus its will influence the transport
mechanism, so transfers mechanism will be use to these type of chemical. The mass transfer can be
divided into two groups:
3.3 Abiotic process refers to those that are non biological in nature.
3.4 Biotic process- involves mass consumption of the chemicals by microorganism.
3.3.1 Transport Mechanisms
Advection: Dissolved substances carried along with bulk fluid flow.
Hydrodynamic Dispersion: Solute spreads out from path expected to be followed by advection
alone.
a)
Pore channel velocity: molecules travel at different velocities.
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b) Mixing of pore channels, tortuosity, branching.
c) Difference in pore sizes (different velocities)
d) Variable conductivity in soil layers
e) Molecular Diffusion (Sometimes considered a distinct process)

Molecules spread out from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
(Thermodynamics, Brownian motion)
Longitudinal and Transverse dispersion
Longitudinal dispersion Spreading in the direction of flow
Transverse dispersion Spreading in the direction perpendicular to flow

Generally, longitudinal > transverse
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3.3.2: Abiotic Process

It is convenient to treat the mass transfer mechanisms under two groups: (1) abiotic processes; and
(2) biotic processes. The abiotic processes refer to those that are nonbiological in nature. The biotic
processes involve mass consumption of the chemicals by microorganisms, often referred as
biodegradation. The population growth/decline of microorganisms in the presence of various
chemicals is of primary importance in these processes. In reality, both abiotic and biotic processes
occur concurrently. The microorganisms involved in the biotic processes act as catalysts for some of
the reactions in abiotic processes.
i.
Acid Base Reaction

+
The process acid base reaction is involving the exchange of Hydrogen ion (H ). This activity
can alter the pH of contaminant. Because of the pH exchanges, the chemicals participating in
this reaction may influence transport of contaminant. pH often referred to as a master
variable in describing water composition, no single factor plays a more universal role in
defining the characteristics of an aqueous system than pH. Water undergoes auto ionization,
+
resulting in the production of H and OH .

Acid-base behavior determines the physicochemical characteristics of many other
compounds. For example, H2S is a relatively volatile, toxic compound. It is a product of some
2
anaerobic biochemical processes, and can yield the sulfide ion (S ), which can play an
important role in determining the solubility and mobility of metals. The sedimentation of
inorganic chemicals by the formation of complexes with organic or inorganic compounds and
pH-dependent equilibrium reactions are fall into this category. Accumulations of metals in
river and sea sediments can also be included here, since they depend on the chemical and
physical composition of the water.
ii. Hydrolysis of Organic Chemical

Mass process transfer is a result of substitution between an organic compound and water. It
can represent as;
-
(R-X) +H2O = (R-OH) + X + H
R = the main part of organic molecule X = the attached of Halogen, carbon, phosphorus or
nitrogen.
Thus, this process can transform an organic compound (non-biodegradable) to degradable
compound because of the present of hydroxyl. It is known that many pesticides lose their
toxic properties through hydrolysis in the environment; thus the reactivity of a pesticide in
aqueous solutions can be used as an important criterion for its ecotoxicological behavior.
iii. Oxidations
This process is involved exchange of the electrons, similar to exchange of protons. The
transfer of electrons provides the energy to cell to growth. Oxygen can react with certain
organic compounds, giving a hydroperoxide. Oxidation and reduction refer to the removal
and acceptance of electrons, respectively.
Oxidation/reduction potential is by definition the electrical potential (in volts) of the
oxidation/reduction reaction occurring between the electron donor and electron acceptor. In
practice when considering conditions in the environment the term redox potential is
commonly used. Redox potential typically refers to the reduction potential of the dominant
electron acceptor in the environment.
iv. Complexation
Complexation involves reaction between simple cations (usually metallic), and anions called
232ligands. The ligands might be inorganic, such as Cl , F , Br , SO4 , PO4 , and CO3 , or
organic, such as amino acid. Complexation reactions may also occur in series, with complex
of one reaction participating with ligand in another reaction.
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v. Precipitation and Dissolution

These processes are fundamental in nature and are responsible for the vast amounts of
mass transfer occurring in the subsurface environment. Water is an excellent solvent for
several chemicals in gas, solid, as well as liquid phases. Dissolution refers to complete
solubilizing of a given element in groundwater. This mechanism alone might be responsible
for bringing contaminants into the pore fluid at the source. These processes remove mass
from pore water into the gaseous phase.
vi. Exsolution and votilization
These processes involve mass transfer between gaseous and either liquid or solid phases.
Similar to precipitation, these processes remove mass from the pore water into the gaseous
phase. They are controlled by the vapor pressure, which is the pressure of the gas in
equilibrium with respect to the liquid or solid at a given temperature. Vapor pressure reflects
the solubility of a compound in gas and is therefore an indicator of the compounds tendency
to evaporate.
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is the process whereby unstable isotopes (atoms of the same element
that differ in their mass) decay to form new ones. It involves emission of particles from the
elements nucleus. The process is termed decay or decay depending on whether the
element loses an particle (helium) or a particle (electron). The decay is an irreversible
process, with the parent element continuously decaying over time while the daughter isotope
increases in quantity. Of importance in geoenvironmental engineering are the radioactive
species released into groundwater from such activities as mining, milling, and storage of
wastes. The movement of radioactive isotopes such as uranium, plutonium, cesium, and
selenium, away from high-level radioactive waste repositories and defense installations, is of
utmost importance.
vii. Sorption
Transfer of contaminant from liquid to solid phase. Sorption is dominant process affecting
almost all dissolved species in groundwater. Sorption refers to the exchange of molecules
and ions between the solid phase and the liquid phase. It includes adsorption and desorption.
Typical chemical reactions are: acid-base reactions, solution, volatilization, dissolution and
precipitation, complexation reactions, surface reactions (sorption, adsorption), oxidationreduction reactions, hydrolysis, and isotopic processes. An example of the complexity of the
chemical processes as they interact with the soil medium is shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Interaction of multiple phases: solid, fluid, and gas.
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3.3.3 NAPL and DNAPL

The principles discussed in the previous section will enable us to formulate conceptually how
NAPLs move into the subsurface. Because of some important effects of density of NAPLs
(relative to that of water) on the transport phenomena, it is convenient to treat the LNAPLs and
DNAPLs separately. Compounds which display extremely low aqueous solubility can exist as a
separate liquid phase in groundwater systems, if present in sufficient quantities.
3.3.3.1 Light Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids (LNAPL)
In groundwater systems, these contaminant phases are referred to as nonaqueous phase
liquids (NAPLs) and their behavior will be fundamentally different from that of the bulk
aqueous phase. In the case of an NAPL with density less than the surrounding water, the
nonaqueous phase is referred to as a light NAPL (LNAPL), and will generally be found at or
near the phreatic surface (see Figure 3.7). Fluctuations in the height of the phreatic surface
will cause the LNAPL to disperse. LNAPL spills often are attributable to leaking underground
storage tanks (LUSTs) used for storage of petroleum hydrocarbons (fuels).
3.3.3.2 Dense Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids (DNAPL)
Low-solubility organic compounds with density greater than water can exist as a dense NAPL
(DNAPL) phase; their characteristics are fundamentally different from those of LNAPLs.
DNAPL compounds, because of their high density, tend to sink in groundwater systems.
Often these compounds have lower viscosity than water as a result, they tend to sink
according to a pattern known as viscous fingering (see Figure 3.8). As they sink, they leave
a trail of residual DNAPL compound among the solids (soil particles) and liquid (water) in
their wake. A DNAPL phase will continue to sink until it completely disperses among the soil
and water phases, or it reaches an impermeable boundary, such as a clay lens or bedrock
(see Figure 3.8). As they sink, they leave a trail of residual DNAPL compound among the
solids (soil).DNAPL pools are extremely difficult to locate and are often difficult (or
impossible) to remediate using existing technologies. Furthermore, because DNAPLs are
often comprised of halogenated solvents, microbiological activity is slow to bring about
changes in their molecular structure, and the products of microbial degradation involving
these compounds are sometimes more toxic than their parent compounds. Possibly the most
common examples of DNAPL compounds are trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene
(PCE). As in the case of LNAPLs, the source of DNAPL spills is often leakage or failure of
underground storage tanks.
Figure 3.7: Schematic illustration of the behavior of LNAPL compounds. Under some conditions (a), the mass of an LNAPL
spill is insufficient to allow penetration to the capillary fringe. With additional compound introduction (b), LNAPL product will
reach the water table and begin to spread, though the compound will not penetrate far beyond the phreatic surface. If the
source of LNAPL is eliminated (c), removal of LNAPL will allow for rebound of the water table
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Figure 3.8: Schematic illustration of the behavior of DNAPL compounds. Under some conditions (A), the mass of a DNAPL
spill is insufficient to allow penetration to the intact DNAPL to the capillary fringe; vertical movement of the DNAPL is by
viscous fingering. With additional compound introduction (B, C), DNAPL product will reach the water table and continue to
move vertically until it reaches an impermeable boundary.
APL: Aqueous Phase

Liquid (dissolves readily in
water)
NAPL: Non-Aqueous
Phase Liquid (does not
dissolve readily in water)
LNAPL: Light NonAqueous Phase Liquid
(floater)
DNAPL: Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquid
(sinker)
Figure 3.9: Residual NAPL and DNAPL trapped in pores between soil and sediment Particles.
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28
3.4 Equation for mass Transport

i.
Ficks law of diffusion

Diffusion is the flux of solute from a zone of higher concentration to one of lower
concentration due to the Brownian motion of ionic and molecular species. Under steady-state
conditions the diffusion flux F is described by Ficks law. Solute molecules, dissolved in gas
or liquid, move from high to low concentration driving force for movement is difference in
concentration with distance transport is formulated by Ficks law of diffusion. Base on Fick
First Law:
J = -D *
J= The Mass Flux
D = effective effusion
C/ x
C/ x = concentration gradient
Ficks first law provides us with a formal representation of the diffusion process. Analogous to
Darcys law, it states that the flux of diffusing chemical, J, (mass of solute per unit area per
unit time, M/L2T) is directly proportional to the concentration gradient, where C is the solute
concentration (M/L3), D* is the diffusion coefficient for the soil medium (L2/T), and C/ x is
the concentration gradient, which is negative in the direction of diffusion. Concentration
gradients are applied over a soil sample and the observed chemical flux is used in Ficks first
law to determine the diffusion coefficient D*.
It was described that the flux was equal to the negative diffusivity times the change in
concentration divided by the change in distance. For diffusion in water, D ranges from 1 10
9
9 2
to 2 10 m /s. For diffusion in porous media, Freeze and Cherry (1979) suggest taking an
effective diffusion coefficient D* = D, with ranging from 0.5 to 0.01, to account for the
tortuosity of the flow paths.
ii. Advection
The advection/dispersion equation is based on the conservation of mass. This equation is
applicable when
The soil is saturated
Flow is steady
Darcy's Law is applicable
Base on Darcy Law:
Q = -KA dh/dl
where:
Q = rate of water flow (volume per time)
K = hydraulic conductivity
A = column cross sectional area
dh/dl = hydraulic gradient, that is, the change in head over the length of interest.
Select an equation to solve for a different unknown
flow rate
seepage velocity
Darcy velocity or flux
flow rate
seepage velocity
Darcy velocity or
flux
hydraulic
conductivity
Darcy velocity or flux
hydraulic
conductivity
hydraulic
gradient
flow gross cross

sectional area
hydraulic gradient
flow cross
sectional area
voids effective cross

sectional area
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K in equation is called the hydraulic conductivity

Advection is the transport of solute by the bulk groundwater flow. The average pore velocity,
v, is obtained by dividing the Darcy flux q by the effective porosity ne
V= q/ne
iii. Radioactive Decay and Degradation
It was assumed that the adsorption was fast compared to the advection of the contaminant.
If, instead, the reaction is slow compared to the travel time and chemical equilibrium is not
attained, then it is necessary to describe the kinetics of the reaction. The simplest model is
the irreversible (i.e., the solute cannot be desorbed) first order model:
C /t = -C
Radioactive decay is the process whereby unstable isotopes (atoms of the same element
that differ in their mass) decay to form new ones. It involves emission of particles from the
elements nucleus. The process is termed decay or decay depending on whether the
element loses an particle (helium) or a particle (electron). The decay is an irreversible
process, with the parent element continuously decaying over time while the daughter isotope
increases in quantity. Of importance in geoenvironmental engineering are the radioactive
species released into groundwater from such activities as mining, milling, and storage of
wastes. The movement of radioactive isotopes such as uranium, plutonium, cesium, and
selenium, away from high-level radioactive waste repositories and defense installations, is of
utmost importance.
3.4.1 Calculation principles of flow through porous media by Darcy Law
i. Transport time of groundwater between two wells
An underground storage tank has been discovered to be leaking diesel fuel into groundwater.
A drinking water well is located 200 m from the fuel spill. To ensure the safety of the drinking
water supply, a monitoring well is drilled halfway between the drinking water well and the fuel
spill. The difference in hydraulic head between the drinking water well and the monitoring well
is 40 cm (with the head in the monitoring well higher). If the porosity is 39 percent and
hydraulic conductivity is 45 m/day, how long after it reaches the monitoring well would the
contaminated water reach the drinking water well?
Solution: To calculate this period, we need to determine the true velocity of the groundwater
between the two wells. The time for travel between the two wells will then be.
The hydraulic gradient is equal to.
The Darcy velocity is given by
The true velocity is equal to this value divided by the porosity
Thus, the period for flow from the monitoring well to the drinking water well is
days.
This result is typical of groundwater flow speeds---groundwater transport is usually very slow.
29
ii.
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30
Calculation of groundwater velocity: Unfractured clayey aquitard
Average linear groundwater velocity v = KV * h/L * 1/n

= 10-8 cm/s * 1/5 * 1/1/3
= 2 cm/year
Transit Time (A-B)
t = distance/velocity = time to travel
= 5 m / 0.02 m/year across the aquitard
= 250 years
iii.
Calculation of groundwater velocity and travel time across an unfractured clay

aquitard (5 m thick).
Example-2:
A confined aquifer has a source of recharge as shown in the figure below. The hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer is 50 m/day and its porosity is 0.2. The piezometric head in two wells
1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m, respectively, from a common datum. The average thickness of
the aquifer is 20 m and the average width is 5 km. Determine the rate of flow through the
aquifer and the time of travel from the head of the aquifer to a point 4 km downstream (assume
no dispersion or diffusion).
Recharge area
+55 m
5m
+50 m
1000 m
Confined-aquifer
25 m
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Solution:
Area of cross section of flow (A) = 25m
Hydraulic gradient (i) =
55 50
1000
=5
5km = 12.5
Q
A
Seepage velocity (Vv) =
-3
4
10 m ) (5
-3
10 )
m3
1
day 15 10 4 m 2
0.208
= 1.042 m/day
0 .2
31,250
v
10
Rate of flow, Q = K A i = (50 m/day) (12.5

3
Q = 31,250 m /day
Darcy velocity (v) =
10 m
= 0.208 m/day
Time to travel 4 km downstream:
4km
1.042m / day
t
iv.
4000m
1.042m / day
= 3,840 days or 10.5 years
Example of DNAPL movement in a groundwater

3
Suppose 1 m of aquifer is contaminated with 30 L of trichloroethylene (TCE). The aquifer

has porosity of 0.3, groundwater moves through it will an actual speed 0.003 m/day and the
TCE has a dissolved concentration equal to 10 percent of its aqueous solubility.
(Aqueous solubility for TCE =1100 mg/L, specific gravity TCE= 1.47)
a.
b.
Find the mass of dissolved TCE and the mass of undissolved DNAPL
Estimate the time for TCE to be removed.
Solution:
a. The actual dissolve of TCE 10% from 1100 mg/L= 10/100 X 1100 = 110 mg/L
3
3
The porosity is 0.3, so the volume of fluid in 1 m of aquifer is 0.3 m
The amount of dissolved TCE is:
3
3
Dissolved TCE = 30 L X 0.3 m X 10 g/kg = 33 000 mg = 33 g
The specific gravity TCE= 1.47 that is 1.47 time the 1 =kg/L density of water. The total mass
of TCE in the aquifer is therefore:
3
Total TCE = 30 L X 1.47 X 1 kg/L X 10 g/kg = 44 100 g
Since 33 g TCE are dissolved in groundwater, the remaining is
44 100 33 = 44067 g is NAPL mass. That is 44 067/44 100 X 100 = 99.92 %
1m
33 g/m3
1m
0.03 m/day
1m
DNAPL
Dissolved TCE
2
3
Fluid leaving = 1 m X 0.03 m/day = 0.03 m / day
Taking away an amount of TCE equal to
2
2
3
TCE flux through 1 m = 1 m X 0.03 m/day X 33 g/m = 0.99 g/day
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So the time needed to remove all 44, 100 of TCE would be

Time to remove TCE =
44 100 g
= 122 years
0.99 g/day X365 day/yr
3.5 Application of Mass Transport and Transfer

The Groundwater Quality Technical Committee of the Environmental Engineering Division of the
ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) launched a group of activities in 1991 in an attempt
to summarize the state of the art of contaminated-groundwater modeling practice and to provide
guidelines for model users. Use for Modeling such as CFEST, DYNTRACK, MIGRATES, MOC,
MT3D, POLLUTE, RANDOMWALK, RESSQ, RITZ, SOLUTE, and SUTRA. In general, the
popular applications are:
estimate contaminant plume migration
Determine sensitivity of contaminant migration to various Hydrogeological and
source parameters.
The various transport processes simulated by these models are listed in Table 3.2. The models
essentially solve the advection-dispersion equation in one form or another, using either
analytical, semi analytical (potential theory, finite-layer technique), or numerical (finite-difference,
finite-element) methods. All of the models are capable of simulating mass transport due to
advection and molecular diffusion, and only RITZ does not simulate transport due to
hydrodynamic dispersion. RITZ was a model developed to investigate land treatment
alternatives in the disposal of oil sludges, primarily originating from petroleum refinery wastes,
and is the only model that can simulate multiphase flow (the next chapter is devoted to issues of
multiphase flow). All of the models except RITZ can simulate the effects of radioactive decay,
and only CFEST, MOC, and SOLUTE do not simulate the effects of chemical biodegradability.
Sorption process is simulated in all the models through a user-defined retardation factor;
however, most of the models can also simulate sorption and/or other chemical reactions
indirectly, using parameters such as bulk density, organic carbon content, solubility, sorption
constant, cation-exchange capacity, reaction rate constants, and partition coefficient.
Table 3.2 Practical Applications of Frequently Used Transport Models
Applications
Estimate contaminant plume migration plume migration.
Determine sensitivity of migration to various parameters.
Assess leachate collection systems below waste sites.
Design barriers in a landfill.
Locate landfill, hazardous waste, and nuclear waste sites.
Help calibrate flow model.
Investigate contaminant source distribution and loading history
Investigate remedial action alternatives interceptor drains and

withdrawal/injection wells) for cleanup or containment of
contaminated
water
Simulate saltwater intrusion.
Simulate energy transport
Land treatment and cleanup criteria of petroleum refinery
wastes.
Analytical solutions to several practical problems.
Stimulate multiphase flow.
Models
All
All
MIGRATE, POLLUTE
MIGRATE, POLLUTE
CFEST, MOC, MT3D,
RNDWALK,
CFEST, MOC, MT3D,
RNDWALK,
SUTRA DYNTRACK, RESSQ
CFEST, MOC, MT3D,
RNDWALK,
SUTRA DYNTRACK, RESSQ
(inter- CFEST, MOC, MT3D
RNDWALK , DYNTRACK,
RESSQ
CFEST, SUTRA
CFEST, SUTRA
RITZ
POLLUTE
RITZ
So ur ce: American Society of Civil Engineers (1996).
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Lectures 4
4.0 Site Investigation
Site investigation has been defined as investigation of the physical characteristics of the site and
includes documentary studies, site surveys and ground investigation. The last item refers to the
actual surface or subsurface investigation, including on site and laboratory tests. In broad sense,
site investigation should also include study of the site history and environment, interpretation and
analyses of all available data, and making recommendations on the favorable/unfavorable
locations, economic and safe design, and prediction of potential risks.
4.1 Principle Site Investigation
Site Investigation and Analysis of Soils provides guidance on how to gather information and
collect soil samples to provide data that allows an assessment of land where hazardous
substances are present or suspected. This includes formulating data quality objectives, designing
the sampling strategy to meet the objectives of the investigation, quality assurance for analysis,
and data interpretation. A flow chart summarizing the recommended staged approach to site
investigation is presented in Figure 4.1.
Set investigation objectives
Review existing data preliminary site study and inspection
Establish conceptual model and data quality objectives
Determine detailed site investigation sampling design and strategy
Collect soil samples
Analyse soil samples
Interpret data
Revise conceptual model
Report data
Figure 4.1: Recommended approach to site investigation

4.1.1 The data quality objective process
Data quality objectives (DQOs) are qualitative and quantitative statements that specify the
quality of the data required. Together the objectives form a DQO process, which is made up of
seven distinct steps (US EPA, 2000). The DQOs focus on the nature of the problem being
solved by the investigation. The approach to a site investigation will then be determined by the
data required.
The first step in setting DQOs should therefore be to identify the purpose of the site investigation
(state the problem, and identify the decision(s) that need(s) to be made). The most common
purposes are to:
establish the condition of a site before sale, purchase or redevelopment and determine
environmental liabilities
determine the environmental or health risks posed by contaminants in the soil
determine if hazardous substances in the soil pose a hazard to an ecosystem
assess the applicability of a particular remediation option
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benchmark the contamination status of a site following clean-up

The next step in the DQO process involves defining the study boundaries and the development of
a conceptual site model. At this stage the conceptual site model is based on a review of existing
information and usually includes an initial working hypothesis covering the potential nature and
sources of contaminants, their likely spatial distribution in the soil (and other environmental
media), and the potential effects of the contaminants on receptors at or adjacent to the site. Any
data gaps should be identified. On the basis of the conceptual site model, the type and quality of
additional data needed for the site investigation should be determined. Site-specific DQOs for
subsequent stages of the investigation should then be defined.
4.1.2 Conceptual site model
A conceptual site model is a system diagram identifying contaminant sources, routes of
exposure (pathways), and what receptors are affected by contaminants moving along those
pathways. The conceptual site model, which should be developed before undertaking a detailed
site investigation, identifies the zones of the site with different contamination characteristics (eg,
whether contaminants in the soil are likely to be on the surface or at depth, distributed over an
entire area or in localized hot spots). Exposure pathways and receptors should be identified for
both current and future uses of the site (where appropriate). The model will be based on a
review of all available data gathered during the various investigation phases, and should be
used to design the detailed site investigation.
When determining the approach for the investigation, the contaminant distribution must be
included as part of the soil-sampling strategy, as this will affect the sample locations and the
number of samples collected. The contaminant distribution at a site can be affected by a number
of factors, including (i) the nature of the contaminant source and contaminant type, (ii) pathways
for migration and dispersion, (iii) the type and physical nature of the soils/geology and any
physical disturbance of the contaminants.
The soil profile within a site where hazardous substances are present or suspected can be
variable; comprising a mix of natural soils (natural ground) and fill materials (made ground).
Fill often comprises a complex mix of materials, including plant remains, scrap wood, scrap
metal, soil and ash. Fill materials can have a marked effect on the migration of contaminants
through the soil, and can also be a source of contaminants (eg, heavy metals present in ash fill).
It is also sometimes difficult in the field to distinguish certain types of fill from the natural soils.
4.2 Investigation phases
The investigation of a site where hazardous substances are present or suspected should be
undertaken in phases. The five main investigation phases identified in USEPA and Ministry of
Zealand Environment guideline and common alternative terms used to describe each phase are
presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: The five main investigation phases, and common alternative descriptors
Main investigation phases
USEPA and Ministry of Zealand
Environment guideline
Common alternative descriptor
Preliminary site investigation (study)
Preliminary site study, stage 1; Phase 1 desk top study; Phase 1

background information study; Phase 1 contaminated site audit;
Phase 1 environmental site assessment (ESA)
Preliminary site inspection
Site walkover survey; Phase 1 site inspection
Detailed site investigation
Stage 2; Phase 2 field investigation; Phase 2 ESA;

environmental benchmarking
Supplementary site investigation
Additional phase 2 ESA; Phase 3 ESA
Site validation investigation
Remediation validation investigation; soil benchmarking
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Table 4.2: Summary of the difference levels of investigations typically undertaken for the
management of contaminant land
Type of site Investigation
Phase 1 environmental site
assessment (ESA)

assessment (ESA)

assessment (ESA)
Level of Detail
A phase 1 ESA is used to gather sufficient information to develop an
independent professional opinion about the environmental condition of
the property and to indentify actual or potential environmental
contaminant which may impact the property value or effect claim to an
innocent land owner exemption following acquisition.
A typical Phase 2 ESA involves the collection of original sample of soil,
groundwater or building materials to analyze for quantitative values of
various contaminants. The most frequent substances tested are
petroleum, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, pesticides, solvents, asbestos
and mold.
A Phase 3 ESA investigation involves the remediation of a site. Phase
3 ESA investigation aims to delineate the physical extent of
contamination based on recommendations made in Phase 2
assessments. These investigations may involve intensive testing,
sampling, and monitoring, fate and transport studies and other
modeling and the design of feasibility studies for remediation and
remedial plans. Its normally involves assessment of alternatives clean
up methods, costs and logistics. The associated reportage details the
steps taken to perform site clean up and follow-up monitoring for
residual contaminants.
4.2.1 Preliminary site investigation (study)

The main objective of the preliminary site investigation (study) is to provide background
information relevant to the DQOs. For a full site investigation, information on the present and
past uses of the site should be included in order to identify the nature of potential contaminants,
their likely location and significance, and potential pathways for migration within the site or offsite. The preliminary site investigation involves gathering and compiling information about the
site to form the initial conceptual site model. It is often combined with a preliminary site
inspection. Information gathered in the preliminary site investigation and preliminary site
inspection should be documented in a preliminary site investigation report, and where possible
supporting information should be appended to the report. The preliminary site investigation
should identify the sources of contamination, pathways for release and environmental receptors.
The scope of the preliminary site investigation should include the following.
4.2.1.1 Site identification
The site must be identified, including the site name, address, legal description, site boundaries,
a map reference and geographic co-ordinates. Information on site identification can be
obtained from the site owners/occupiers, maps, rates demands and from current certificates of
title. The land area where contaminants may be present, or suspected, may not correspond
with legal boundaries, and site identification should establish the boundaries of the study.
4.2.1.2 Site history
A chronological history of the site and previous site uses should be traced from the present day
back to the initial use (if possible). The previous activities and processes on the site, and the
chemicals and products used, stored or disposed of at the site, should be identified. Any
previous investigation and remediation work should be reviewed and gaps in the information
recorded. The sources of information for the site history may include:
interviews with site personnel and neighbours (usually undertaken during the
preliminary site inspection), covering questions relating to site history, any known
incidents, management practices, waste disposal, and any chemical storage areas
a review of discharge permits, consents or licences (eg, land-use consents; consents
to discharge to air, water or ground; trade waste consents; and dangerous goods
[hazardous substances] licences)
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a review of available environmental reports, environmental incident investigation

reports, tank removal records, process descriptions, waste disposal and chemical
inventories, material safety data sheets and newspaper articles
local authority record reviews, including land information memoranda (LIM) and
regional council databases
certificates of title
a review of historical society records, and any relevant literature relating to the site
the layout of current and historical facilities, and site drainage plans
Photographic records, including aerial photos.
4.2.1.3 Topography and hydrology
The site hydrology assessment should include information on the nearest surface
watercourses to the site, the location of surface water drains and stormwater drainage
channels, the direction of surface water flow, and information on surface water discharges and
abstractions and flooding (if relevant). Typical information sources include topographical maps
and regional council records, as well as observations made during site inspections.
4.2.1.4 Geology and hydrogeology
The site geology assessment should include a description of the types of strata and soil types
and information on fill material (if present). Information sources include published geological
survey maps and memoirs, soil classification publications, and information from previous
environmental or geotechnical investigations.
The site hydrogeology assessment should include information on:
the extent and use of groundwater aquifers in the area
local and regional direction of groundwater flow
anticipated depth to groundwater
seasonal or tidal influences
springs
local groundwater abstraction and use
local groundwater and/or surface water monitoring information
Preferential pathways to groundwater (soak holes, etc.).
Information sources include regional council records on groundwater, and previous site
investigation records.
Figure 4.2: (a) Geology Map
(b) Topography Map
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4.2.2 Preliminary site inspection

The preliminary site inspection is undertaken as part of, or following, the preliminary site study.
The objective in this phase is to augment or confirm the findings of the preliminary site study and
identify any information that may assist with the design of the detailed site investigation.
Information gathered during a preliminary site inspection typically includes:
general site condition, current use, local topography and surrounding environmental setting
location and condition of surface watercourses, local surface drainage systems, ponds and
springs, and information on groundwater use, wells and drains
visible signs of contamination or potential contamination, such as evidence of spills or leaks,
surface staining, chemical storage on unsealed ground, stressed vegetation and odours
Visible signs of areas of fill, stockpiled material, ground disturbance, burnt areas and former
building foundations.
location of chemical storage and transfer areas, bunding, waste storage areas, discharges to
ground and existing tanks, pits, drains, pipelines and sumps
adjacent, surrounding, or up gradient land uses and the potential for contamination from
these sources
Location of former buildings, processes or activities undertaken on the site.
4.2.3 Detailed site investigation
Soil samples should be analysed for contaminants identified on the basis of the preliminary site
study and/or preliminary site inspection. Samples may initially be analysed for a broad screen of
contaminants which, based on experience, have typically been found on similar sites. Before
undertaking the physical works of the detailed site investigation, the potential hazards at the site
should be assessed and appropriate health and safety precautions taken.
4.2.4 Supplementary site investigations
Supplementary site investigations are usually undertaken to provide:
data on areas of concern not investigated during the detailed site investigation
a clearer delineation or definition of a particular area or depth of contamination
information to address specific technical matters (eg, to confirm the applicability of a
particular remedial option)
Certainty regarding environmental liability.
4.2.4 Site validation
Site validation is undertaken after completing remediation activities on a site. The objective is
to demonstrate that the concentrations of hazardous substances or other contaminants of
concern that may remain in the soil within a site or part of a site meet the remediation criteria
set out in a remedial action plan or similar document.
4.3 Preparing for Fieldwork and Soil Sampling for Site Investigation
The first stage in soil investigations is to establish clear sampling objectives. These must define
why and how samples are being collected, and lead to the formulation of the sampling strategy
(eg, where to collect the samples). The sampling objectives will be site specific and depend on
the purpose of the investigation
4.3.1 Intrusive Ground Investigation
The selection of ground investigation methods depends firstly on the characteristics of the
ground, the objectives, and the technical requirements, but may be influenced by the character
of the site, equipment, personnel, and costs. Trial pitting, window sample boreholes and light
cable percussion boreholes are commonly used to recover soil samples. The following are
summarized method statements for each.
4.3.2 Sampling Ground and Groundwater
The BS 5930:1999 identifies four main types of sampling:
Taking disturbed samples from excavating equipment and the drill tool in the course of
excavation or boring;
drive sampling, in which a tube or split tube sampler having a sharp cutting edge at its lower
end is forced into the ground, either by a static thrust or by dynamic impact;
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Rotary sampling, in which a tube with a cutter at its lower end is rotated into the ground,
thereby producing a core sample;
Taking blocks samples specially cut by hand from a trial pit, shaft or heading.
4.3.3
In-situ Tests in Trial Pits and Boreholes

a. Density of the ground
i. Auger borings: Auger borings provide disturbed samples that are suitable for
determining soil type, Atterberg limits, Proctor testing, and other index properties but
generally give limited information on subsoil stratification, consistency, or sensitivity.
Auger borings are most useful for preliminary investigations of soil type, advancing holes
for other sampling methods, determining depth to top of rock, and for monitor well
installation in soils.
ii. Drive borings. Drive borings provide disturbed samples that contain all soil constituents,
generally retain natural stratification, and can supply data on penetration resistance.
Drive boring is a non rotating method for making a hole by continuous sampling using a
heavy wall drive barrel. Drive borings can be advanced quickly and economically with
hollow-stem augers using a plug assembly that is either manually or mechanically set
in the opening at the end of the auger string or then removed prior to sampling.
Figure 4.3:
(a) Wash boring
(b) Field vane tests
(c) CPT
iii. The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) method of drive boring, described in ASTM D
1586-84 (ASTM 1996b), is probably the most commonly used method for advancing a
hole by the drive method. Slight variations of this method, primarily concerning the
sampling interval, cleanout method, and the refusal criteria exist from office to office but
the fundamental procedure follows the ASTM standard.
This test measures the resistance of a soil to the penetration of a split spoon or split
barrel sampler driven into the bottom of a bore hole. The sampler is driven into the soil
to a depth of 150mm by a falling standard weight of 65kg falling through a distance of
760mm. The sampler is then driven into the soil a further 300mm and the number of
blows counted up to a maximum of 50 blows. This test establishes the relative density of
the soil.
Figure 4.4: Spill Barrel for Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
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iv. Cone penetration borings-the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) or Dutch cone boring is an in
situ testing method for evaluating detailed soil stratigraphy as well as estimating
geotechnical engineering properties. The CPT involves hydraulically pushing a 3.6-cm
(1.4-in.) diameter special probe into the earth while performing two measurements, cone
resistance and sleeve friction resistance. The probe is normally pushed from a special
heavy duty truck but can also be performed from a trailer or drilling rig. Because of the
weight of the truck or trailer needed to conduct CPT Borings, access to soft ground sites
is limited. Recent developments in CPT technology make it possible to retrieve physical
soil samples and ground water or soil-gas samples with the same drive string used to
perform the cone penetration test.
v. Field vanes shear tests. Field vane tests performed in boreholes can be useful in soft,
sensitive clays that are difficult to sample. The vane is attached to a rod and pushed into
the soft soil at the bottom of the borehole. The assembly is rotated at a constant rate
and the torque measured to provide the unconsolidated, undrained shear strength. The
vane can be reactivated to measure the ultimate or residual strength.
This test can be carried out within a lined bore hole where the vane is pushed into the
soil below the base of the bore hole for a distance equal to three times the vane
diameter before rotation commences. Alternatively the vane can be driven or jacked to
the required depth, the vane being protected within a special protection shoe, the vane
is then driven or jacked a further 500mm before rotation commences.
vi. Rock core boring. Cored rock samples are retrieved by rotary drilling with hollow core
barrels equipped with diamond- or carbide-embedded bits. The core is commonly
retrieved in 1.5- to 3-m (5- to10-ft) lengths.
Figure 4.4: Diagram representing boring record, penetration record and result of soil
tests sampels from drills holes trough composite shore deposits.
Figure 4.5: Sampling tool for exploratory borings. (a) Earth auger (b) Bailer (c) Chopping bits
(d) Spring core catchers (e) Split spoon samplers (f) Scraper buckets
39
b.
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Permeability of the ground

Soil permeability, a measure of the rate of water flow, can be tested in trial pits, using
soakaway tests where a known volume of the pit is filled with water and the falling water level
is measured over a logarithmic time period. In boreholes, a variety of tests is available,
ranging from the simple, which can nevertheless be used to investigate complex situations,
to the sophisticated; the interpretation of data is crucial.
i.
Tests in piezometers or wells. Permeability tests can easily be made in piezometers or

wells. They should be performed as part of piezometer installation procedures, both to
obtain permeability information and to assure that the piezometer is working
satisfactorily.
ii.
Pumping tests. Pumping tests are the traditional method for determining permeability of
sand, gravels, or rock aquifers. Observation wells should be installed to measure the
initial and lowered ground water levels at various distances from the pumped well.
iii.
Permeability of rock. Most rock masses contain, in addition to intergranular pore spaces,
complex interconnecting systems of joints, fractures, bedding planes, and fault zones
that, collectively, are capable of transmitting ground water.
Figure 4.6: Tests in piezometers
Figure 4.7: Tests in piezometers and pumping well
40
4.3.4
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Geophysical Methods
Geophysical exploration consists of making indirect measurements from the earth's surface
or in boreholes to obtain subsurface information. Geologic information is obtained through
analysis or interpretation of these measurements. Boreholes or other subsurface explorations
are needed to calibrate geophysical measurements. Geophysical explorations are of greatest
value when performed early in the field exploration program in combination with limited
subsurface exploration. They are appropriate for a rapid location and correlation of geologic
features such as stratigraphy, lithology, discontinuities, groundwater, and the in situ
measurement of elastic modular and densities. The cost of geophysical explorations is
generally low compared with the cost of core borings or test pits, and considerable savings
may be realized by judicious use of these methods.
4.3.4.1 Seismic Methods

Seismic reflection and refraction surveys have been widely used to characterize subsurface
environments for decades. Such surveys provide information about the geometry and nature
of subsurface lithology for both petroleum exploration and environmental remediation work.
Reflection and refraction seismic surveys generate sound waves at a near-surface source
(e.g., hammer on a steel plate, explosion) and measure the resulting seismic signal at
multiple receivers called geophones (Figure 4.8). The measured signals are then processed
for amplitudes and travel times for refracted and reflected seismic energy.
Seismic methods are useful for assessment of the structural characteristics of a
contaminated site. They are not suitable for use in contaminated zone delineation because
contaminants do not exhibit sufficient variations in their responses to seismic waves. Elastic
waves generated by seismic sources travel faster in dense, tightly cemented and wet
materials than in loose dry materials, hence seismic wave velocity is directly proportional to
the density of the transport medium. This principle can be applied to the identification of
potential migration pathways for contaminants in the subsurface.
Figure 4.8: Layout of a 12-channel seismograph on a two-layered solid/rock subsurface site.
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Figure 4.8: A diagram of seismic reflection data collection, processing, and interpretation.
4.3.4.2 Electromagnetic resistivity
The electromagnetic resistivity method is also based on the electrical conductivity contrasts
that usually exist between zones of different physical and chemical properties in the ground.
It is not necessary to have electrodes embedded in the ground to transmit and receive
current. Electromagnetic phenomena are generated in the media investigated. The method is
an effective means of delineating contaminated zones beneath covered areas such as
structural foundations and paved areas, because there is no requirement for the use of direct
contact electrodes.
Figure 4.9: Schematic representation of the configuration of direct-current resistivity electrodes for
contaminant plume remediation.
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4.3.4.3 Ground-Penetrating Radar

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) uses electromagnetic waves to penetrate the ground and
delineate differences in pore-water content and quality, soil texture, and soil density. Groundpenetrating radar (GPR) techniques generate high frequency electromagnetic waves
(typically 10 to 1000 MHz) at a source antenna directed toward the ground. There is a tradeoff between the high resolution obtained with high-frequency methods and the corresponding
rapid signal attenuation. Preliminary surveys are often conducted with low-frequency radar
antennas (50 to 100 MHz), with detailed higher frequency (200 to 900 MHz) surveys
conducted in selected regions where detailed information. Usually, wave frequencies that
range from 80 to 1000 MHz (broad band) are used. Upon contact with materials of different
properties, a fraction of the wave energy is reflected back to an antenna located on the
ground surface and the remaining fraction travels deeper into the ground, where it is reflected
at contacts between beds of dissimilar properties.
Figure 4.10: Sketch of a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) system.
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44
Table 4.3: Principal Surface Geophysical Techniques and Their Applications
Surface geophysical
survey method
Seismic Refraction and
Reflection
- Travel time of compressional
waves through subsurface
layers
- Determines lithological
changes in subsurface
Electrical resistivity
- Electrical resistance of a
volume of material between
probes
- Delineates subsurface
resistivity contrasts due to
lithology, groundwater, and
changes in ground-water
quality
Ground-penetrating radar
- Travel time and amplitude of a
reflect signal microwave
- Provides continuous visual
profile of shallow subsurface
objects, structure, and
lithology
Magnetics
- Variations of earths magnetic
Field
- Detects presence of buried
metallic objects
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Groundwater resource
evaluations
Geotechnical profiling
Subsurface stratigraphy
including top of bedrock
Relatively easy accessibility

High depth of penetration
dependent on source of vibration
Rapid areal coverage
Resolution can be obscured in layered

Susceptibility to noise from urban
development
Difficult penetration in cold weather
(depending on instrumentation)
Operation restricted during wet weather
Depth to water table estimates

Subsurface stratigraphic
profiling
Groundwater resource
evaluations
High ionic strength
contaminated
groundwater studies

High depth of penetration
possible (400800 ft)
High mobility
Results can be approximated in
the field
Susceptibility to natural and artificial

electrical interference
Limited use in wet weather
Limited utility in urban areas
Interpretation that assumes a layered
subsurface
Lateral heterogeneity not easily
accounted for
Locating buried objects

Delineation of bedrock
subsurface and structure
Delineation of karst features
Delineation of physical integrity
of man-made earthen
structures
Great areal coverage

High vertical resolution in suitable
terrain
Visual picture of data
Limited depth of penetration (a meter or

less in wet, clayey soils; up to 25 m in
dry, sandy soils)
Accessibility limited due to bulkiness of
equipment and nature of survey
Interpretation of data qualitative
Location of buried ferrous

objects
Detection of boundaries of
landfills containing ferrous
objects
Location of iron-bearing rock
High mobility
Data resolution possible in field
Detection dependent on size and ferrous

content of buried object
Difficult data resolution in urban areas
Data interpretation complicated in areas
of natural magnetic drift.
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4.4 Soil-sampling techniques

The description of soils in geotechnical and geoenvironmental investigations is carried out
according to BS 5930:1999 and forms an important part of ground investigation, the results of
which may be required long after the disposal of the samples. A standard description contains the
following:
i. mass characteristics comprising state and structure:
density/compactness/field strength;
discontinuities;
bedding;
ii. material characteristics comprising nature and state
colour;
composite soil types: particle grading and composition; shape and size;
principle soil type (name in capitals), based on grading and plasticity shape;
iii. stratum name: geological formation, age and type of deposit; classification (optional)
There are a number of different soil-sampling techniques available, and the actual method
used will depend on a variety of factors, including the objectives of the investigation, cost,
access, degree of disturbance, and reinstatement. Often a variety of methods are used as
part of an investigation, but whichever technique is used, the soil sampling must be
undertaken in a manner that retains the sample integrity. The following techniques can be
considered when undertaking soil sampling:
surface and shallow subsurface grab sampling
hand auger sampling
test pit sampling
borehole sampling.
Table 4.4: Soil-sampling techniques
Technique
Grab sampling (trowel,
push tubes, shovel or
scoop plastic or
stainless steel)
Advantages
Low cost
Quick
No access restrictions
Minimal soil disturbance
Hand auger, split-barrel

devices
Disadvantages
Depth limit: surface 0.5 m

Impractical in difficult soil conditions
Care is required to ensure the quality
of sample recovered
Contaminant brought to surface
Lost of volatile organic compound
(VOC)
Low cost
Depth limit: 23 m (with ease)
Quick
Impractical in difficult soil conditions
No access restrictions
Care is required to ensure the quality of

sample recovered
Minimal soil disturbance
Limited ability to observe the nature of

the material
Labour intensive
Test pits (machine dug)
Lower cost than boreholes

Relatively quick
Extent of soil disturbance, occupational

exposure, compaction
Ability to make detailed

observations of the strata
Depth limit is 35 m depending on

excavator
Ability to recover samples
Impractical in unstable soil conditions and

hard rock
Not suitable for installing monitoring
bores due to disturbance
45
Boreholes (drilling rigs

hollow-stem auger, air
rotary drilling, shell and
auger)
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Minor disturbance of soils
More expensive than other techniques
Limited occupational exposure
Limited ability to observe materials
Accurate recovery of samples
Air rotary rigs not suitable for volatiles
Ability to sample at depth
Can cause preferential pathways for

contaminant migration, if not
appropriately constructed
Suitable for most ground

conditions
Can be used for installing
groundwater and gas monitoring
wells
4.4.1 Soil sampling

The soil-sampling strategy should be consistent with the sampling objectives, and the rationale
for the sample pattern chosen must be based on the DQOs. There are three types of sampling
patterns commonly used:
Table 4.5: Soil-sampling pattern
Judgmental :Samples are based

on prior knowledge of the site
Systematic; Samples are located

at regular intervals
Stratified: The study area is

divided into non-overlapping
sub-areas and samples are
obtained from each sub-area
Sampling
Soil Samples - these can be obtained as disturbed or as undisturbed samples.

i.
Disturbed Soil Samples - these are soil samples obtained from boreholes and trial pits.
The method of extraction disturbs the natural structure of the subsoil but such samples
are suitable for visual grading, establishing the moisture content and some laboratory
tests. Disturbed soil samples should be stored in labelled air tight jars.
ii. Undisturbed Soil Samples - these are soil samples obtained using coring tools which
preserve the natural structure and properties of the subsoil. The extracted undisturbed
soil samples are labelled and laid in wooden boxes for dispatch to a laboratory for
testing. This method of obtaining soil samples is suitable for rock and clay subsoils but
difficulties can be experienced in trying to obtain undisturbed soil samples in other types
of subsoil.
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Composite sampling consists of collecting individual samples from different locations and
bulking and mixing an equal mass of the samples (called sub-samples) together to form one
composite sample. A composite sample can then be analyzed, and represents the average of
the constituent sub-samples. The use of composite sampling should only be undertaken by
experienced site investigators after full consideration of the site history.
Compositing can be used to characterize a stockpile of material; for example, to determine an
acceptable disposal location, or for characterizing sites with similar contaminant levels (such
as horticultural sites). This method is appropriate where low-concentration, uniform
contamination is present and can be confirmed by site history. Soils containing or suspected
of containing volatile organic compounds are not suitable for compositing.
Background samples are collected in the area near the site that is not affected by the
contaminant sources on the site. Background samples are used as a reference point to
represent undisturbed natural soil at or near the surface. In practice, obtaining true
background samples can be difficult owing to general anthropogenic sources of contamination
in the areas surrounding most sites where hazardous substances are present or suspected.
Background samples can help to show whether contaminants present on a site are due to
wider area effects, either natural or artificial. Suitable locations for background samples
should be chosen based on the:
site geology (background concentrations of metals are related to the parent rock types)
site history (should indicate no disturbance at the location)
topography (sample collection should not be from any low-lying areas, such as ditches,
but from areas of raised ground).
4.4.2 Laboratory Testing
It is important that the chemical analysis techniques are fully defined in specifications prior to
the investigation fieldwork. There are direct links between the analysis methods (including
sample preparation and extraction) and the results obtained. The test method must be fully
compatible with the method to be used for assessing the results. Detection limits must be
specified which are compatible with the requirements of the subsequent interpretation. The
choice of chemical analysis suites should be primarily based on the history of the various sites
under investigation and the proposed construction works.
Apart from tests for chemicals generally associated with specific site use, there are a number
of qualitative and quantitative tests that are necessary in classifying contaminative types and
the behavior of particular contaminants in the existing matrix (soil or water). It is essential to
test the pH, especially when metals might be present. Other useful tests include electrical
conductivity and leaching tests. Screening tests such as solvent extraction are relatively
cheap and useful but must be combined with more detailed analysis to determine
concentrations of particular contaminants.
Quality control is important at all stages of the field and laboratory work to ensure reliable
analysis results. It is good practice to require specified analyses to be undertaken on
additional samples (particularly water samples) prepared both on site and in the laboratory to
identify any errors in the sampling and analysis programme. Additional samples include
replicate, spiked, blank and reagent samples which are generally a routine part of the
laboratory quality control programme.
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Lectures 5
5.0 Land Remediation strategy and technology
The most common remediation method for contaminated soil is dig and dump the excavation of
contaminated material and transfer to a landfill site. This cost effective means for smaller quantities
of contaminated material. For the owner of this site the advantages is that contaminated material is
remove from the site and is no longer perceived as the owner problem. Alternative to this dig and
dump method can be categorized as;
i. In-situ methods are conducted largely without need for excavation.
ii. Ex-situ method are conducted after contaminated
5.1 Physical and chemical processes treatment
Physical/chemical technologies, which represent the most diverse group of remediation
technologies, include soil vapor extraction, solidification/stabilization, oxidation, soil flushing, and
electrokinetic separation.
5.1.1 Soil Vapor Extraction
In situ soil vapor extraction (SVE) is a remediation technology in which a vacuum is applied to
induce a controlled subsurface air flow to remove volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and some
semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from the vadose zone to the surface for treatment. The
configuration of the system usually involves attaching blowers to extraction wells which are
generally constructed with slotted polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to induce airflow through the soil
matrix. The contaminated air is brought to the surface and passed through a vapor/liquid
separator to remove any moisture before the air is treated. Treatment is typically done by
adsorption (activated carbon), or for more concentrated waste streams, by thermal oxidation
systems. The water generated by the liquid separator may also require treatment (Figure 5.1).
When expected concentrations in the air stream are sufficiently high (1,000 to 5,000 parts per
million [ppm] or more) for free product recovery for recycling, a stand alone condensation
treatment system might be considered. The factors that reduce contaminate remediation of SVE:
The system has exhausted the supply of contaminants that it can adjectively reach, and their
continued presence, at very low concentrations, represents a draw upon diffusion rate-limited
source areas.
The water table has risen and the source areas are no longer available to the SVE system.
The soil has reached a dryness factor that hinders, rather than promotes, SVE.
The measured flow represents dilution from fully flushed areas near the extraction well, while
understating considerably more contaminated areas further away, near stagnation points
Figure 5.1: Typical Soil Vapor Extraction System
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5.1.2 Solidification/Stabilization
Solidification and stabilization are waste treatment processes that are intended primarily to
reduce the mobility of waste constituents. Solidification is the change in waste physical state,
from a nonsolid to a solid. Stabilization is the modification of the waste such that it is converted to
a less soluble, mobile or toxic form.
The product of solidification may be a monolithic block, a clay-like material, a granular
particulate, or some other physical form commonly considered solid. Stabilization technologies
reduce the hazard potential of a waste by converting the contaminants into less soluble, mobile,
or toxic forms (e.g., Cr (VI) to Cr (III)). The physical nature and handling characteristics of the
waste are not necessarily changed by stabilization.
Thus, solidification/stabilization of waste materials, which is usually performed ex-situ following
adaptations of the treatment scheme illustrated in Figure 5.2, has the following advantages.
Improvement in waste handling due to possible reduction in volume
Decrease in the surface area of waste available for leaching of contaminants
Reduction in the solubility of waste
Transformation of contaminants in waste from toxic to nontoxic forms.
Chemical stabilization relies on the reduction of contaminant mobility by physical or chemical
reactions with the contaminant, rather than the contaminant matrix (e.g., soil or sediment), as is
done with solidification. The mobility of organic and inorganic compounds can be reduced
through various precipitation, complexation, and adsorption reactions. Commonly applied
inorganic stabilization agents include soluble silicates, carbon, phosphates (e.g., apatite), and
sulfur-based binders. Organo-clays have been used to stabilize organic chemicals that are poorly
addressed by precipitation and complexation reactions.
The S/S process can be accomplished using either inorganic or polymer binders. The most
common inorganic binders are Portland cement, pozzolans (siliceous or aluminous materials that
can react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds with cementitious properties), and
cement/pozzolan mixtures. These binders are effective for a range of inorganic cations and
anions, treatability studies.
Figure 5.2: Solidification and Stabilization Contaminated Soil and Sludges

5.1.3 Chemical Oxidation
Chemical oxidation typically involves reduction/ oxidation (redox) reactions that chemically
convert hazardous contaminants to nonhazardous or less toxic compounds that are more stable,
less mobile, or inert. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one chemical to
another. Specifically, one reactant is oxidized (loses electrons) and one is reduced (gains
electrons). There are several oxidants capable of degrading contaminants. Commonly used
oxidants include potassium or sodium permanganate, Fentons catalyzed hydrogen peroxide,
hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and sodium persulfate. Each oxidant has advantages and limitations,
and while applicable to soil contamination and some source zone contamination, they have been
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applied primarily toward remediating groundwater. Several key concepts in oxidant selection for
site cleanup include:
The type of delivery system selected depends upon the depth of the contaminants, the physical
state of the oxidant (gas, liquid, solid), and its decomposition rate. Backhoes, trenchers, and
augers have been used to work liquid and solid oxidants into contaminated soil and sludge.
Liquids can be delivered either by gravity through wells and trenches or by injection. For vadose
zones, gravity has the drawback of a relatively small area of influence. Pressurized injection of
liquids or gases, either through the screen of a well or the probe of a direct push (DP) rig, will
force the oxidant into the formation. The direct push (DP) rig offers a cost-effective way of
delivering the oxidant, and if needed, the hole can be completed as a small diameter well for later
injections. Potassium permanganate and other solid phase chemical oxidants have also been
added by hydraulic or pneumatic fracturing.
5.1.4 Soil Flushing
Soil flushing involves flooding a zone of contamination with an appropriate solution to remove the
contaminant from the soil. Water or liquid solution is injected or infiltrated into the area of
contamination. The contaminants are mobilized by solubilization, formation of emulsions, or a
chemical reaction with the flushing solutions. After passing through the contamination zone, the
contaminant-bearing fluid is collected and brought to the surface for disposal, recirculation, or onsite treatment and reinjection. Application of soil flushing relies on the ability to deliver, control
the flow, and recover the flushing fluid.
Flushing solutions may be water, acidic aqueous solutions, basic solutions, chelating or
complexing agents, reducing agents, cosolvents, or surfactants. Water will extract water-soluble
(hydrophilic) or water-mobile constituents. Acidic solutions may be used to remove metals or
basic organic materials. Basic solutions may be used for some metals, such as zinc, tin, or lead,
and some phenols. Chelating, complexing, and reducing agents may be used to recover some
metals. Cosolvents are usually miscible and are effective for some organics. Surfactants can
assist in the removal of hydrophobic organics
The techniques employed the most in soil flushing are surfactant and cosolvent flooding for fuels
and chlorinated solvents. There are many types of surfactants (cationic, anionic, nonionic), and
while adjustments can be made in the fluid composition, anionic or nonionic surfactants are
generally used. This is because their negative or neutral charge reduces the possibility of their
sorption to negatively charged clay particles. They also are generally less toxic than cationic
surfactants.
Figure 5.3: Illustration of a typical soil flushing system (U.S. EPA, 1997).
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5.1.5 Electrokinetic Separation

Electrokinetic separation is an emerging technology that relies on the application of a lowintensity, direct current through the soil to separate and extract heavy metals, radionuclides, and
organic contaminants from unsaturated soil, sludge, and sediment. The current is applied across
electrode pairs that have been implanted in the ground on each side of the contaminated soil
mass. During electromigration, positively charged chemical species, such as metals, ammonium
ions, and some organic compounds, move toward the cathode, and negatively charged
chemicals, such as chloride, cyanide, fluoride, nitrate, and negatively-charged organic species,
migrates toward the anode (Figure 5.4). Electromigration does not require advective flow of pore
water for the chemical species to move. In fine-grained soil, the electric current also causes
electroosmosis, which is an electrically induced hydraulic flow of ground or soil pore water
between the electrodes. This flow can carry neutrally charged species with it. Suspended,
charged colloids and miscelles can also move by electrokinetics through the process of
electrophoresis. Electrophoresis, in this instance, is similar to electromigration except that the
species moving are not single molecules.
Electrolysis reactions (conversion of electrical energy into chemical potential energy) create H 2
-
and OH at the cathode and O2 and H at the anode. These reactions create an acid front near the
anode and a base front near the cathode that migrate towards each other. The acid front aids in
increasing the mobility of cationic species, but in some soils, it can retard electroosmois. The
hydroxide front needs to be controlled to avoid the premature precipitation of some target metal
ions.
This technology can be applied to contaminant concentration ranges from a few ppm to greater
than 10,000 ppm, but may not be effective for treating multiple contaminants that have
significantly different concentrations. The target compounds are either extracted to a recovery
system or deposited at the electrode. Surfactants and complexing agents may be used to
increase solubility and assist in the movement of the contaminant, although care should be taken
when choosing between charged (anionic/cationic) and neutral surfactants. When electroosmotic
flow is from the anode to the cathode, the flow will assist cationic species and retard anionic
ones.
For the electrokinetics to work, the soil moisture must be conductive and sufficient to allow
electromigration but, optimally, not saturated. Removal efficiencies are directly related to the
solubility of the target contaminant (which can be amended with surfactants), its electrical
charge, and its concentration relative to other ions or contaminant species. Unfavorable
conditions at a site include soil with a high cation exchange capacity, high buffering capacity,
high naturally occurring organic content, salinity, and very low moisture content. The presence of
subsurface metal structures or utilities can also adversely affect performance.
Figure 5.4: Simple Electrokinetic Separation System
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5.2 Biological Remediation

Biological remediation (more commonly referred to as bioremediation) involves the promotion of
conditions in an aquifer that are conducive to the growth of microbes that can degrade
contaminants. Numerous types of microbes are naturally present in aquifers. Each microbe tends
to degrade certain types of chemicals; the microbes that are most likely to be present in the
subsurface are those that have evolved on a diet of the most abundant, naturally occurring organic
material in the aquifer. Contaminants are degraded by the process of microbial metabolism, in
which the microbe uses the contaminant as an electron donor to complete heterotrophic microbial
respiration. The by-products of complete biodegradation are carbon dioxide, water, and biomass.
Biodegradation of complex compounds may occur in a series of several steps, in which a
contaminant is degraded into several intermediate products before it is completely degraded; for
example, tetrachloroethylene biodegrades to trichloroethylene, which biodegrades to
dichloroethylene, which biodegrades to vinyl chloride, which biodegrades much more slowly than
the previous degradation steps) into carbon dioxide and water.
5.2.1 Bioventing
Bioventing involves the injection of a gas into the subsurface to enhance the biodegradation of a
contaminant. The gas can be used to keep the subsurface aerobic or anaerobic, or to provide a
substrate that enables cometabolic degradation to occur
i.
Aerobic Bioventing
Aerobic bioventing has a robust track record in treating aerobically degradable contaminants,
such as fuels. Bioventing involves supplying oxygen to contaminated unsaturated soils with
low oxygen concentrations to facilitate aerobic microbial biodegradation. Using the supplied
oxygen, the microbes oxidize the contaminants to gain energy and carbon for growth. Oxygen
is typically introduced by air injection wells that push air into the subsurface.
Figure 5.4: Common Contaminants to Bioventing Technologies

ii. Anaerobic Bioventing
While aerobic bioventing is useful for degrading many hydrocarbons, some chlorinated
compounds are not effectively treated aerobically. Microbes may degrade these contaminants
directly via anaerobic reductive dechlorination or through anaerobic cometabolic pathways.
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Anaerobic reductive dechlorination is a biological mechanism, typically marked by sequential

removal of chlorine ions from a molecule. Microbes possessing this pathway gain energy from
this process. In some situations, microorganisms fortuitously degrade contaminants, while
gaining energy and carbon from other compounds (cometabolites). These organisms usually
do not obtain any benefit from contaminant degradation, and the removal process is called
cometabolism. Anaerobic bioventing may involve both anaerobic reductive dechlorination and
anaerobic cometabolism to destroy the contaminants of concern.
iii. Cometabolic Bioventing
Cometabolic bioventing involves injecting air into the subsurface along with a suitable
gaseous substrate to promote cometabolic reactions with the target compound. As with
anaerobic cometabolism, some microorganisms fortuitously degrade contaminants while
oxidizing other compounds (cometabolites) for energy and carbon. The organisms usually do
not obtain any benefit from contaminant degradation. A suitable substrate should be
determined in the laboratory but may include methane, ethane, propane, butane, and
pentane. The delivery system is similar to other bioventing technologies and subject to many
of the same limitations. Cometabolic bioventing is applicable to contaminants, such as TCE,
trichloroethane (TCA), ethylene dibromide, and dichloroethene (DCE) that resist direct
aerobic degradation. This technology is not applicable to PCE.
5.2.2 Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation uses plants to extract, degrade, contain, or immobilize contaminants in soil,
groundwater, and other contaminated media. The phytoremediation mechanisms used to treat
contaminated soil in situ are phytoextraction, rhizodegradation, phytodegradation,
phytovolatilization, and phytostabilization. Phytoremediation is best used to treat large areas of
shallow contamination. Because high levels of contaminants may be toxic to plants and inhibit
their growth, phytoremediation is best applied to low and moderate levels of contamination, used
in conjunction with other treatment methods, or used as a final polishing step in site remediation.
The various mechanisms of phytoremediation can treat a wide range of contaminants, including
metals, VOCs, PAHs, petroleum hydrocarbons, radionuclides, and munitions, although not all
mechanisms are applicable to all contaminants. Phytoremediation may take longer than other
technologies to treat a site, but it has the potential to be less expensive than excavating and
treating large volumes of soil ex situ.
There are a number of limitations to the technology that must be considered before it can be
implemented at a site. The limitation is:
i. The depth of the contamination requiring treatment must be within the range of depth of plant
root growth; thus, treatment of contaminated soil typically focuses on the upper 8 to10 inches
(20 -25 cm) of the soil horizon, although the roots of hybrid poplar trees, a species commonly
used in phytoremediation can grow to depths of about 15 feet (4.5 m). Contaminants must be
in contact with the root zone to be treated; therefore, a denser root mass is preferred to help
contact more of the contamination.
ii. The treatment, phytoremediation is limited by the rate of root growth because the treatment
depends on this contact with the root zone. Slower growth rates increase the time required to
treat a site, and winter months may shut down the treatment system completely while plants
are dormant.
iii. Phytoremediation is possible bioconcentration of contaminants up the food chain. Several
phytoremediation mechanisms work by incorporating the contaminant into the plant or holding
it within the root zone. The contaminated vegetation and root zone may impact plant-eating
animals and soil organisms. This is particularly a concern with metals and radionuclide
contamination that accumulate in plants and the root zone. Most plants do not accumulate
significant levels of organic contaminants; thus, bioconcentration is of less concern.
The potential for plant-eating animals to be exposed is greatest when these contaminants
accumulate in fruits, seeds, and leaves, so monitoring the fate of contaminants within the plants
are important. To avoid bioconcentration in the food chain, contaminated plants can be harvested
for disposal, destruction, or the extraction of metals for reuse (phytomining). In these cases,
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perimeter fencing and overhead netting can be installed to prevent animals from consuming
contaminated plant matter.
It is important to ensure that unwanted transfer of contaminants from soil to other media, such as
the volatilization of organic compounds to the atmosphere through plant uptake and transpiration,
does not occur or that the transfer results in the destruction of the contaminants. Evaluating the
limitations of phytoremediation in its various applications, as well as assessing its potential
effectiveness at contaminated sites, can be done in laboratory and field studies prior to
implementation. Samples of site soil containing the target contaminants in a range of
concentrations should be tested using the specific plants under consideration. Ultimately, sites
undergoing phytoremediation must be monitored to assess the fate of contaminants.
Figure 5.5: Illustration of contaminant uptake through the process of phytoremediation

i.
Phytoextraction
Phytoextraction involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots, with subsequent
accumulation in plant tissue, which may require that the plant be harvested and properly
disposed of. This mechanism is typically used to treat inorganic contaminants, such as
metals, metalloids, and radionuclides. Organic contaminants are more likely to be
transformed, rather than accumulated, within the plant tissue. Successful field applications of
phytoextraction to up take metals have been limited; however, there is some promising
research for using phytoextraction on mercury and persistent organic pollutants.
Plants used in phytoextraction include Indian mustard, pennycress, and alyssum sunflowers.
They are typically effective only in the top one foot of soil because of their shallow root
systems and generally slow growth. Indian mustard can be genetically modified to grow in
contaminated soil with greater biomass to hyper-accumulate selenium in a shorter time than
unmodified Indian mustard. In other genetic research, Meagher (undated) is modifying various
plant species to survive in mercury-contaminated soil and to transform organic mercury into
ionic and/or metallic mercury. The mercury is either sequestered in the plant or transpired.
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Figure 5.6: Schematic mechanism of phytoextraction

ii.
Rhizodegradation
Rhizodegradation is essentially plant-assisted bioremediation in that the root zone enhances
microbial activity, thus increasing the breakdown of organic contaminants (such as petroleum
hydrocarbons, PAHs, pesticides, BTEX, chlorinated solvents, PCP, PCBs, and surfactants) in
the soil. The term comes from rhizosphere, which is the zone of soil influenced by plant
roots. This zone extends only about 1 mm from each root.
The presence of plant roots increases soil aeration and moderates soil moisture, making
conditions more favorable to bioremediation. Bioremediation is enhanced by the production of
root exudates, such as sugars, amino acids, and other compounds, that can stimulate the
population growth and activity of native microbes. Root exudates may also serve as food for
the microbes, which can result in cometabolism of contaminants as degradation of exudates
occurs. Because the microbes consume nutrients, the plants in a rhizodegradation plot often
require additional fertilization.
iii. Phytodegradation
Like phytoextraction, phytodegradation involves the uptake of contaminants; however, the
contaminants are subsequently broken down through metabolic processes within the plant.
Phytodegradation also comprises the breakdown of contaminants in the soil through the
effects of enzymes and other compounds produced by the plant tissues (other than the roots).
Phytodegradation is applicable to organic contaminants. Their uptake is affected by their
hydrophobicity, solubility, and polarity. Moderately hydrophobic and polar compounds are
more likely to be taken up after sorbing to plant roots. Contaminants with the potential for
phytodegradation include chlorinated solvents, herbicides, insecticides, PCP, PCBs, and
munitions.
iv. Phytovolatilization
Phytovolatilization is the uptake of a contaminant into a plant and its subsequent transpiration
to the atmosphere, or the transformation or phytodegradation of the contaminant with
subsequent transpiration of the transformation or degradation product(s) to the atmosphere.
Phytovolatilization is more commonly applied to groundwater, but can also be applied to
soluble soil contaminants.
Phytovolatilization involving transformation or degradation of the contaminant has the
advantage of potentially creating a less toxic product that is transpired; however, this also
poses a potential drawback in that degradation of some contaminants, like TCE, may produce
even more toxic products (e.g., vinyl chloride). This possibility has to be assessed on a sitespecific basis, and measurement of transpired compounds can be difficult. Once in the
atmosphere, these products may be more effectively degraded by sunlight (photodegradation)
than they would be by the plant (phytodegradation).
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Figure 5.7: Schematic mechanism of phytovolatilization

v.
Phytostabilization
Phytostabilization is a mechanism that immobilizes contaminants - mainly metals - within the
root zone, limiting their migration. The contaminants are immobilized by adsorption of metals
to plant roots, precipitation of metal ions (e.g., due to a change in pH), formation of metal
complexes, or a change to a less toxic redox state. Phytostabilization can occur when plants
alter the chemical and microbial makeup of the soil (e.g., through the production of exudates
or carbon dioxide), which affects the fate and transport of the soil metals. Phytostabilization
also encompasses the use of plants to prevent migration of soil contaminants with wind and
water erosion, leaching, and soil dispersion.
Since contaminants are retained in the soil, phytostabilization does not require the harvesting
and disposal of plants. A phytostabilization system must be evaluated; however, to ensure
that translocation of contaminants into the plant tissue is not occurring. Since contaminants
remain in the root zone, the health of the plants must be maintained to prevent future release
of contaminants when the plants die or are inadvertently destroyed. Maintenance may include
the addition of fertilizers or soil amendments.
Figure 5.8: Schematic mechanism of phytostabilization

5.3 Thermal Treatment Technologies
Five technologies are grouped under the in situ thermal treatment classification: electrical
resistance heating, steam injection and extraction, conductive heating, radio-frequency heating,
and vitrification. With the exception of vitrification, all of these treatment technologies rely on the
addition of heat to the soil to increase the removal efficiency of volatile and semivolatile
contaminants. Vapor extraction is an integral part of these remediation systems to ensure the
removal and treatment of mobilized contaminants. Liquid extraction is also used during steam
injection, and sometimes with other thermal technologies when groundwater flow rates are high
and/or when the contaminant being recovered is semivolatile.
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5.3.1 Electrical Resistance Heating

Electrical resistance heating (ERH) involves passing electrical current through moisture in the
soil between arrays of electrodes. As the current flows through the moisture in soil pores, the
resistance of the soil produces heat. Originally, ERH for remediation purposes was developed by
DOE and Battelle using six-phase electricity and hexagonal electrode arrays, however,
expansion of a six-phase hexagonal array may result in the creation of cold and hot spots within
the target subsurface area. Three-phase power and triangular electrode arrays are generally
more applicable to irregularly shaped cleanup areas for full-scale treatment and are commonly
used today.
Electrodes can be thought of as wells that are equipped to deliver electric power at selected
depths and also act as vapor recovery wells. When groundwater flow rates are high and/or a
semivolatile NAPL is to be recovered, liquids can also be extracted. Electrodes may be installed
using conventional drilling rigs. Installation can also be done using horizontal or angular drilling
techniques. Care should be taken to ensure that the potential for stray currents is accounted for
in the design. ERH systems can be deployed to any depth and used in both the vadose and
saturated zone. If the system is deployed only in the vadose zone, water should be added at the
electrodes to maintain the moisture content and thus, the flow of electricity.
Figure 5.9: Electrical resistance heating (ERH)

5.3.2 Steam Injection and Extraction
Steam injection and extraction (also known as steam enhanced extraction [SEE]) involves
injection of mobilized groundwater, contaminants, and vapor from the recovery wells. Initially,
when steam is injected into the subsurface, it gives up its latent heat of vaporization to the soil.
As the steam loses heat, it condenses into a hot water phase that moves radially into the soil and
displaces air and water in front of it. Continued input of steam eventually causes the soil near the
well to reach steam temperatures, creating a steam front that begins to propagate away from the
well.
This process creates a moving front consisting of ambient temperature water/air that is pushed
by a variable temperature zone of warm to very hot water. The water in turn is pushed out by the
pressure of the steam moving into the steam temperature zone. The movement of the ambienttemperature water may displace NAPLs, a process that is aided by viscosity reduction when the
hot water reaches the NAPL. The arrival of the steam phase vaporizes compounds remaining as
residual saturation or adsorbed to the soil. These vapors are transported to the leading edge of
the steam zone where they condense, forming a contaminant condensate bank.
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Figure 5.10: Steam injection and extraction

5.3.3 Conductive Heating
Conductive heating uses either an array of vertical heater/vacuum wells or, when the treatment
area is within about six inches (15 cm) of the ground surface, surface heater blankets. While it is
feasible to deploy all the wells in a heater/vacuum mode, the typical deployment is to place six
heater-only wells in a hexagonal shape with a heater vacuum well occupying the center of each
hexagon. The wells can be installed using conventional drilling techniques or direct push. Heater
wells are constructed of steel pipe with the base sealed. A resistive heating unit is lowered into
the well and current is supplied. The heating element typically operates at temperatures between
o
540 and 815 C. The steel pipe is heated by radiant energy and the soil surrounding it by thermal
conductance.
The vacuum well contains the same steel pipe and heating element components as a standard
heater well, but it is placed within a larger screened well to which a vacuum can be applied. Heat
propagates in a cylindrical fashion from the well outward. The heating is fairly even through all
o
dry textures of soil. The hottest soil (typically 590 C) is in the immediate vicinity of the wells, while
the coolest soil is at the midpoint between wells. When the vacuum is applied to the center well,
volatilized organics are pulled through the high-temperature soil, where some of the
contaminants may be degraded. The extracted vapors are transported to the surface for
treatment.
Figure 5.11: Modeling of Conductive Heating
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5.3.4 Radio-Frequency Heating

Radio-frequency heating (RFH) uses a high frequency alternating electric field for in situ heating
of soils. The technique depends on the presence of dielectric materials with unevenly distributed
electrical charges. The application of an electric field produces movement of the "polar"
molecules, and this vibration creates mechanical heat. A spread of radio frequencies (e.g., 6.78
MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz, and 40.68 MHz along with seven higher frequencies) regulated
and assigned by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) can be used in industrial,
scientific, or medical applications. Less than 47 CFR18.301 (FCC 2006) an equipment designer
or operator can use these frequencies without obtaining a license from the FCC. Higher
frequencies increase the rate of heating but reduce the depth of penetration (Halliburton NUS
Environmental 1995).
A radio-frequency heating system usually consists of:
A three-phase power supply.
A radio-frequency source with an oscillator that generates a low-power current at the
desired radio frequency, several serial amplifiers that increase the strength of the
oscillator current, and a final amplifier that delivers the current at the prescribed
output level.
An applicator system consisting of electrodes or antennae. A monitoring control
system.
A grounded metal shield over the treatment area.
A vapor collection and treatment system (Haliburton NUS Environmental 1995).
Depending upon the vendor, a row or rows of applicator electrodes are placed in the ground to
the depth of the treatment zone. The electrodes can be placed with conventional drilling
equipment or direct push. In some designs, the electrodes themselves are used to recover soil
gas and heated vapors. In other designs, wells are placed specifically for soil vapor extraction
and to act as electromagnetic sinks to prevent heating beyond the treatment zone (Figure 6.5).
Heating is both radiative and conductive; with soil near the applicator electrodes heating fastest
(the radio frequency wave gets weaker the further from the electrode due to energy absorption).
Figure 5.12: Radio-Frequency Heating with Electrodes

5.3.5 in Situ Vitrification
In situ vitrification (ISV) is a thermal treatment process that converts contaminated soil to stable
glass and crystalline solids. There are two methods for producing heat for melting the
contaminated soil. The older method uses electrodes and electrical resistance to vitrify materials,
while the emerging technique uses plasma arc technology.
In the electrical resistance method, high voltage is applied to electrodes (typically four) placed in
the soil. Starter frit (generally graphite) is placed on the soil surface and electrical current heats the
soil from the top down to temperatures between 1,400 and tons, with a processing rate of four to
six tons per hour (U.S. EPA 1995). Maximum treatment depth is approximately 20 feet in a single
setup. The process depends upon the presence of 1.4 to 15 percent alkali metal oxides in the
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material to be treated to ensure a proper balance between electrical conductivity and melting
temperature. Too much alkali metal content increases the conductivity to a point where insufficient
heating occurs.
Figure 5.13: Schematic application of in-situ vitrification process in which electrodes are used for heat
application (U.S. EPA, 1992).
5.4 Groundwater In-situ Barrier
i.
Slurry walls
Slurry walls are subsurface trenches that are filled with low-permeability soil materials and
possibly other additives to retard the migration of contaminants into the surrounding
soil/groundwater environment. Slurry walls are particularly useful in loose subsurface
materials, where they can divert uncontaminated groundwater away from waste or
contaminant plume, reduce the flow rate of leachate into the subsurface, increase the
retardation or decay of contaminants through lengthening of their flow path from source to
sink, and accumulate groundwater or leachate for removal through extraction systems.
Figure 5.14(a): Plan views of up and down gradient slurry walls for partial containment of buried
waste and/or plume.
60
ii.
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Drainage Trenches and Wells

Drainage Trenches and Wells use as an alternative to the use of physical barriers to control
the movement of groundwater and contaminants in the subsurface, drainage trenches and
wells can also be used. In this approach, the source of the contaminant is not removed
directly, but the leachate is forced to drain either by gravity or imposed hydraulic force to a
trench or wells from which it is removed by pumping. Thus, this method of containment
requires the use of above-ground treatment systems. Injection wells may be used to flush the
contaminant source and increase the hydraulic potential for migration of contaminated water
to extraction wells or trenches.
Figure 5.14 (b): Use of a subsurface trench for containment of a contaminant plume (U.S.EPA,
1985c).
Figure 5.14 (b): Use of a subsurface trench for containment of a contaminant plume and (U.S.EPA,
1985c).
iii.
Grout Curtains
Grout curtains are barriers that are formed by pumping pore-filling materials into the ground,
thereby reducing the rate at which fluids can subsequently travel through the ground.
Typically, the grout mixture is injected under pressure, through a pipe that penetrates the soil
or rock strata that are to be improved. Each injection point has its own radius of influence, the
dimension of which depends on the injection pressure and duration, characteristics of the
grout, and the hydraulic properties of the subsurface geomedia. The spacing of injection
points should not allow windows to exist between the influence areas of adjacent injection
holes.
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Figure 5.14 (c): Configuration of a grout curtain designed to contain a contaminant plume.
5.5 Leachate Collection and Removal
The leachate collection system (LCS) is a drainage system located on the bottom of the landfill,
immediately above the primary liner. The purpose of the LCS is to collect leachate from the waste and
to convey it to sumps, where it is removed from the cell. The LCS comprises a high-permeability
collection layer, which often contains perforated pipes in swales surrounded by gravel. The collection
layer generally consists of gravel, and the perforated pipes are made of HDPE or PVC; crushing
resistance of the collection pipes is a critical design factor. The LCS be designed to maintain less than
one foot of leachate head over the liner. The LCS transfers the leachate to sumps located at the
lowest point of each cell, preferably adjacent to the toe of the inside slope of the perimeter berm.
The leachate removal system may consist of either a gravity flow pipe passing through the perimeter
berm, a riser pipe which parallels the inside slope of the perimeter berm, or a vertical manhole which
daylights out of the final cover. The latter two systems require submersible pumps to remove the
leachate. Removal by means of a gravity flow pipe passing through the perimeter berm avoids the
need for pumping, but requires a liner penetration that may affect liner performance. The leachate
removed from the cells is generally conveyed by a header pipe to holding tanks or ponds. The header
pipe may be gravity or force, depending on the site topography. The holding tanks or ponds are
generally designed to hold 30 days of leachate production. Some regulations require double
containment for leachate header pipes and holding tanks. Finally, the leachate may be discharged to
an onsite treatment plant, or may be piped or transported by truck to an offsite treatment facility. The
size and spacing of the leachate collection pipes depend upon the amount of leachate generated.
Figure 5.15: Configuration of collector pipes and the main discharge pipe for extraction of
contaminated groundwater
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Table 5.1: Summary of In Situ Treatment Technologies Applications for Contaminant Classes
Table 5.2: Reactivity of Oxidants with Commonly Found Contaminants

5.6 in-situ and ex-situ remediation techniques
Ex-situ approaches use process occurring are applied to excavated soil and/or extracted
groundwater. In-situ treatment principal feature of many in situ treatment technologies is delivery
and recovery of fluids or other reactants to the subsurface. The ability to control and monitor the
delivery and recovery of these fluids or reactants is central to the effectiveness of in situ
technologies in treating the contamination. Table 5.4 shows the compare between in-situ and exsitu remediation techniques.
5.7 Importance of Risk Assessment
Within the context of geoenvironmental engineering, the purpose of exposure assessment, and the
risk assessment which encompasses it, is to assess the need for implementation of an engineering
control measure. Essentially, such measures may result in risk reduction through impact on the
concentration of contaminants at the source and/or exposure points. The configuration of a
contaminated site, the characteristics of the transport medium for released contaminants, climatic
factors, and proximity of exposure points to human habitat are some of the critical factors that
affect (directly or indirectly) the magnitudes of risks.
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The focus of this analysis has been human health risk. Ecological risk can also be assessed,
although many more factors need to be considered. Some investigators have developed site
vulnerability indices for use in scaling risks and hazards associated with contaminated sites and
sites that may be sensitive to contamination.
Exposure assessment is a qualitative and/or quantitative analysis of the magnitude, frequency,
duration, and routes of contact of organisms with a chemical or physical agent. For human
subjects, exposure assessment is commonly done as part of health-risk assessment of a
contaminated site or for analysis of clean-up technologies. The U.S. EPA (1989b) has provided a
detailed description of exposure assessment factors and the sequence of steps for their
evaluation. The major steps are (1) Characterization of the physical setting, (2) Identification of
potentially exposed populations, (3) Identification of potential exposure pathways, (4) Estimation of
exposure concentrations and (5) Estimation of chemical intake.
Quantitative exposure assessments require two calculation steps: estimation of exposure
concentrations; and estimation of pathway-specific intakes. It is usually convenient to use
exposure magnitudes totaled over a given time period for assessments.
Figure 5.16: Pathways of human exposure to contaminants from a waste site (U.S. EPA, 1989b).
5.7.1 Carcinogenic Risks
Some chemical contaminants are carcinogens (cancer causing). The approach to quantifying
cancer risk is to estimate the incremental probability that an individual will develop cancer over a
lifetime due to exposure to the chemical. Two methods are commonly used for this estimate: the
linear low dose model for risks that are below 0.01; and the one-hit model for exposure
conditions in which the probable dose is high (>0.01).
5.7.2 Noncarcinogenic Risks
In the case of noncarcinogens, the adverse effect of exposure to a contaminant is assumed not
to be significant (or manifestive) unless the subject is exposed to doses above a critical level.
The existence of the threshold dose is attributable to the bodys protective physiological
mechanism. The challenge is to determine the upper bound of the threshold dose for use as the
bodys tolerance limit. Variabilities in human susceptibilities to the same dose of a contaminant
and uncertainties associated with extrapolations of toxicological data from one population to
another necessitate continuous updating of data on critical doses.
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Assessments of the risk of noncarcinogenic effects of contaminants are usually based on the
reference dose, (RfD), which is discussed in detail by the U.S. EPA (1986). As defined by the
U.S. EPA (1989b), the chronic (RfD) is the daily exposure level for the human population
(including subpopulations) that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects
during a lifetime. Values of chronic (RfD) are meant to be protective of the effects of long-term
exposure to a contaminant, whereas subchronic (RfD) addresses the effects of shorter-term
exposures. (RfD) is currently used as a replacement for its precursors: the acceptable daily
intake (ADI) and the acceptable intake for chronic exposure (AIC).
Table 5.3 Principal Processes of Contaminant Alteration and Transport to Exposure Points and
Human Intake Boundaries (U.S. EPA, 1989b).
Receiving medium
Release mechanism
Volatilization
Air
Fugitive dust generation
Surface water
Groundwater
Surface runoff
Episodic overland flow
Groundwater seepage
Leaching
Leaching
Surface runoff
Fugitive dust generation/
deposition
soil
Sediment
Surface runoff
Groundwater seepage
Leaching
Biota
Uptake (direct contact,

ingestion, inhalation)
Release source
Surface wasteslagoons, ponds, pits, spills

Contaminated surface water
Contaminated surface soil
Contaminated wetlands
Leaking drums
Waste piles
Lagoon overflow
Spills, leaking containers
Contaminated groundwater
Surface or buried wastes
Contaminated soil
Soil Surface or buried wastes
Contaminated surface
Lagoon overflow
Waste piles
Surface wasteslagoons, ponds, pits, spills
Contaminated groundwater
Surface or buried wastes
Contaminated soil
Contaminated soil, surface water, sediment,
groundwater or air
Other biota
5.7.3 Risk assessment for Human Health

The potential to human health risk is determine by integrating chemical exposure information to
human the toxicological data regarding the chemical of concern. The following parameter of
factors is to be considered while performing human-health related toxicity test:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Route of exposure
Duration/ frequency of test species
Characteristic of test species
Individual characteristic
Toxicology end point
5.7.4 Risk assessment for Ecology Impact

The risk assessment procedure used to determine probable ecological impact is similar to the
use in assessing human health risk. Standardized procedures for ecological risk assessment are
difficult to develop because of complex relationships between the various parts of the
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ecosystems. The following issues are taken into consideration while evaluating an ecological
hazard:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Nature of ecosystem
Habitat evaluation
Selections of targets species
Selections of end points
Identification of ecological effect
Data Collection and Evaluation

Gather and analyze relevant site data
Indentify potential chemical concern
Exposure Assessment
Toxicity Assessment
Analyzed contaminated released

Identify exposed populations
Identify potential exposure
Estimated exposure pathways
Estimated contaminated intakes or
pathways
Collect qualitative and quantitative

toxicity information
Determine appropriate toxicity values
Risk Characterization
Characteristic potential for adverse health effect occur
Estimated cancer risk
Estimated noncancerous hazard quotients
Evaluate uncertainty
Summarized risk information
Figure 5.17: Step for Assessing Baseline Risk
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67
Table 5.4 Technologies Applicable at Sites with Metals in Soil

TECHNOLOGY
DESCRIPTION
APPLICABILITY
Impacted soil is excavated and isolated

beneath an engineered cap or within an
engineered disposal
Unit (e.g., landfill, CAMU).
Consolidation beneath a cap is applicable

to a wide variety of soils and Immobile
contaminants.
Placement in an engineered unit is
applicable to most soils and a wide variety
of Contaminants.
Often used as a pretreatment for land
disposal activities to meet land Disposal
restrictions.
Assess applicability with Treatability study.
LIMITATIONS / CONSTRAINTS
Ex Situ Technologies
Isolation
(Excavation and
Disposal)
Immobilization by
Solidification/Stabiliz
ation
(S/S)
Immobilization by
Vitrification
Toxicity or Mobility
Reduction by
Chemical
Treatment
Removal by
Pyrometallurgical
Extraction
Use of chemical or physical

Processes to treat wastes.
Solidification technologies encapsulate
waste to form a solid material.
Stabilization technologies reduce the
hazard potential by converting waste to
less soluble, mobile, or toxic forms.
Mobility of metal contaminants is

decreased by high-temperature
treatment of contaminated area. The
high temperature component of the
process destroys/ removes organic
materials.
Radionuclides and heavy metals are
retained within the vitrified product.
Introduction of chemical reagents to
change the chemical oxidation state of
the metal in order to reduce its mobility
or toxicity.
Separation of metals from soil in form of

metal, metal oxide, ceramic product, or
other products that have potential
market value. Typical processes to
concentrate and purify the metal include
smelting, roasting, and retorting.
Applicable to most soils and for a wide

variety of inorganic and organic
contaminants. Particularly well suited for
treatment of lead, chromium, arsenic, zinc,
cadmium, and copper wastes.
Sites with moisture content less than 25%.
Assess applicability through treatability

study using site-specific materials.
Often used as a
pretreatment for other
treatment technologies,
e.g., reduction of Cr (VI) is a common form
of treatment because Cr (III) can be
precipitated as a hydroxide by a subsequent
treatment process.
Most applicable to large volumes of highly
contaminated soils (>520% metals concentrations), especially
when metal recovery is expected.
May be applicable to low concentrations of
easily volatilized metals (e.g., mercury).
Long-term maintenance.
Land use restrictions.
May not be protective if groundwater is shallow.
Short-term to medium-term technology.

Long-term effectiveness not demonstrated
for many contaminant/process
Combinations.
May result in significant increase in Volume.
Certain wastes are incompatible with S/S.
Limited effectiveness if soil contains
SVOCs, pesticides, and some VOCs.
Generally not effective in soils with high organic
content.
Used in conjunction with other technologies.
High energy requirements and cost.
Unsuitable for treatment of mercury unless present
at very low levels.
Complex process that typically includes excavation,
pretreatment, mixing, feeding, melting, and
vitrification. Requires off-gas collection and treatment
as well as forming/casting the product.
Long-term stability of reaction products is a concern
because changes in geochemistry may reverse
some reactions.
Often performed off-site because few mobile

treatment units are available.
Not cost effective for many environmental projects.
Usually proceeded by physical separation and
concentration to produce uniform feed material, to
upgrade metal content, and/or to enhance separation
performance.
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68
Water-based process for scrubbing

soils to remove contaminants by
dissolving/ suspending in wash solution
or concentration into smaller volume of
soil through particle size separation,
gravity separation, and attrition
scrubbing.
Assess applicability with bench scale

treatability study.
Applicable to SVOCs, fuels, and heavy
metals.
Applicable to coarse grained soils. Soils with
low fines content (<20% of particles with
diameters
<2 mm) are easier to process.
Most easily implemented when a single
metal contaminant occurs in a particular
insoluble fraction of soil that can be
separated by particle size classification.
Economically feasible with >5,000 tons of
soil.
Commercialization of process not yet extensive.

Complex waste mixtures make formulating washing
fluid difficult.
High humic content in soil may require
pretreatment.
Difficult to remove organics adsorbed to clay-size
particles.
Aqueous stream will require treatment at
demobilization.
Multiple treatment steps may be required to
address washing solvent remaining in treated
residuals.
Some soil fractions may still require disposal in an
engineered unit.
Process removes metals and organic

contaminants from low permeability soil.
Uses electrochemical and
electrokinetic processes to desorb, and
then remove, metals and polar organics
Heavy metals, anions, and polar organics in

soil, mud, sludge, and marine dredging.
Can treat concentrations ranging from a
few parts per million (ppm) to tens of
thousands of ppm.
Most applicable in low permeability soils.
Such soils are typically saturated and
partially saturated clays and silt clay
mixtures that are not readily drained.
Demonstrated at several sites with mixed results.

Success varies depending on metals present in soil.
Effectiveness sharply reduced for wastes with a
moisture content of less than 10%.
Presence of buried metallic or insulating material
can induce variability in the electrical conductivity of
the soil.
Inert electrodes must be used so that no residue
will be introduced into the treated soil mass. Metallic
electrodes may dissolve as a result of electrolysis
and introduce corrosive products into the soil mass.
Extreme pH at the electrodes and reductionoxidation changes induced by the process electrode
reactions may inhibit effectiveness.
Oxidation/reduction reactions can form undesirable
products (e.g., chlorine gas).
Unfavorable soil conditions include high cation
exchange capacity, high buffering capacity, high
naturally-occurring organic content, salinity, and very
low moisture content.
Impacted soils are isolated by

placement of a low permeability barrier
to surface water infiltration.
Applicable to most soils and metals with

limited mobility.
Frequently used to address impacted soils
in industrial areas.
Long-term maintenance.
Land-use restrictions.
May not be protective if groundwater is shallow.
Removal by Soil
Washing
In Situ Technologies
Removal by
Electrokinetic
Remediation (ER)
Isolation by Capping
Toxicity or Mobility
Reduction by
Chemical
Treatment
Removal by Soil
Flushing
Immobilization by
Solidification/Stabiliz
ation
(S/S)
Immobilization by
Vitrification
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69
Introduction of chemical reagents to

change the chemical oxidation state of
the metal in order to reduce its mobility
or toxicity. Reagents
introduced via soil mixing
(e.g., backhoe, trenching, augers).
Sites with shallow metals contamination that

can be effectively addressed through soil
mixing.
study conducted using site specific
materials.
Non-specific nature of chemical reagents may create

new problems. Agents that treat one metal may
target other reactive metals and make them more
toxic or mobile.
Reagent delivery problems due to reactive transport
and soil heterogeneity.
Control of in situ geochemical conditions so that
reaction proceeds.
Usually requires multiple applications.
Extraction of contaminants from the soil

with water or other suitable aqueous
solutions. Soil flushing is accomplished
by passing the extraction fluid through
in-place soils using an injection or
infiltration process. Considered a
mature technology because of its use in
the oil industry, but there has been very
little commercial success for
environmental applications.

study performed under site specific
conditions.
Can mobilize contaminants from coarse
grained soils with relatively high hydraulic
conductivity.
Can be used to treat
VOCs, SVOCs, fuels, and pesticides, but it
may be less cost-effective than alternative
technologies.
Used only where flushed contaminants and
flushing fluid can be contained and
recaptured.
Appropriate for soil conditions conducive for
mixing binders.
Useful for treating surface or shallow
contamination that involves spreading and
mixing binders with soil using conventional
excavation equipment.
study conducted using site specific
materials.
Limited information available on application of this

technology to metals-impacted sites.
Difficult to treat low permeability or heterogeneous
soils.
Surfactants can reduce effective soil porosity.
Reactions of flushing fluids with soil can reduce
contaminant mobility.
Ability to control contaminant and flushing fluids.
Aboveground separation and treatment costs for
recovered fluids can drive the economics of the
process.
Use of chemical or physical processes

to treat wastes.
Solidification technologies encapsulate
waste to form a solid material.
Stabilization technologies reduce the
hazard potential by converting waste to
less soluble, mobile, or toxic forms.
Vertical auger mixing is most common
method for mixing binders with soil.
Mobility of metal contaminants is

decreased by high-temperature
treatment of contaminated area. The
high temperature component of the
process destroys or removes organic
materials.
Radionuclides and heavy metals are
retained within the vitrified product.
Applicable to most soils and for a wide

variety of inorganic and organic
contaminants. Particularly suitable for
treatment of soils with lead, chromium,
arsenic, zinc, cadmium, and copper.
Soil should be able to carry the current and
solidify as it cools.
Limited data on performance.

Interference with binding process caused by soil
chemical composition, moisture content, and ambient
temperature.
Achieving complete, uniform mixing of binder with
contaminated soil.
Not useful for metals occurring as anions or metals
that have low-solubility hydroxides.
Mixing binders in presence of bedrock, large
boulders, cohesive soils, and clays.
Still in demonstration phase. Limited commercial
availability.
High cost relative to other cleanup alternatives.
Costs increase with increasing moisture content.
Maximum treatment depth is approximately
20 feet.
Too much alkali metal content increases the
conductivity to a point where insufficient heating
occurs.
Not suitable for treatment of mercury, unless
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70
include off-gas recovery.

May not be appropriate for sites with high levels of
organics (off-gassing) or inorganics (potential to
exceed glass solubility limits).
Table 5.5 Evaluation of Technologies Applicable to Sites with Metals in Soil against NCP Analysis Criteria
TECHNOLOGY
Excavation and
Off-site
Disposal
OVERALL
PROTECTION OF
HUMAN HEALTH
AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
Protectiveness
achieved by metal
removal from site.
LONG-TERM
EFFECTIVENESS
High long-term
Effectiveness for
site.
Protectiveness at
disposal site
dependent on offsite management
choices.
SHORT-TERM
EFFECTIVENESS
Disposal reduces
mobility.
Reduction in toxicity
and volume depends
on offsite
management choices.
Requires standard
Precautions
necessary for
protection of human
health and
environment during
excavation, transport,
and disposal.
Aqueous stream and

solid residuals must
be treated to achieve
protection.
If effective,
eliminates risk and
provides permanent
solution.
If ineffective, will
need to identify
another cleanup
alternative.
Transfers mass from

soil to aqueous
solutions which must
be treated.
Requires standard
precautions for
protection of human
health and
environment during
excavation and
treatment.
Flushing fluid must be

captured and treated.
Permanent solution
if successful.
Transfers mass from

soil to flushing fluid
which must be
captured and treated.
Requires standard
precautions for
protection of human
health and
environment during
injection.
Contaminated soil
remains in place.
Risk of exposure
through dermal
contact and/ or
incidental ingestion
Long-term
protection ensured
through continued
cap maintenance
and institutional
controls.
Not a treatment
alternative.
Requires standard
precautions form
protection of human
health and
environment.
Soil Washing
Soil Flushing /
Leaching
Containment by
Capping
REDUCTION OF
TOXICITY,
MOBILITY, OR
VOLUME THROUGH
TREATMENT
IMPLEMENTABILITY
Easily implementable given

facility with adequate capacity
for waste type, located within a
reasonable distance of site.
Uses standard construction
equipment and labor.
Requires treatability study.
High removal efficiencies
difficult to attain or require
complex treatment process.
Applicable to narrow range of
soil types and contaminant
mixtures.
Limited commercial
availability.
Requires treatability study.
Applies to narrow range of
soils and contaminant
mixtures.
Limited data on
Performance for metals
impacted soils.
Commercially available.
Demonstrated technology.
Necessary materials easily
attainable.
Uses standard construction
equipment and labor.
COST
Usually
reasonable for
small to medium
volumes of
contaminated soil.
May be cost
prohibitive
For large
volumes.
Economically
feasible for large
soil volumes.
Costs for
treatment of
Recovered fluids
can drive cost.
Generally less
expensive than
most forms of
treatment.
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71
reduced through
barriers.
Protectiveness of
groundwater depends
on depth to water,
mobility of metals, and
cap design that
reduces water
migration through soil.
Protectiveness
achieved by reducing
metal mobility.
Considered to be a
short term to
medium-term
technology.
Long-term
effectiveness
not demonstrated
for many
contaminant/
process
combinations.
Changes in
Geochemical
conditions may
affect long term
effectiveness.
If effective, reduces
metal mobility.
Does not
Address toxicity.
May result in
Increased volume.
Requires standard
precautions for
protection of human
health and
environment.
May pose short-term
risks if ex-situ
Treatment performed.
Assess applicability with

treatability study.
Generally lowest
cost treatment
alternative.
If effective, reduces
metal mobility and/or
toxicity. May
Increase mobility or
toxicity of naturally
occurring metals.
Assess applicability through

treatability studies.
Can be higher
cost than other
cleanup
alternatives.
Generally lower
cost treatment
alternative.
Protectiveness
achieved by
immobilizing metal.
If successful,
produces solid with
low leachability.
Limited data on
long-term
effectiveness.
Requires extensive pilot

testing.
In situ methods still in
Demonstration phase.
Limited commercial
availability.
Requires substantial energy
source.
Typically higher
costs than other
Cleanup
alternatives.
Protectiveness
achieved by metal
removal.
If successful,
removes metal from
soil.
Reduces toxicity and

mobility by
immobilizing metal.
Generally decreases
volume.
Some metals may
need conversion to
less volatile forms
prior to treatment.
Results in mass
removal, reducing
metal mobility and
toxicity and affected
volume.
Requires standard
precautions for
protection of human
health and
environment.
May pose short-term
risks if ex-situ
treatment
Off-gas may require
Extensive controls,
including respiratory
protection, fugitive
dust control, and air
monitoring.
Requires standard
precautions for
protection of human
health and
environment.
To-date demonstrated
Through bench- and pilotscale studies with mixed
success.
Cost likely high

because not
commercially
available.
Solidification/
Stabilization
(S/S)
Chemical
Treatment
Electrokinetic
Remediation
Protectiveness
achieved by reducing
metal mobility and/or
toxicity.
Must also manage
other reactions
triggered by reagents.
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REFERENCES AND FUTHER READING

1. British Standards 10175:2001 Investigation of potentially contaminated sites Code of practice.
2. Contaminant Sorption by Soil and Bed Sediment- C.T. Chiou and D.E. Kile
3. Design of Landfill and Integrated Solid Waste management (2004) A. Bagghi, John Wiley& Son
Ltd.
4. Environmental Engineering H.S Peavy, D.R. Rowe and G. Tchobanoglous, McGraw-Hill (1985).
5. Geoenvironmental Engineering Principles and Applications (2000) - L. N. Reddi and H. I. Inyang,
Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6. Geoenvironmental Engineering Site Remediation, Waste Containment and Emerging Waste
Management Technologies (2004) - H. D. Sharma and K. R. Reddi, John Wiley& Son Ltd.
7. Geotechnical &Geoenvironmental Site Investigation A Short Guide (2006)
8. Hazardous Waste Management (2001) M.D LaGrega, P.L Buckingham, J.C. Evans, McGraw-Hill
9. Introduction to Chemical Transport in the Environment - John S. Gulliver, Cambridge University
Press.
10. In Situ Treatment Technologies for Contaminated Soil, United States Solid Waste and EPA 542/F06/013 Environmental Emergency Response November 2006 Protection Agency
11. Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science (1998) - G. M. Masters, Prentice-Hall
International Inc.
12. Introduction to Chemical Transport in the Environment (2000) J. S. Gulliver, Cambridge
University Press.
13. Mass Transfer Studies in Sorbing Porous Media I. Analytical Solutions - Soil Science Society of
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72

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CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Related Legislation on geoenvironmental Engineering

Mineralogy composition in soil

Identification of fundamental characteristic Soils

Process of waste mixes with soil

Application of Mass Transport and Transfer

Principle Site Investigation

Physical and chemical processes treatment

Thermal Treatment Technologies

Groundwater In-situ Barrier

Importance of Risk Assessment

References And Further Reading

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING course solves problems of subsurface waste containment;

This topic explains various types of soil contaminants transportation methods

This topic discusses various techniques used for land remediation.

Others Assessment task

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Related Legislation in Malaysia

1.2.1.1 Environmental Quality Act, 1974

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Soil Pollution - source of pollution:

Example of soil pollution :

Effect of soil pollution

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Table 1.1: Common routes exposure

Common source of pollutant

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 2.1 Soil Compositions Schematic Diagram

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 2.2: Silica Tetrahedron

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 2.3: Alumina Octahedrons

Figure 2.4: Kaolinite Diagram

Figure 2.5: Illite Diagram

Figure 2.6: Montmorillonite Diagram

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Table 2.1: Soil Common Clay Minerals

2.3 Fundamental properties of soils

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 2.7: Soil shape

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 2.8: Typical particle size distribution of soils.

Figure 2.9: Textural classifications of soils.

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

2.5 Soil test

Soil permeability tests.

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 3.1: Sources of groundwater contamination

Figure 3.2: Adsorption of contaminant in soil

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

3.1.1 Contaminant substance in Soil - Key Properties of Contaminants :

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

3.2 Mass Transport

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 3.3: Illustration of longitudinal dispersion of a tracer plane at t =0 to a dispersed cloud at t =

CN 301 Geoenvironmental Engineering

Figure 3.4: Illustration of multiphase transport.

An important concept for environmental transport is resistances. The inverse of a rate