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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The Internal Combustion (IC) engine has evolved over the years
since the four stroke OTTO cycle was developed in 1897 by Nikolaus
August Otto. The basic design and working principle has not changed much
and has been the heart of every automobile. Through continuous research
and development on the IC engine, performance and efficiency have
improved significantly over the years. However, global emissions
regulations and the shortage of fossil fuel resources have provided an
impetus for engine designers and engineers to provide more advanced
technologies, producing cleaner and more efficient motors.
Several alternative technologies such as fuel cells and electric
vehicles have been introduced in the market, but they come with associated
problems that include high cost, changes required to the fuelling
infrastructure and lack of development to support these technologies.
Lately, various technologies like catalysts and intelligent engine
management systems have contributed to the achievement of lower
emissions and fuel consumption without compromising on output
performance. Technologies such as Variable Valve Actuation (VVA), direct
fuel injection, and cylinder activation have had a significant impact on
enhancing overall performance of the automobile. The future of automotive
research and development is about improving the bottom line, source of
power, i.e. Combustion of fuel.
In recent times, alternative combustion technology such as
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) has been studied and
results have been positive. HCCI combustion has the potential to reduce
About HCCI
HCCI combustion is achieved by premixing the air-fuel mixture,
either in the manifold or by early direct injection, as in Spark Ignition (SI)
engine, and compressing the mixture until the temperature inside the
combustion chamber reaches the auto ignition point and ignites, as in
1.1.2
Controlling Factors
There are several controlling factors that affect the performance of HCCI
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Onishi et al. in 1979 [3] were amongst the first researchers to investigate
the possibility of using auto ignition combustion as a combustion mode in an
engine. They have applied auto ignition combustion using gasoline in a two-stroke
gasoline engine and named this process ATAC. They showed that there was very
small Cycle-By-Cycle Variations (CBCV) in the peak combustion pressure, the
reaction occurred spontaneously at many points and combustion proceeded slowly.
They investigated the significance of the hydroxyl, OH, hydrated carbon and
diatomic carbon radicals and showed that their concentration was significantly
higher and that the radicals had a longer life than in a SI engine (40 life compared
to 25). They suggested that to attain ATAC, the quantity of the mixture and the
A/F ratio must be uniform from cycle to cycle, the temperature of the mixture must
be suitable and the cyclic variability of the scavenging process must be kept to a
minimum to ensure the correct conditions of the residual gases remaining in the
combustion chamber. They obtained satisfactory combustion over a wide range of
A/F from 11 to 22 and they concluded that ATAC reduces both fuel consumption
and exhaust emissions over the whole of that range.
Around the same time, the auto ignition and energy release processes of
CIHC combustion and what parameters affect them were investigated using a
single-cylinder four-stroke cycle Waukesha Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR)
engine with a pancake combustion chamber and a shrouded intake valve [4]. It was
deduced that this controlled auto ignition/ combustion mode was not associated
with knocking but a smooth energy release that could be controlled by proper use
of temperature and species concentrations. In their experiments they controlled
independently the intake charge temperature (600-810K) and the recirculated
exhaust products (35-55% EGR), which were evaluated using carbon dioxide
measurements. They used three different fuels;
Chemical species in the EGR gases had no effect on the rate of energy
release and therefore EGR was primarily used to control combustion by
7.5:1, it was found that a delivery ratio of 45% was the maximum
Fuels with lower octane numbers were ignited more easily.
In 1989, Thring [5] investigated the possibility of autoignition combustion
(where audible knock occurs at 5 on a scale from zero to ten), the acceptable HCCI
operation was limited at CRs from 8:1 to 11:1.
Supercharging (2bar boost pressure) was shown to increase the Indicated
Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) of an engine under HCCI combustion to 14bar
[12]. Supercharging was used because of its capability to deliver increased density
and pressure at all engine speeds while turbocharging depends on the speed of the
engine. However, this resulted in lower efficiency due to the power used for
supercharging. Supercharging resulted in greater emissions of CO and HC, greater
cylinder pressure, longer combustion duration and lower NOx emissions. There
were no combustion related problems in operating HCCI with supercharging and
the maximum net indicated efficiency achieved was 59%. On the contrary, others
[13] investigated the effect of turbo charging on HCCI combustion. A Brake Mean
Effective Pressure (BMEP) of 16bar (compared to 6bar without turbo charging and
21bar with the unmodified diesel engine) and an efficiency of 41.2% (compared to
45.3% with the unmodified diesel engine) were achieved. Furthermore, CO and
HC emissions decreased with increasing load, but NOx emissions increased.
However, at higher loads, as the rate of pressure increased and the peak pressure
approached their set limit (i.e. peak pressure greater than 200bar), ignition timing
was retarded at the expense of combustion efficiency. Thus, in order to improve the
combustion efficiency at high boost levels, cooled EGR rates was introduced [14],
and it was shown that under those conditions, the combustion efficiency increased
only slightly.
Even though EGR has been employed by various researchers, the results
are not always consistent within the research community. Depending on the
method of EGR used (trapped exhaust gases due to valve timing, or exhaust gases
re-introduced in the manifold), the results can vary, since both the temperature and
chemical species present might not be the same in all cases.
Both aforementioned methods were employed [15],[16] where the first
method relied on trapping a set quantity of exhaust gas by closing the exhaust
valves relatively early, while in the second method, all the exhaust gases were
expelled during the exhaust stroke, but during the intake stroke, both the inlet and
exhaust valves opened simultaneously, to draw in the engine cylinder both fresh
charge and exhaust gas. It was shown that HCCI combustion is possible with EGR
and without preheating the inlet air and that increasing the quantity of exhaust
gases advances the ignition timing. Furthermore it was concluded that HCCI can
become reproducible and consistent by controlling the ignition timing by altering
the EGR rate. Others achieved EGR [17],[18] by throttling the exhaust manifold,
which increased the pumping work and reduced the overall efficiency. They
concluded that:
With increasing EGR, and thus decreasing A/F ratio and slower chemical
and chemical effects on HCCI combustion and that active species in the exhaust
gases promoted HCCI. Others [20] however, reported contradicting results, where
varying the EGR had little effect on combustion timing, on gross IMEP,
combustion efficiency and net indicated efficiency. However, in those cases, the
EGR was taken from the exhaust pipe and through a secondary pipe re-introduced
in the inlet pipe where it was mixed with the fresh air mixture. There was no
indication of pipe insulation or of the temperature of the EGR gases. Therefore, if
the temperature of the gases was lower or of the same order as the intake gas
temperature, then the effect of the EGR might have been reduced to only dilution
effects.
Others on the other hand [21], investigated the importance of EGR
stratification on HCCI combustion. It was found that HCCI combustion started
10
near the centre of the combustion chamber at the boundary between the hot exhaust
gases, situated at the centre due to poor scavenging characteristics of the valves,
and the fresh intake charge. The importance of the mixing of the EGR and the
fresh-air mixture was identified, since by controlling the EGR stratification, the
combustion timing might also be controlled. The effect of homogeneous and
inhomogeneous cooled EGR on HCCI combustion has also been investigated [22].
For the homogeneous case, the fresh air and EGR gases were mixed upstream of
the intake port and thus well-mixed before the fuel injector.
For the inhomogeneous case, EGR gases were introduced downstream the
fuel injector and therefore there was no time for proper mixing. With
inhomogeneous EGR supply, auto ignition timing was advanced (due to local hot
spots of fresh air-fuel mixture) but the overall combustion was slower (due to local
cold spots of exhaust gas-fuel mixture), than with homogeneous EGR supply.
Fuel injection strategies is one of the most important topics under research
for HCCI combustion, as it can be easily controlled, compared to VCR, multiple
fuel injection, etc, to alter HCCI combustion, by varying the injection timing and
duration, and the injector location and type. It was shown that even injector nozzle
optimizations can be employed to alter the fuel spray and affect HCCI combustion
[23]. Injector location was also investigated [24] by using both port injection to
create a premixed fuel-air mixture and direct injection to control the timing of
auto ignition. Others [25], focused on different fuel injection strategies; injecting
the fuel in a 20 litre mixing tank before the engine intake port and injecting the fuel
just outside the engine intake port. The first treatment resulted in a homogeneous
mixture, while the second treatment resulted in a mixture with fluctuations of the
order of 4 to 6mm. Regardless of the preparation method; however, combustion
was inhomogeneous with very large spatial fluctuations. Furthermore, the local
combustion kernels did not have a tendency to be more frequent in the central part
of the combustion chamber, where the temperature was assumed to be higher than
11
in the vicinity of the walls. They were unable though to identify the process that
caused the very inhomogeneous combustion initiation.
Others also investigated the effect of various injection patterns and their
combination on HCCI combustion. In particular [26], the following three fuel
injection patterns were investigated: (i) Injection during the negative valve overlap
interval to cause fuel reformation, (ii) injection during the intake stroke to form a
homogeneous mixture and (iii) injection during the compression stroke to form a
stratified mixture. It was found that with fuel reformation, the operating range of
HCCI combustion was extended without an increase in the NOx emissions.
Furthermore, limited operation was observed with late injection timing that also
led to high NOx emissions. Two other injection systems were also employed [27]:
(i) a premixed injection injector in the intake manifold to create a homogeneous
charge and (ii) a DI injector to create a stratified charge. Thus by varying the
amount of fuel injected through the DI injector (from 0 to 100%) and varying the
injection timing of the DI injector (from 300 to 30CA BTDC) different
stratification levels were achieved. It was found that HCCI combustion was
improved at the lean limit with charge stratification, while CO and HC emissions
decreased. On the contrary, at the richer limit, a decrease in combustion efficiency
was evident at certain conditions. It was concluded that charge stratification causes
locally richer regions that, in the lean limit, improved combustion efficiency by
raising the in-cylinder temperature during the early stages of the auto ignition
process, while at the rich limit, the change in the in-cylinder temperature does not
affect the combustion efficiency to such an extent.
The possibility of using a Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) injector and
varying the injection timing to control HCCI combustion has also been
investigated [28]. It was concluded that the most homogeneous mixture was
formed with early injection timings, while fuel inhomogeneities (and thus regions
with richer fuel concentration) were present with retarded injection timings. With
retarded injection timing and thus increased fuel inhomogeneity, combustion of
locally richer mixtures caused an increase in the combustion temperature that as a
12
13
CHAPTER 3
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
14
15
into:
Single zone models
Two zone models
Multi-zone models
In single zone models, the working fluid in the engine is assumed to be
a thermodynamic system, which undergoes energy and/or mass exchange
with the surroundings and the energy released during the combustion
process is obtained by applying the first law of thermodynamics to the
system.
In two zone models, the working fluid is imagined to consist of two
zones, an unburned zone and a burned zone. These zones are actually two
distinct thermodynamic systems with energy and mass interactions between
themselves and their common surroundings, the cylinder walls. The massburning rate (or the cylinder pressure), as a function of crank angle, is then
numerically computed by solving the simplified equations resulting from
applying the first law to the two zones.
Multi-zone models take this form of analysis one step further by
considering energy and mass balances over several zones, thus obtaining
results that are closer to reality.
3.2.1. Assumptions for a typical two zone model
The burned and unburned zones are ideal gases of different properties.
The unburned zone is assumed to consist of a premixed fuel-air mixture.
Though this may not be exact for diesel combustion, it is more realistic
16
versa.
Enthalpy associated with injected fuel is usually not significant and
hence ignored.
Crevice losses may be significant but are not included.
Spatially averaged instantaneous heat transfer rates are adequate to
The single zone and two zone models have been traditionally used in two
different directions
In one way, both these models have been used to predict the in-cylinder
pressure as a function of crank angle from an assumed energy release or mass
17
18
3.4.3. Air and fuel properties: For the purpose of simulation, air fuel mixture is
assumed to have same properties as air. Properties of air such as gas constant
for air, ratio of specific heat capacities for air, and fuel properties such as
Lower heating value of the fuel and stoichiometric air to fuel ratio are
required to calculate pressure and temperature difference as piston moves
inside the cylinder.
3.4.4. Engine Cycle: HCCI combustion works on Otto cycle as compression (heat
addition) and expansion (heat release) happens at constant volume.
Therefore, the changing chemical state of the air fuel mixture and changing
thermodynamic state of the cylinder are depicted using Otto cycle equations.
Based on previous knowledge of Otto cycle, certain points like peak
pressure and start of combustion are fixed, in terms of crank angle degrees.
19
20
CHAPTER 4
MODELLING APPROACH
The engine geometry parameters define the physical size of the system to be
modelled. Values of bore and stroke are assumed based on standard production
engines. Compression ratio is assumed to be as per Otto cycle, which can be
further modulated to study the effects of compression ratio on final outcome.
Displaced volume is the total volume that can be filled by air fuel mixture. It is
calculated from bore and stroke as per below
21
Vd=
b s
4
The above table shows values of constants that are frequently used in the
calculation. The ambient, i.e. atmospheric temperature and pressure are assumed to
be 1 bar and 300 K. For the purpose of simplicity the fresh charge of air and fuel
mixture is assumed to be having same properties as ideal gas. Hence, gas constant
and specific heat at constant pressure and constant volume of reactant is same as
air. The ratio of specific heat capacities () is a dimensionless quantity, known as
the isentropic expansion factor.
=
Cp
Cv
22
PV
RT
23
State 1
Taking the starting point for the cycle as the start of the
compression process then from the inlet conditions:
p1 pin
T1 Tin
Assuming that the gas behaves as an ideal gas:
v1
RT1
p1
V1
v1
State 2
From the definition of the compression ratio
r
v2
v1 V1
v 2 V2
v1
r
24
p 2 v 2 p1v1
v
p 2 p1 1
v2
p1 r
p 2 v 2 p1v1
RT 2 RT1
v 2
v1
v2
v1
v
T2 T1 1
v2
T1 r 1
State 3
The process from 2 to 3 is a constant volume heat addition process,
thus:
v3 v 2
v1
r
Applying the first law and noting that no work is done during this
process:
q 23 w23 u 3 u 2
q 23 c v T3 T2
T3 T2
q 23
q
T1 r 1 23
cv
cv
p3
RT3 rRT 3
p RT
rq
r 1 3 p1 r 23
v3
v1
RT1
c v T1
State 4
At state 4 the piston has returned to its initial position thus:
v 4 v1
25
p4 v4 p3v3
v
p4 p3 3
v4
p3
r 1 q23
p3 r p1 1
c
T
v
1
p 4 v 4 p3 v3
RT 4 RT3
v3
v 4
v
v
4
3
v
T4 T3 3
v4
T3 r
r 1 q 23
T1
cv
pdv p1v1 v dv
1
v 1
p1v1
p1v1 1
p v v 1
pv
v 2 v11 1 1 1 v 12 v11 1 1 v1 1v 12 v1 1v11
1
1
1
pv
1 1 r 1 1
1
RT1 1
r 1 c v T1 r 1 cv T1 cv T1 T2 u 2 u1
1
Since the process is isentropic then no heat is transferred with the surroundings.
Process 2 to 3
For the heat addition process from state 2 to 3 the heat transfer is specified and the
work transfer is zero, since there is no change in volume during the process.
26
Process 3 to 4
For the expansion process from state 3 to state 4 the moving boundary work done
is:
w34
pdv p 3 v3 v dv
3
1
1
p 3 v3
p3 v3 1
p v v 1
pv
v 4 v31 3 3 3 v14 v31 3 3 v3 1v 14 v3 1v31
1
1
1
pv
3 3 r 1 1
1
RT3 1
r 1 c vT3 r 1 c vT3 c v T3 T4 u 4 u 3
1
Since the process is isentropic then no heat is transferred with the surroundings.
Process 4 to 1
For the heat rejection process from state 4 to 1 the work transfer is zero, since there
is no change in volume during the process. Applying the first law:
q 41 w41 u1 u 4
r 1 q 23
T1
c
v
q 41 cv T1 T4 cv T1 cv
q 41 r 1 q 23
Cycle
Since the start and end of the cycle are the same state point then there is no net
gain or loss of energy by the system. Thus applying the first law
q 23 q 41 w12 w34 0
The net work done by the system can be expressed in terms of the heat transfers as:
q 23 q 23 r 1 q 23 1 r 1
th
wnet
1 r 1
q 23
27
p1 pin
T1 Tin
p 2 p1 r
T2 T1 r 1
p3
RT3
v3
T3 T2
p 4 p 3 r
v1
RT1
p1
v2
v1
r
v3 v 2
q 23
cv
v 4 rv 3
T4 T3 r 1
1 p1 p in
T1 Tin
2 p p r
2
1
T2 T1 r 1
rq
p3 p1 r 23
c v T1
r 1 q 23
p 4 p1 1
c
T
v 1
T3 T1 r 1
T4 T1
q 23
cv
r 1 q 23
cv
v1
RT1
p1
v2
v1
r
v3
v1
r
v 4 v1
28
[ ( ) ]
0
MFB ( )=1exp a
m +1
[30]
The values of MFB will be within the range from 0 to 1. A sample of Wiebe
Function curve is shown below
29
30
31
CHAPTER 5
r=
q23 =
10
600000 J/k g
Using Table 1
P
T
Pa
K
100000
300.00
2511886
753.57
5298372 1589.51
210932
632.80
Process
12
23
34
41
wnet =
nth =
w
J/k g
-325547
0
686682.6
0
g=
cv =
R=
v
m3/k g
0.86130
0.08613
0.08613
0.86130
State
q
J/k g
0
600000
0
-238864
q-w
J/k g
325547
600000
-686683
-238864
1
2
3
4
1.4
717.75 J/k g K
287.1 J/k g K
Using Table 2
P
T
Pa
K
100000
300.00
2511886
753.57
5298372 1589.51
210932
632.80
v
u
m3/k g
J/k g
0.86130
0.0
0.08613 325546.9
0.08613 925546.9
0.86130 238864.3
uo-ui
J/k g
325547
600000
-686683
-238864
361135.7 J/k g
0.601893
32
100000
10000
1000
Pressure [kPa]
100
10
1
0
100000
4000
3500
10000
3000
2500
1000
2000
Pressure [kPa]
Temperature [K]
100
1500
1000
10
500
1
0
-120
0
120
-180
-60
60
180
Crank Angle atdc [deg]
33
34
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
HCCI combustion is a promising alternative to conventional SI and CI
combustion as there is significant reduction of NOx emissions and increased power
output. However, as in SI or CI combustion, there is no direct event to initiate
combustion because reactant mixture spontaneously ignites when sufficient
temperature and pressure conditions are reached. Therefore, several parameters
have to be monitored together to make HCCI combustion work in a physical
engine with consistent output cycle by cycle. This requires deeper analysis of
chemical and physical kinematics. Through mechanistic modelling it is possible to
further understand the correlation between various parameters and output.
The model presented in this report is of Otto cycle, which shows sensitivity
towards several input parameters. For HCCI combustion, the Otto cycle simulation
can be modulated by applying closed loop control for inlet temperature. Also, flow
dynamics, which have been excluded for Otto cycle simulation, have to be
included for modelling HCCI combustion, as EGR is primary parameter and the
percentage of EGR is dependent upon air flow through outlet valve. Moreover,
Arrhenius equation also would have to be included to depict the activation energy
needed to overcome the reaction barrier.
35
CHAPTER 7
36
APPENDIX 1
37
38
39
APPENDIX 2
HCCI COMBUSTION: MATHEMATICAL MODELLING APPROACH
USING VISUAL BASIC FOR APPLICATIONS
VIVEK BHARAT PATTNI1, P. NAVEENCHANDRAN2, C.THAMOTHARAN3, R.
RAJASEKAR4
1
ABSTRACT
In recent times, alternative combustion technology such as Homogenous Charge
Compression Ignition (HCCI) has been studied and results have been positive. HCCI
combustion has the potential to reduce fuel consumption and NOx emissions pertaining to
the most stringent of legislation of both present and future. HCCI technology is attractive
as there is no need for major modifications to the existing structure of IC engines and with
significantly low NOx emissions, after treatment systems are not required. However, it is
difficult to control the process and achieve constancy every cycle. Therefore, globally
experts are studying HCCI combustion in depth to understand the associated
idiosyncrasies. Through advent of modern computers, it has become possible to simulate
HCCI combustion by creating a mathematical model that can solve complex equations
within minutes. This paper details mathematical modelling approach to model HCCI
combustion using Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), along with insight on different
types of modelling techniques and submodels required to construct the simulation model.
KEYWORDS: HCCI, Auto Ignition, Mathematical Modelling, Mechanistic Model,
Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)
INTRODUCTION
The current scenario of fossil fuel shortage, increase in prices and environmental problems due
to vehicle emissions, has motivated engineers, scientists, technical education institutes and
companies globally, to come up with an alternative technology to the conventional form of burning
40
the fuel and extracting energy out of it. Several approaches have been adapted to solve this problem
such as:
Alternative Fuel: Use of fuel having better properties than gasoline or diesel in terms of self
ignition temperature, volatility and calorific value
Alternative Combustion method: A combustion method that is more efficient than
conventional methods in terms of work output and emissions.
Alternative Materials: Materials that can sustain higher forces, and therefore high pressure
and temperature can be used inside the cylinder so as to extract more work
Alternative Engine Structure: Radically change the engine structure so as to reduce number
of moving parts and hence, reduce frictional loss
Alternative working cycle: Explore the use of alternative working cycle to Otto or Diesel
cycle that can provide more work output.
For the purpose of this paper, an alternative combustion method namely, Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition (HCCI), is studied with the purpose of creating a simulation model.
HCCI
HCCI combustion is achieved by premixing the air-fuel mixture, either in the
manifold or by early direct injection, as in Spark Ignition (SI) engine, and compressing the
mixture until the temperature inside the combustion chamber reaches the auto ignition
point and ignites, as in Compression Ignition (CI) engine. It is also known by following
terms
Controlled Auto Ignition
Active Thermo Atmosphere Combustion
Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI)
Active Thermo Atmosphere Combustion (ATAC)
Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI)
Homogenous Charge Diesel Combustion (HCDC)
Premixed Lean Diesel Combustion (PREDIC)
Compression Ignited Homogenous Charge (CIHC)
HCCI engine combines the advantages of Spark Ignition engine (Homogenous
Charge) and Compression Ignition engine (increased efficiency) with reduced emissions.
However, unlike SI and CI engine where start of combustion is controlled by spark timing
and fuel injection timing respectively, there is no direct way to control the initiation of
ignition, and as a result, it becomes innately difficult to control the process in order to
extract maximum work from each cycle.
According to various researches done on HCCI engine, combustion happens
simultaneously within the cylinder as opposed to flame front phenomenon in conventional
SI or CI engine. Hence the combustion duration is comparatively lower resulting in lower
41
peak temperature. Therefore, harmful NOx emissions, which are temperature driven, are
reduced considerably. This has motivated scientists and engineers throughout the globe to
undertake research on HCCI combustion for better understanding and thereby exploring
possibilities for commercial application. The following section highlights some of the
research findings pertaining to HCCI.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Autoignition has been investigated from the start of automobile mass production
era, albeit not as a process but to understand fuel properties such as autoignition
temperature. Only more recently, autoignition process has been studied with the purpose of
extracting positive work from the engine.
Onishi et al. in 1979 examined the possibility of running a two stroke engine on
autoignition mode for their research. They concluded that there was little cycle by cycle
variation with respect to peak combustion pressure and that the reaction happened
spontaneously at several points within the cylinder. The importance of radicals was also
studied and it was shown that their concentration was higher and had longer life than in an
SI engine. They also suggested maintaining uniform quantity of mixture and the air to fuel
ratio from cycle to cycle in order to attain HCCI. They obtained adequate combustion over
a wide range of air to fuel ratios and concluded that HCCI reduces both exhaust emissions
and fuel consumption for the entire range.
In 1983, Najt et al. studied in detail what parameters affect HCCI combustion using a
single cylinder four stroke cycle engine with a pancake combustion chamber and a
shrouded intake valve. They concluded that this autoignition phenomenon was not
knocking but an even energy release process that can be controlled by manipulating
temperature and mixture strength. They independently controlled inlet temperature and
used EGR, simultaneously using different fuels for their experiments and following
autoignition.
The combustion process was sensitive to delivery ratio through changes in the
concentrations of air and fuel in the fresh charge, i.e. at high delivery ratios the energy
42
was low cyclic variability and fuel economy results were comparable with diesel engine.
He concluded that there were three unsatisfactory regions, dictated by mixture strength,
knock region
Mixture was too lean resulting in low power production, labelled as power limited region
Lei Shi et al. investigated the effect of internal and external EGR on emissions and
performance of four stroke HCCI engine running on diesel fuel. They observed that by
injecting fuel before Top Dead Centre (TDC) of exhaust stroke, and employing negative
valve overlap (NVO), the homogeneous mixture, when burned achieves low NOx and
smoke emissions. It was also noticed that internal EGR benefited in the formation of
homogeneous mixture, further reducing smoke emissions, however, high load limit of
HCCI was affected negatively. Whereas cooled external EGR delayed the start of
combustion, thereby helping to avoid knocking, this in turn expanded the high load limit
of HCCI engine. Due to no fuel rich regions in the cylinder, smoke emissions were on
lower side as compared to a conventional diesel engine.
Osbourne et al. conducted a study on evaluating HCCI combustion mode for future
gasoline powertrains, with prime objective being to develop a greater understanding of incylinder processes. Based on experimental results they developed a 1D simulation model
using Ricardo Wave software a CFD based 3D model to perform computations. As per
their observation, there was 99% reduction in NOx emissions and an 8% reduction in ISFC
compared with the baseline direct injection gasoline engine condition for a standard key
point. Also, HC emissions for HCCI operation were comparable to other conventional
gasoline engine modes of operation. Finally, they suggest the concept of two-stroke/four
stroke switching HCCI engine, made possible by using camless, electro mechanical
variable valve actuation.
MODELLING APPROACH
43
There are mainly two types of mathematical models that are used to describe the
physical phenomena occurring within the engine cylinder:
Phenomenological Model (Black box model)
A phenomenological model or an empirical model is derived using experimental data
only, using no prior information about the system, i.e. engine cylinder during HCCI
combustion. Statistical principles are used to derive relationships among sensitive
parameters affecting the final result. For such models, an experiment is set up where input
parameters are controlled and output is measured. Input parameters or experimental setup
is altered to study the corresponding effect on output result. From results of experiment,
graphs are charted showing correlation between input parameters and measured results.
Phenomenological models are more general and applicable to many different kinds of
problems. However, they provide less insight into the problem or its possible solution and
less predictive capability.
Mechanistic Model (Grey box model)
A mechanistic model is developed using prior information about the system, i.e.
results of previous work conducted on similar topic. They provide deeper understanding
and more accurate prediction as compared to phenomenological models.
Globally, research on HCCI combustion engine has been undertaken by almost every
academic institution, automobile manufacturers, and consultants since last 3 decades. Also,
from the detailed research done by the author, the information gathered so far on HCCI
combustion, a glimpse of which is mentioned in Literature Review section, is sufficient to
develop a mechanistic model on HCCI combustion.
The various mechanistic engine combustion models that have been developed so far
44
MODELLING PLATFORM
Several packages have been developed to simulate the internal combustion engine
system. Most notable simulation packages, currently used in automotive research are:
Ricardo Wave
Lotus Engine Simulation
AVL fire
GT-Power
KIVA
MATLAB Simulink
LabVIEW
However, software costs, hardware requirements and training limitations, combined
with project time constraint of the research work undertaken by the author, renders any of
the above software packages difficult to use. While above simulation platforms are
primarily based on computation fluid dynamics, simple mechanistic models, can be built
and developed using any software package offering computation ability to solve
engineering problems, program event based automation and a graphic tool to visualize
outcome, such as Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) with Excel spreadsheet.
SIMULATION STRUCTURE
The simulation structure is prepared based on several assumptions related to
combustion wave
The characteristic gas constants within both zones do not vary much with pressure and
temperature; in case of any variance, they can be modelled using thermodynamic
45
Average instantaneous heat transfer rates are assumed to estimate heat transfer to the
cylinder wall
Crevice losses are ignored
SUBMODELS
Several submodels have been used or developed to describe all relevant
incylinder processes and are vital for the main model to work. The submodels used for the
HCCI combustion modeling are as per below
Cylinder Geometry: Cylinder geometry includes bore diameter, stroke, compression ratio
and connecting rod length. These attributes determine the basic structure to the simulation
model.
Piston Motion: This submodel is also known as crank-slider model. The instantaneous
position of the piston in the cylinder is evaluated from this submodel. From the
instantaneous position of the pistion, the instantaneous volume of the combustion chamber
is also determined, as a function of crank angle.
Air and fuel properties: For the purpose of simulation, air fuel mixture is assumed to
have same properties as air. Properties of air such as gas constant for air, ratio of specific
heat capacities for air, and fuel properties such as Lower heating value of the fuel and
stoichiometric air to fuel ratio are required to calculate pressure and temperature difference
as piston moves inside the cylinder.
Engine Cycle: HCCI combustion works on Otto cycle as compression (heat addition) and
expansion (heat release) happens at constant volume. Therefore, the changing chemical
state of the air fuel mixture and changing thermodynamic state of the cylinder are depicted
using Otto cycle equations. Based on previous knowledge of Otto cycle, certain points like
peak pressure and start of combustion are fixed, in terms of crank angle degrees. To
maintain cycle to cycle consistency, EGR percentage would be varied using various
degrees of negative valve overlap. Mass flows through open valves will be calculated by
one dimensional compressible flow equations for flow through a restriction of filling and
emptying models.
Heat Release Rate: The heat release rate is the amount of heat released from the chemical
reaction with respect to crank angle degree. Pressure and corresponding values of
temperature are calculated for unit increment in crank angle degrees. Heat release rate with
respect to crank angle degree is calculated using the difference in instantaneous
temperature and temperature at fixed points in the engine cycle. The heat release rate
calculated is the gross value and when divided by the specific content of the fuel,
combustion reaction rate is obtained.
46
Heat Transfer: Heat transfer occurs through conduction, convection and radiation from
hot burned gases to piston head, inlet and exhaust valves, cylinder walls, cylinder liners
and coolant. For physical testing, water is circulated through the cooling channels as
engine runs on the test rig. The difference between inlet temperature and outlet
temperature is used to calculate heat transfer, i.e. heat energy dissipated and could not be
used to extract work.
Valve motion: This submodel describes the effect of valve motion on the final output of
the combustion model. For the purpose of HCCI combustion modelling, internal EGR is
used using Negative Valve Overlap (NVO). To vary the percentage of EGR, the duration
of NVO is varied and practically this is possible via variable valve technologies. An
effective variable valvetrain enables the engine to breathe smoothly to increase the
volumetric efficiency, while allowing the engine to operate on lean mode at low load
conditions.
CONCLUSION
The current paper presents an approach to mathematically model HCCI combustion
using visual basic for applications. In the current scenario of the need to increase the
power output and reduce fuel consumption and emissions, at the same time, HCCI
combustion offers the best alternative to conventional combustion concepts used in
gasoline and diesel engine. There is no need to radically change the engine design for
HCCI combustion to work, and as per major experimental work conducted so far, NOx
emissions are reduced by 90 % to 95 % when operating in HCCI mode. However, it is a
challenge to increase the load capacity and globally research is undertaken to understand
incylinder processes in detail so as to enable HCCI to work outside the laboratory, in a
vehicle. Through mathematically modelling, HCCI combustion can be simulated and
tested for sensitivity with respect to various parameters. Various types of mathematical
models have been presented and a two zone zero dimensional mechanistic model is found
to be a good compromise between accuracy, computational speed and level of detail.
Various submodels that are used to construct the simulation model have also been
explained. The final model is constructed on Microsoft Excel 2007 and control automation
is achieved through visual basic for applications programming. The simulation results will
be presented in a different paper.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr. P. Naveenchandran 2 for his invaluable guidance
and support, Mr. C. Thamotharan3 for his constant support and Mr. R. Rajsekar 4 for his
help.
REFERENCES
[1]
47
[2]
Onishi, S. Hong Jo, S., Shoda, K., Do Jo, P. and Kato, S., (1979). Active Thermo-Atmosphere
Combustion (ATAC)- A New Combustion Process for Internal Combustion Engines, SAE
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Paper 790501
Najt, P. M, & Foster, D. E. (1983). Compression-Ignited homogeneous Charge Combustion,
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Thring, R. H. (1989). Homogeneous-Charge Compression-Ignition (HCCI) Engines,
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Lei Shi_, Yi Cui, Kangyao Deng, Haiyong Peng, Yuanyuan Chen (2006), Study of low
emission homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine using combined internal
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R J Osbourne, G Li, S M Sapsford, J Stokes, T H Lake, M R Heikal, Evaluation of HCCI For
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48
APPENDIX 3
Corresponding Author,PG student, Department of Automobile Engineering, Bharath Institute of Science and
Technology, Bharath University, Chennai, India. Email- vivek_pattni@hotmail.com
Professor and Head , Department of Automobile Engineering, Bharath Institute of Science and Technology,
Bharath University, Chennai, India. Email- siruvan@gmail.com
Professor and Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Bharath Institute of Science and Technology,
Bharath University, Chennai, India.Email- niksdew@gmail.com
1. Introduction
With increasing awareness and understanding
of the impact of vehicle exhaust emissions on
environment, combined with the shortage of
fossil fuels and increasing cost has provided an
impetus to experts to radically improve the
current combustion methods used to extract
energy from fuel. Majority of engines can be
classified into SI or CI, based on fuel used,
combustion method, working cycle and
chemical kinematics. In SI engine, the air fuel
49
2. Modelling Approach
As mentioned earlier, internal combustion
engine is a very complex system, and therefore
it is fairly difficult to create a combustion
model that is simple yet complete. The
modelling approach has been to first create a
simple model based on first principles, and then
gradually add various submodels into the mix,
thereby increasing the accuracy.
Through previous
HCCI, it is known
occurs at constant
HCCI combustion
Otto cycle.
researches conducted in
that heat addition in HCCI
volume [1]. Therefore, the
cycle can be modelled on
3. Starting Parameters
The starting parameters are the basic values
needed to create a simulation structure. In order
to maintain simplicity, the simulation structure
is first made in Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.
Following table shows initial parameters, along
with their values in SI units
50
b2 s
Vd=
4
Eq.1
Clearance volume is the instantaneous volume
in the cylinder when piston is at Top Dead
Centre (TDC). Combustion process happens
within clearance volume after which due to
rapid increase in temperature and pressure,
piston is pushed downward, i.e. mechanical
work done by the system.
PV =mRT
Eq. 3
m=
PV
RT
Eq. 4
Cp
Cv
Eq. 2
4. Combustion Cycle
51
p2 v2 p1v1
v
p2 p1 1
v2
p1 pin
T1 Tin
p 2 v 2 p1v1
RT 2 RT1
v 2
v1
v2
v1
v1
v2
T2 T1
RT1
p1
v3 v 2
q 23 w23 u 3 u 2
q 23 c v T3 T2
V1
v1
T3 T2
4.1.2. State 2
From the definition of the compression ratio
v1 V1
v 2 V2
v1
r
p3
RT3 rRT 3
p RT
rq
r 1 3 p1 r 23
v3
v1
RT1
c v T1
Eq. 11
Eq. 7
q 23
q
T1 r 1 23
cv
cv
Eq. 10
Eq. 6
v2
v1
r
T1 r 1
4.1.3. State 3
The process from 2 to 3 is a constant volume
heat addition process, thus:
Eq. 5
Eq. 9
v1
p1r
Eq. 8
52
4.1.4. State 4
At state 4 the piston has returned to its initial
position thus:
v 4 v1
The process from 3 to 4 is an isentropic
(reversible and adiabatic) expansion process
thus:
p4 v4 p3v3
v
p4 p3 3
v4
p3
p3r p1
1
Function
c T is used
v 1
Eq. 12
[ ( ) ]
MFB ( )=1exp a
p4 v4 p3v3
m +1
Eq. 14
RT4 RT3
v3
v4
v4
v3
v
T4 T3 3
v4
[3]
MFB
T3r 1
()
Mass
Fraction
Burned
at
Eq. 13
53
7. Conclusion
6. Inter Dependencies
While modelling any form of combustion it is
important to note how different parameters are
affecting each other. For example, during
combustion phase in internal combustion
engine, temperature increases due to progress of
chemical reaction. As chemical reaction
progress, fuel energy is released in the form of
heat, due to which temperature increases
rapidly. As a result, chemical reaction rate
increases. Thus, temperature and chemical
reaction rate are interdependent parameters.
Similarly with increase in temperature, pressure
also increases, which in turn contributes to
increase in temperature.
For HCCI combustion to happen in a
production engine, the most suitable technique
is to use EGR with negative valve overlap
(NVO) [4]. EGR makes the overall mixture
more dilute and raises the temperature of
reactant mixture. Due to this, the specific heat
of mixture at the time of IVC is higher than SI
or CI combustion. Now to achieve SOC point in
every cycle within + 5 CAD of fixed SOC
point, temperature of mixture, i.e. fresh charge
+ EGR at IVC has to be monitored. By varying
EGR %, temperature at IVC can be maintained
within a set tolerance. Again by varying NVO
duration, EGR % can be increased or decreased
54
[9]
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Author Profile
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ISSN
0280-5316,
ISRN
LUTFD2/TFRT3246SE,