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Flightplanning
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Flightplanningistheprocessofproducingaflightplantodescribea
proposedaircraftflight.Itinvolvestwosafetycriticalaspects:fuel
calculation,toensurethattheaircraftcansafelyreachthedestination,
andcompliancewithairtrafficcontrolrequirements,tominimisethe
riskofmidaircollision.Inaddition,flightplannersnormallywishto
minimiseflightcostthroughtheappropriatechoiceofroute,height,and
speed,andbyloadingtheminimumnecessaryfuelonboard.ATSuse
thecompletedflightplanforseparationofACFTinATMservices,
includingtrackingandfindinglostACFT,duringSearchand
rescue(SAR)missions.

ATaromBoeing737300andUnited
AirlinesBoeing777200taxiingto
departLondonHeathrowAirport.

Flightplanningrequiresaccurateweatherforecastssothatfuel
consumptioncalculationscanaccountforthefuelconsumptioneffects
ofheadortailwindsandairtemperature.Safetyregulationsrequireaircrafttocarryfuelbeyondtheminimum
neededtoflyfromorigintodestination,allowingforunforeseencircumstancesorfordiversiontoanother
airportiftheplanneddestinationbecomesunavailable.Furthermore,underthesupervisionofairtrafficcontrol,
aircraftflyingincontrolledairspacemustfollowpredeterminedroutesknownasairways,evenifsuchroutes
arenotaseconomicalasamoredirectflight.Withintheseairways,aircraftmustmaintainflightlevels,
specifiedaltitudesusuallyseparatedverticallyby1000or2000feet(305or610m),dependingontheroute
beingflownandthedirectionoftravel.Whenaircraftwithonlytwoenginesareflyinglongdistancesacross
oceans,deserts,orotherareaswithnoairports,theyhavetosatisfyadditionalETOPSsafetyrulestoensure
theycanreachsomeemergencyairportifoneenginefails.
Producinganaccurateoptimisedflightplanrequiresmillionsofcalculations,socommercialflightplanning
systemsmakeextensiveuseofcomputers(anapproximateunoptimisedflightplancanbedonebyhandinan
hourorso,butmoreallowancemustbemadeforunforeseencircumstances).Whencomputerflightplanning
replacedmanualflightplanningforeastboundflightsacrosstheNorthAtlantic,theaveragefuelconsumption
wasreducedbyabout1,000poundsperflight,andtheaverageflighttimeswerereducedbyabout5minutes
perflight.[1]Somecommercialairlineshavetheirowninternalflightplanningsystem,whileothersemploythe
servicesofexternalplanners.
Alicensedflightdispatcherorflightoperationsofficerisrequiredbylawtocarryoutflightplanningandflight
watchtasksinmanycommercialoperatingenvironments(e.g.,USFAR121,[2]Canadianregulations).These
regulationsvarybycountrybutmoreandmorecountriesrequiretheirairlineoperatorstoemploysuch
personnel.

Contents
1 Overviewandbasicterminology
2 Unitsofmeasurement
3 Describingaroute
3.1 Components
3.2 Completeroutes
4 Fuelcalculation
4.1 Considerations
4.2 Calculation
5 Costreduction
5.1 Basicimprovements
5.2 Reservereduction
6 Filingsuboptimalplans
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6 Filingsuboptimalplans
7 VFRflights
8 Additionalfeatures
9 Seealso
10 References

Overviewandbasicterminology
Aflightplanningsystemmayneedtoproducemorethanoneflightplanforasingleflight:
summaryplanforairtrafficcontrol(inFAAand/orICAOformat)
summaryplanfordirectdownloadintoanonboardflightmanagementsystem
detailedplanforusebypilots
Thebasicpurposeofaflightplanningsystemistocalculatehowmuchtripfuelisneededintheairnavigation
processbyanaircraftwhenflyingfromanoriginairporttoadestinationairport.Aircraftmustalsocarrysome
reservefueltoallowforunforeseencircumstances,suchasaninaccurateweatherforecast,orairtrafficcontrol
requiringanaircrafttoflyatalowerthanoptimalaltitudeduetocongestion,ortheadditionoflastminute
passengerswhoseweightwasnotaccountedforwhentheflightplanwasprepared.Thewayinwhichreserve
fuelisdeterminedvariesgreatly,dependingonairlineandlocality.Themostcommonmethodsare:
USdomesticoperationsconductedunderInstrumentFlightRules:enoughfueltoflytothefirst
pointofintendedlanding,thenflytoanalternateairport(ifweatherconditionsrequireanalternate
airport),thenfor45minutesthereafteratnormalcruisingspeed
percentageoftime:typically10%(i.e.,a10hourflightneedsenoughreservetoflyforanother
hour)
percentageoffuel:typically5%(i.e.,aflightrequiring20,000kgoffuelneedsareserveof
1,000kg)
ExceptforsomeUSdomesticflights,aflightplannormallyhasanalternateairportaswellasadestination
airport.Thealternateairportisforuseincasethedestinationairportbecomesunusablewhiletheflightisin
progress(duetoweatherconditions,astrike,acrash,terroristactivity,etc.).Thismeansthatwhentheaircraft
getsnearthedestinationairport,itmuststillhaveenoughalternatefuelandalternatereserveavailabletoflyon
tothealternateairport.Sincetheaircraftisnotexpectedatthealternateairport,itmustalsohaveenough
holdingfueltocircleforawhile(typically30minutes)nearthealternateairportwhilealandingslotisfound.
UnitedStatesdomesticflightsarenotrequiredtohavesufficientfueltoproceedtoanalternateairportwhenthe
weatheratthedestinationisforecasttobebetterthan2,000foot(610m)ceilingsand3statutemilesof
visibilityhowever,the45minutereserveatnormalcruisingspeedstillapplies.
Itisoftenconsideredagoodideatohavethealternatesomedistanceawayfromthedestination(e.g.,100
miles)sothatbadweatherisunlikelytocloseboththedestinationandthealternatedistancesofupto600
miles(970km)arenotunknown.Insomecasesthedestinationairportmaybesoremote(e.g.,aPacificisland)
thatthereisnofeasiblealternateairportinsuchasituationanairlinemayinsteadincludeenoughfueltocircle
for2hoursnearthedestination,inthehopethattheairportwillbecomeavailableagainwithinthattime.
Thereisoftenmorethanonepossibleroutebetweentwoairports.Subjecttosafetyrequirements,commercial
airlinesgenerallywishtominimisecostsbyappropriatechoiceofroute,speed,andheight.
Variousnamesaregiventoweightsassociatedwithanaircraftand/orthetotalweightoftheaircraftatvarious
stages.
Payloadisthetotalweightofthepassengers,theirluggage,andanycargo.Acommercialairlinemakes
itsmoneybychargingtocarrypayload.
Operatingweightemptyisthebasicweightoftheaircraftwhenreadyforoperation,includingcrewbut
excludinganypayloadorusablefuel.
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Zerofuelweightisthesumofoperatingweightemptyandpayloadthatis,theladenweightofan
aircraft,excludinganyusablefuel.
Rampweightistheweightofanaircraftattheterminalbuildingwhenreadyfordeparture.Thisincludes
thezerofuelweightandallrequiredfuel.
Brakereleaseweightistheweightofanaircraftatthestartofarunway,justpriortobrakereleasefor
takeoff.Thisistherampweightminusanyfuelusedfortaxiing.Majorairportsmayhaverunwaysthat
areabout2miles(3km)long,somerelytaxiingfromtheterminaltotheendoftherunwaymight
consumeuptoatonoffuel.Aftertaxiing,thepilotlinesuptheaircraftwiththerunwayandputsthe
brakeson.Onreceivingtakeoffclearance,thepilotthrottlesuptheenginesandreleasesthebrakesto
startacceleratingalongtherunwayinpreparationfortakingoff.
Takeoffweightistheweightofanaircraftasittakesoffpartwayalongarunway.Fewflightplanning
systemscalculatetheactualtakeoffweightinstead,thefuelusedfortakingoffiscountedaspartofthe
fuelusedforclimbinguptothenormalcruiseheight.
Landingweightistheweightofanaircraftasitlandsatthedestination.Thisisthebrakereleaseweight
minusthetripfuelburned.Itincludesthezerofuelweight,unusablefuel,andallalternate,holding,and
reservefuel.
Whentwinengineaircraftareflyingacrossoceans,deserts,andthelike,theroutemustbecarefullyplannedso
thattheaircraftcanalwaysreachanairport,evenifoneenginefails.TheapplicablerulesareknownasETOPS
(ExTendedrangeOPerationS).Thegeneralreliabilityoftheparticulartypeofaircraftanditsenginesandthe
maintenancequalityoftheairlinearetakenintoaccountwhenspecifyinghowlongsuchanaircraftmayfly
withonlyoneengineoperating(typically13hours).
Flightplanningsystemsmustbeabletocopewithaircraftflyingbelowsealevel,whichwilloftenresultina
negativealtitude.Forexample,AmsterdamSchipholAirporthasanelevationof3metres.Thesurfaceofthe
DeadSeais417metresbelowsealevel,solowlevelflightsinthisvicinitycanbewellbelowsealevel.[3]

Unitsofmeasurement
Flightplansuseanunusualmixtureofmetricandnonmetricunitsofmeasurement.Theparticularunitsused
mayvarybyaircraft,airline,andlocation(e.g.,differentheightunitsmaybeusedatdifferentpointsduringa
singleflight).
Distanceunits
Distancesarealwaysmeasuredinnauticalmiles,ascalculatedataheightof32,000feet(9,800m),with
dueallowanceforthefactthattheearthisanoblatespheroidratherthanaperfectsphere.
Aviationchartsalwaysshowdistancesasroundedtothenearestnauticalmile,andthesearethedistances
thatareshownonaflightplan.Flightplanningsystemsmayneedtousetheunroundedvaluesintheir
internalcalculationsforimprovedaccuracy.
Fuelunits
Thereareavarietyofwaysinwhichfuelcanbemeasured,dependingmainlyonthegaugesfittedtoa
particularaircraft.Themostcommonunitoffuelmeasurementiskilogramsotherpossiblemeasures
includepounds,UKgallons,USgallons,andlitres.Whenfuelismeasuredbyweight,thespecificgravity
ofthefuelmustbetakenintoaccountwhencheckingtankcapacity.Specificgravitymayvarydepending
onthelocationandthesupplier.
Therehasbeenatleastoneoccasiononwhichanaircraftranoutoffuelduetoanerrorinconverting
betweenkilogramsandpounds.Inthisparticularcasetheflightcrewmanagedtoglidetoanearby
runwayandlandsafely(therunwaywasoneoftwoataformerairportthenbeingusedasadragstrip).
Manyairlinesrequestthatfuelquantitiesberoundedtoamultipleof10or100units.Thiscancause
someinterestingroundingproblems,especiallywhensubtotalsareinvolved.Safetyissuesmustalsobe
consideredwhendecidingwhethertoroundupordown.
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Heightunits
Theactualheightofanaircraftisbasedontheuseofapressurealtimeter(seeflightlevelformore
detail).Theheightsquotedherearethusthenominalheightsunderstandardconditionsoftemperature
andpressureratherthantheactualheights.Allaircraftoperatingonflightlevelscalibratealtimetersto
thesamestandardsettingregardlessoftheactualsealevelpressure,solittleriskofcollisionarises.
Inmostareas,heightisreportedasamultipleof100feet(30m),i.e.A025isnominally2,500feet
(760m).Whencruisingathigheraltitudesaircraftadoptflightlevels(FLs).Flightlevelsarealtitudes
correctedandcalibratedagainsttheInternationalStandardAtmosphere(ISA).Theseareexpressedasa
threefiguregroup(e.g.,FL320is32,000feet(ISA)).
Inmostareas,theverticalseparationbetweenaircraftiseither1,000or2,000feet(610m).
InChinaandsomeneighbouringareas,heightismeasuredinmetres.Theverticalseparationbetween
aircraftiseither300metresor600metres(about1.6%lessthan1,000or2,000feet).
Until1999,theverticalseparationbetweenaircraftflyingathighaltitudesonthesameairwaywas2,000
feet(610m).Sincethentherehasbeenaphasedintroductionaroundtheworldofreducedvertical
separationminimum(RVSM).Thiscutstheverticalseparationto1,000feet(300m)betweenabout
29,000feet(8,800m)and41,000feet(theexactlimitsvaryslightlyfromplacetoplace).Sincemostjet
aircraftoperatebetweentheseheights,thismeasureeffectivelydoublestheavailableairwaycapacity.To
useRVSM,aircraftmusthavecertifiedaltimeters,andautopilotsmustmeetmoreaccuratestandards.
Speedunits
Aircraftcruisingatloweraltitudesnormallyuseknotsastheprimaryspeedunit,whileaircraftthatare
higher(aboveMachCrossoverAltitude)normallyuseMachnumberastheprimaryspeedunit,though
flightplansoftenincludetheequivalentspeedinknotsaswell(theconversionincludesallowancefor
temperatureandheight).Inaflightplan,aMachnumberof"Point82"meansthattheaircraftis
travellingat0.820(82%)ofthespeedofsound.
Thewidespreaduseofglobalpositioningsystems(GPS)allowscockpitnavigationsystemstoprovideair
speedandgroundspeedmoreorlessdirectly.
Anothermethodofobtainingspeedandpositionistheinertialnavigationsystem(INS),whichkeeps
trackofavehicle'saccelerationusinggyroscopesandlinearaccelerometersthisinformationcanthenbe
integratedintimetoobtainspeedandposition,aslongastheINSwasproperlycalibratedbefore
departure.INShasbeenpresentincivilaviationforafewdecadesandismostlyusedinmediumtolarge
aircraftasthesystemisfairlycomplex.
IfneitherGPSorINSisused,thefollowingstepsarerequiredtoobtainspeedinformation:
Anairspeedindicatorisusedtomeasureindicatedairspeed(IAS)inknots.
IASisconvertedtocalibratedairspeed(CAS)usinganaircraftspecificcorrectiontable.
CASisconvertedtoequivalentairspeed(EAS)byallowingforcompressibilityeffects.
EASisconvertedtotrueairspeed(TAS)byallowingfordensityaltitude(i.e.,heightand
temperature).
TASisconvertedtogroundspeedbyallowingforanyheadortailwind.
Weightunits
Theweightofanaircraftismostcommonlymeasuredinkilograms,butmaysometimesbemeasuredin
pounds,especiallyifthefuelgaugesarecalibratedinpoundsorgallons.Manyairlinesrequestthat
weightsberoundedtoamultipleof10or100units.Greatcareisneededwhenroundingtoensurethat
physicalconstraintsarenotexceeded.
Whenchattinginformallyaboutaflightplan,approximateweightsoffueland/oraircraftmaybe
referredtointons.This"ton"isgenerallyeitherametrictonneoraUKlongton,whichdifferby
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lessthan2%,orashortton,whichisabout10%less.

Describingaroute
Arouteisadescriptionofthepathfollowedbyanaircraftwhenflyingbetweenairports.Mostcommercial
flightswilltravelfromoneairporttoanother,butprivateaircraft,commercialsightseeingtours,andmilitary
aircraftmaydoacircularoroutandbacktripandlandatthesameairportfromwhichtheytookoff.

Components
Aircraftflyonairwaysunderthedirectionofairtrafficcontrol.Anairwayhasnophysicalexistence,butcanbe
thoughtofasamotorwayinthesky.Onanordinarymotorway,carsusedifferentlanestoavoidcollisions,
whileonanairway,aircraftflyatdifferentflightlevelstoavoidcollisions.Onecanoftenseeplanespassing
directlyaboveorbelowone'sown.Chartsshowingairwaysarepublishedandareusuallyupdatedevery4
weeks,coincidingwiththeAIRACcycle.AIRAC(AeronauticalInformationRegulationandControl)occurs
everyfourthThursday,wheneverycountrypublishesitschanges,whichareusuallytoairways.
Eachairwaystartsandfinishesatawaypoint,andmaycontainsomeintermediatewaypointsaswell.
Waypointsusefiveletters(e.g.,PILOX),andthosethatdoubleasnondirectionalbeaconsusethreeortwo
(TNN,WK).Airwaysmaycrossorjoinatawaypoint,soanaircraftcanchangefromoneairwaytoanotherat
suchpoints.Acompleteroutebetweenairportsoftenusesseveralairways.Wherethereisnosuitableairway
betweentwowaypoints,andusingairwayswouldresultinasomewhatroundaboutroute,airtrafficcontrolmay
allowadirectwaypointtowaypointrouting,whichdoesnotuseanairway(oftenabbreviatedinflightplansas
"DCT").
Mostwaypointsareclassifiedascompulsoryreportingpointsthatis,thepilot(ortheonboardflight
managementsystem)reportstheaircraft'spositiontoairtrafficcontrolastheaircraftpassesawaypoint.There
aretwomaintypesofwaypoints:
Anamedwaypointappearsonaviationchartswithaknownlatitudeandlongitude.Suchwaypointsover
landoftenhaveanassociatedradiobeaconsothatpilotscanmoreeasilycheckwheretheyare.Useful
namedwaypointsarealwaysononeormoreairways.
Ageographicwaypointisatemporarypositionusedinaflightplan,usuallyinanareawherethere
arenonamedwaypoints(e.g.,mostoceansintheSouthernHemisphere).Airtrafficcontrolrequire
thatgeographicwaypointshavelatitudesandlongitudesthatareawholenumberofdegrees.
Notethatairwaysdonotconnectdirectlytoairports.
Aftertakeoff,anaircraftfollowsadepartureprocedure(standardinstrumentdeparture,orSID),
whichdefinesapathwayfromanairportrunwaytoawaypointonanairway,sothattheaircraft
canjointheairwaysysteminacontrolledmanner.Mostoftheclimbportionofaflightwilltake
placeontheSID.
Beforelanding,anaircraftfollowsanarrivalprocedure(standardterminalarrivalroute,orSTAR),
whichdefinesapathwayfromawaypointonanairwaytoanairportrunway,sothattheaircraft
canleavetheairwaysysteminacontrolledmanner.Muchofthedescentportionofaflightwill
takeplaceonaSTAR.
Specialroutesknownasoceantracksareusedacrosssomeoceans,mainlyintheNorthernHemisphere,to
increasetrafficcapacityonbusyroutes.Unlikeordinaryairways,whichchangeinfrequently,oceantracks
changetwiceaday,soastotakeadvantageoffavourablewinds.Flightsgoingwiththejetstreammaybean
hourshorterthanthosegoingagainstit.Oceantracksmaystartandfinishabout100milesoffshoreatnamed
waypoints,towhichanumberofairwaysconnect.Tracksacrossnorthernoceansaresuitableforeastwestor
westeastflights,whichconstitutethebulkofthetrafficintheseareas.

Completeroutes
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Thereareanumberofwaysofconstructing
aroute.Allscenariosusingairwaysuse
SIDsandSTARsfordepartureandarrival.
Anymentionofairwaysmightincludea
verysmallnumberof"direct"segmentsto
allowforsituationswhenthereareno
convenientairwayjunctions.Insomecases,
politicalconsiderationsmayinfluencethe
choiceofroute(e.g.,aircraftfromone
countrycannotoverflysomeothercountry).
AirlineroutesbetweenLosAngelesandTokyoapproximatelyfollow
Airway(s)fromorigintodestination.
adirectgreatcircleroute(top),butusethejetstream(bottom)when
Mostflightsoverlandfallintothis
headingeastwards
category.
Airway(s)fromorigintoanocean
edge,thenanoceantrack,thenairway(s)fromoceanedgetodestination.Mostflightsovernorthern
oceansfallintothiscategory.
Airway(s)fromorigintoanoceanedge,thenafreeflightareaacrossanocean,thenairway(s)from
oceanedgetodestination.Mostflightsoversouthernoceansfallintothiscategory.
Freeflightareafromorigintodestination.Thisisarelativelyuncommonsituationforcommercial
flights.

Eveninafreeflightarea,airtrafficcontrolstillrequiresapositionreportaboutonceanhour.Flightplanning
systemsorganisethisbyinsertinggeographicwaypointsatsuitableintervals.Forajetaircraft,theseintervals
are10degreesoflongitudeforeastboundorwestboundflightsand5degreesoflatitudefornorthboundor
southboundflights.Infreeflightareas,commercialaircraftnormallyfollowaleasttimetracksoastouseas
littletimeandfuelaspossible.Agreatcircleroutewouldhavetheshortestgrounddistance,butisunlikelyto
havetheshortestairdistance,duetotheeffectofheadortailwinds.Aflightplanningsystemmayhaveto
performsignificantanalysistodetermineagoodfreeflightroute.

Fuelcalculation
Calculationoffuelrequirements(especiallytripfuelandreservefuel)isthemostsafetycriticalaspectofflight
planning.Thiscalculationissomewhatcomplicated:
Rateoffuelburndependsonambienttemperature,aircraftspeed,andaircraftaltitude,noneofwhichare
entirelypredictable.
Rateoffuelburnalsodependsonairplaneweight,whichchangesasfuelisburned.
Someiterationisgenerallyrequiredduetotheneedtocalculateinterdependentvalues.Forinstance,
reservefuelisoftencalculatedasapercentageoftripfuel,buttripfuelcannotbecalculateduntilthetotal
weightoftheaircraftisknown,andthisincludestheweightofthereservefuel.

Considerations
Fuelcalculationmusttakemanyfactorsintoaccount.
Weatherforecasts
Theairtemperatureaffectstheefficiency/fuelconsumptionofaircraftengines.Thewindmayprovidea
headortailwindcomponent,whichinturnwillincreaseordecreasethefuelconsumptionbyincreasing
ordecreasingtheairdistancetobeflown.
ByagreementwiththeInternationalCivilAviationOrganization,therearetwonationalweathercentres
(intheUnitedStates,theNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,andinandtheUnited
Kingdom,theMetOffice),whichprovideworldwideweatherforecastsforcivilaviationinaformat
knownasGRIBweather.Theseforecastsaregenerallyissuedevery6hoursandcoverthesubsequent36
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hours.Each6hourforecastcoversthewholeworldusinggridpointslocatedatintervalsof75nautical
miles(139km)orless.Ateachgridpoint,theweather(windspeed,winddirection,airtemperature)is
suppliedat9differentheights,rangingfromabout4,500feet(1,400m)uptoabout55,000feet
(17,000m).
Aircraftseldomflyexactlythroughweathergridpointsorattheexactheightsatwhichweather
predictionsareavailable,sosomeformofhorizontalandverticalinterpolationisgenerallyneeded.For
75nauticalmile(139km)intervals,linearinterpolationissatisfactory.TheGRIBformatsupersededthe
earlierADFformatin199899.TheADFformatused300nauticalmile(560km)intervalsthisinterval
waslargeenoughtomisssomestormscompletely,socalculationsusingADFpredictedweatherwere
oftennotasaccurateasthosethatcanbeproducedusingGRIBpredictedweather.
Routesandflightlevels
Theparticularroutetobeflowndeterminesthegrounddistancetocover,whilewindsonthatroute
determinetheairdistancetobeflown.Eachinterwaypointportionofanairwaymayhavedifferentrules
astowhichflightlevelsmaybeused.Totalaircraftweightatanypointdeterminesthehighestflightlevel
whichcanbeused.Cruisingatahigherflightlevelgenerallyrequireslessfuelthanatalowerflight
level,butextraclimbfuelmaybeneededtogetuptothehigherflightlevel(itisthisextraclimbfueland
thedifferentfuelconsumptionratethatcausediscontinuities).
Physicalconstraints
Almostalltheweightsmentionedabovein"Overviewandbasicterminology"maybesubjectto
minimumand/ormaximumvalues.Duetostressonthewheelsandundercarriagewhenlanding,the
maximumsafelandingweightmaybeconsiderablylessthanthemaximumsafebrakereleaseweight.In
suchcases,anaircraftthatencounterssomeemergencyandhastolandimmediatelyaftertakingoffmay
havetocircleforawhiletouseupfuel,orelsejettisonsomefuel,orelselandimmediatelyandrisk
havingtheundercarriagecollapse.
Further,thefueltankshaveamaximumcapacity.Onsomeoccasions,commercialflightplanning
systemsfindthatanimpossibleflightplanhasbeenrequested.Theaircraftcannotpossiblyreachthe
intendeddestination,evenwithnocargoorpassengers,sincethefueltanksarenotbigenoughtoholdthe
amountoffuelneededitwouldappearthatsomeairlinesareoveroptimisticattimes,perhapshopingfor
a(very)strongtailwind.
Fuelconsumptionrate
Therateoffuelconsumptionforaircraftenginesdependsontheairtemperature,heightasmeasuredby
airpressure,aircraftweight,aircraftspeedrelativetotheair,andanyincreasedconsumptionascompared
withbrandnewenginesduetoengineageand/orpoormaintenance(anairlinecanestimatethis
degradationbycomparingactualwithpredictedfuelburn).Notethatalargeaircraft,suchasajumbojet,
mayburnupto80tonsoffuelona10hourflight,sothereisasubstantialweightchangeduringthe
flight.

Calculation
Theweightoffuelformsasignificantpartofthetotalweightofanaircraft,soanyfuelcalculationmusttake
intoaccounttheweightofanyfuelnotyetburned.Insteadoftryingtopredictthefuelloadnotyetburned,a
flightplanningsystemcanhandlethissituationbyworkingbackwardalongtheroute,startingatthealternate,
goingbacktothedestination,andthengoingbackwaypointbywaypointtotheorigin.
Amoredetailedoutlineofthecalculationfollows.Several(possiblymany)iterationsareusuallyrequired,
eithertocalculateinterdependentvaluessuchasreservefuelandtripfuel,ortocopewithsituationswhere
somephysicalconstrainthasbeenexceeded.Inthelattercaseitisusuallynecessarytoreducethepayload(less
cargoorfewerpassengers).Someflightplanningsystemsuseelaboratesystemsofapproximateequationsto
simultaneouslyestimateallthechangesrequiredthiscangreatlyreducethenumberofiterationsneeded.
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Ifanaircraftlandsatthealternate,intheworstcaseitcanbeassumedtohavenofuelleft(inpractice
therewillbeenoughreservefuellefttoatleasttaxiofftherunway).Henceaflightplanningsystemcan
calculatealternateholdingfuelonthebasisthatthefinalaircraftweightisthezerofuelweight.Sincethe
aircraftiscirclingwhileholding,thereisnoneedtotakewindintoaccountforthisoranyotherholding
calculation.
Fortheflightfromdestinationtoalternate,aflightplanningsystemcancalculatealternatetripfueland
alternatereservefuelonthebasisthattheaircraftweightonreachingthealternateiszerofuelweightplus
alternateholding.
Aflightplanningsystemcanthencalculateanydestinationholdingonthebasisthatthefinalaircraft
weightiszerofuelweightplusalternateholdingplusalternatefuelplusalternatereserve.
Fortheflightfromorigintodestination,theweightonarrivalatthedestinationcanbetakenaszerofuel
weightplusalternateholdingplusalternatefuelplusalternatereserveplusdestinationholding.Aflight
planningsystemcanthenworkbackalongtheroute,calculatingthetripfuelandreservefuelone
waypointatatime,withthefuelrequiredforeachinterwaypointsegmentformingpartoftheaircraft
weightforthenextsegmenttobecalculated.
Ateachstageand/orattheendofthecalculation,aflightplanningsystemmustcarryoutchecksto
ensurethatphysicalconstraints(e.g.,maximumtankcapacity)havenotbeenexceeded.Problemsmean
thateithertheaircraftweightmustbereducedinsomewayorthecalculationmustbeabandoned.
Analternativeapproachtofuelcalculationistocalculatealternateandholdingfuelasaboveandobtainsome
estimateofthetotaltripfuelrequirement,eitherbasedonpreviousexperiencewiththatrouteandaircrafttype,
orbyusingsomeapproximateformulaneithermethodcantakemuchaccountofweather.Calculationcanthen
proceedforwardalongtheroute,waypointbywaypoint.Onreachingthedestination,theactualtripfuelcanbe
comparedwiththeestimatedtripfuel,abetterestimatemade,andthecalculationrepeatedasrequired.

Costreduction
Commercialairlinesgenerallywishtokeepthecostofaflightaslowaspossible.Therearethreemainfactors
thatcontributetothecost:
theamountoffuelneeded(tocomplicatematters,fuelmaycostdifferentamountsatdifferent
airports),
actualflyingtimeaffectsdepreciationcharges,maintenanceschedules,andthelike,
overflightchargesareleviedbyeachcountrytheaircraftfliesover(notionallytocoverairtraffic
controlcosts).
Differentairlineshavedifferentviewsastowhatconstitutesaleastcostflight:
leastcostbasedonlyontime
leastcostbasedonlyonfuel
leastcostbasedonabalancebetweenfuelandtime
leastcostbasedonfuelcostsandtimecostsandoverflightcharges

Basicimprovements
Foranygivenroute,aflightplanningsystemcanreducecostbyfindingthemosteconomicalspeedatany
givenaltitudeandbyfindingthebestaltitude(s)tousebasedonthepredictedweather.Suchlocaloptimisation
canbedoneonawaypointbywaypointbasis.
Commercialairlinesdonotwantanaircrafttochangealtitudetoooften(amongotherthings,itmaymakeit
moredifficultforthecabincrewtoservemeals),sotheyoftenspecifysomeminimumtimebetween
optimisationrelatedflightlevelchanges.Tocopewithsuchrequirements,aflightplanningsystemmustbe
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capableofnonlocalaltitudeoptimisationbysimultaneouslytakinganumberofwaypointsintoaccount,along
withthefuelcostsforanyshortclimbsthatmayberequired.
Whenthereismorethanonepossibleroutebetweentheoriginanddestinationairports,thetaskfacingaflight
planningsystembecomesmorecomplicated,sinceitmustnowconsidermanyroutesinordertofindthebest
availableroute.Manysituationshavetensorevenhundredsofpossibleroutes,andtherearesomesituations
withover25,000possibleroutes(e.g.,LondontoNewYorkwithfreeflightbelowthetracksystem).The
amountofcalculationrequiredtoproduceanaccurateflightplanissosubstantialthatitisnotfeasibleto
examineeverypossiblerouteindetail.Aflightplanningsystemmusthavesomefastwayofcuttingthenumber
ofpossibilitiesdowntoamanageablenumberbeforeundertakingadetailedanalysis.

Reservereduction
Fromanaccountant'sviewpoint,theprovisionofreservefuelcostsmoney(thefuelneededtocarrythe
hopefullyunusedreservefuel).Techniquesknownvariouslyasreclear,redispatch,ordecisionpointprocedure
havebeendeveloped,whichcangreatlyreducetheamountofreservefuelneededwhilestillmaintainingall
requiredsafetystandards.Thesetechniquesarebasedonhavingsomespecifiedintermediateairporttowhich
theflightcandivertifnecessary[2]inpracticesuchdiversionsarerare.Theuseofsuchtechniquescansave
severaltonsoffuelonlongflights,oritcanincreasethepayloadcarriedbyasimilaramount.[4]
Areclearflightplanhastwodestinations.Thefinaldestinationairportiswheretheflightisreallygoingto,
whiletheinitialdestinationairportiswheretheflightwilldiverttoifmorefuelisusedthanexpectedduring
theearlypartoftheflight.Thewaypointatwhichthedecisionismadeastowhichdestinationtogotoiscalled
thereclearfixordecisionpoint.Onreachingthiswaypoint,theflightcrewmakeacomparisonbetweenactual
andpredictedfuelburnandcheckhowmuchreservefuelisavailable.Ifthereissufficientreservefuel,thenthe
flightcancontinuetothefinaldestinationairportotherwisetheaircraftmustdiverttotheinitialdestination
airport.
Theinitialdestinationispositionedsothatlessreservefuelisneededforaflightfromtheorigintotheinitial
destinationthanforaflightfromtheorigintothefinaldestination.Undernormalcircumstances,littleifanyof
thereservefuelisactuallyused,sowhentheaircraftreachesthereclearfixitstillhas(almost)alltheoriginal
reservefuelonboard,whichisenoughtocovertheflightfromthereclearfixtothefinaldestination.
TheideaofreclearflightswasfirstpublishedinBoeingAirliner(1977)byBoeingengineersDavidArthurand
GaryRose.[4]Theoriginalpapercontainsalotofmagicnumbersrelatingtotheoptimumpositionofthereclear
fixandsoon.Thesenumbersapplyonlytothespecifictypeofaircraftconsidered,foraspecificreserve
percentage,andtakenoaccountoftheeffectofweather.Thefuelsavingsduetorecleardependonthree
factors:
Themaximumachievablesavingdependsonthepositionofthereclearfix.Thispositioncannotbe
determinedtheoreticallysincetherearenoexactequationsfortripfuelandreservefuel.Evenifit
couldbedeterminedexactly,theremaynotbeawaypointattherightplace.
OnefactoridentifiedbyArthurandRosethathelpsachievethemaximumpossiblesavingisto
haveaninitialdestinationpositionedsothatdescenttotheinitialdestinationstartsimmediately
afterthereclearfix.Thisisbeneficialbecauseitminimisesthereservefuelneededbetweenreclear
fixandinitialdestination,andhencemaximisestheamountofreservefuelavailableatthereclear
fix.
Theotherfactorwhichisalsohelpfulisthepositioningoftheinitialalternateairport.

Filingsuboptimalplans
Despitealltheefforttakentooptimiseflightplans,therearecertaincircumstancesinwhichitisadvantageous
tofilesuboptimalplans.Inbusyairspacewithanumberofcompetingaircraft,theoptimumroutesand
preferredaltitudesmaybeoversubscribed.Thisproblemcanbeworseinbusyperiods,suchaswheneveryone
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wantstoarriveatanairportassoonasitopensfortheday.Ifalltheaircraftfileoptimalflightplansthento
avoidoverloading,airtrafficcontrolmayrefusepermissionforsomeoftheflightplansordelaytheallocated
takeoffslots.Toavoidthisasuboptimalflightplancanbefiled,askingforaninefficientlylowaltitudeora
longer,lesscongestedroute.[5]
Onceairborne,partofthepilot'sjobistoflyasefficientlyaspossiblesohe/shemightthentrytoconvinceair
trafficcontroltoallowhimtoflyclosertotheoptimumroute.Thismightinvolverequestingahigherflight
levelthanintheplanoraskingforamoredirectrouting.Ifthecontrollerdoesnotimmediatelyagree,itmaybe
possibletorerequestoccasionallyuntiltheyrelent.Alternatively,iftherehasbeenanybadweatherreportedin
thearea,apilotmightrequestaclimborturntoavoidweather.Asairtrafficcontrollersdonotknowtheprecise
locationandheightofpocketsofturbulence,theywouldnotknowifthepilotwasexaggeratingtheproblemto
getamoreefficientroute.
Evenifthepilotdoesnotmanagetoreverttotheoptimalroute,thebenefitsofbeingallowedtoflymaywell
outweighthecostofthesuboptimalroute.

VFRflights
AlthoughVFRflightsoftendonotrequirefilingaflightplan,acertainamountofflightplanningremains
necessary.Thecaptainhastomakesurethattherewillbeenoughfuelonboardforthetripandsufficient
reservefuelforunforeseencircumstances.Weightandcenterofgravitymustremainwithintheirlimitsduring
thewholeflight.Thecaptainmustprepareanalternateflightplanforwhenlandingattheoriginaldestinationis
notpossible.

Additionalfeatures
Overandabovethevariouscostreductionmeasuresmentionedabove,flightplanningsystemsmayofferextra
featurestohelpattractandretaincustomers:
Otherroutes
Whileaflightplanisproducedforaspecificroute,flightdispatchersmaywishtoconsideralternative
routes.Aflightplanningsystemmayproducesummariesfor,say,thenext4bestroutes,showingzero
fuelweightandtotalfuelforeachpossibility.
Reclearselection
Theremaybeseveralpossiblereclearfixesandinitialdestinations,andwhichoneisbestdependsonthe
weatherandthezerofuelweight.Aflightplanningsystemcananalyseeachpossibilityandselect
whicheverisbestforthisparticularflight.
Whatifsummaries
Oncongestedroutes,airtrafficcontrolmayrequirethatanaircraftflylowerorhigherthanoptimum.The
totalweightofpassengersandcargomightnotbeknownatthetimetheflightplanisprepared.Toallow
forthesesituationsaflightplanningsystemmayproducesummariesshowinghowmuchfuelwouldbe
needediftheaircraftisalittlelighterorheavier,orifitisflyinghigherorlowerthanplanned.These
summariesallowflightdispatchersandpilotstocheckifthereisenoughreservefueltocopewitha
differentscenario.
Fueltankdistribution
Mostcommercialaircrafthavemorethanonefueltank,andanaircraftmanufacturermayproviderules
astohowmuchfueltoloadintoeachtanksoastoavoidaffectingtheaircraftcentreofgravity.Therules
dependonhowmuchfuelistobeloaded,andtheremaybedifferentsetsofrulesfordifferenttotal
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amountsoffuel.Aflightplanningsystemmayfollowtheserulesandproduceareportshowinghow
muchfuelistobeloadedintoeachtank.
Tankeringfuel
Whenfuelpricesdifferbetweenairports,itmightbeworthputtinginmorefuelwhereitischeap,even
takingintoaccountthecostofextratripfuelneededtocarrytheextraweight.Aflightplanningsystem
canworkouthowmuchextrafuelcanprofitablybecarried.Notethatdiscontinuitiesduetochangesin
flightlevelscanmeanthatadifferenceofaslittleas100kg(onepassengerwithluggage)inzerofuel
weightortankeringfuelcanmakethedifferencebetweenprofitandloss.
Inflightdiversion
Whileenroute,anaircraftmaybedivertedtosomeairportotherthantheplannedalternate.Aflight
planningsystemcanproduceanewflightplanforthenewroutefromthediversionpointandtransmitit
totheaircraft,includingacheckthattherewillbeenoughfuelfortherevisedflight.
Inflightrefuelling
Militaryaircraftmayrefuelinmidair.Suchrefuellingisaprocessratherthaninstantaneous.Someflight
planningsystemscanallowforthechangeinfuelandshowtheeffectoneachaircraftinvolved.

Seealso
Airnavigation
Airsafety
Airspeed
Airtrafficcontrol
Airtrafficcontroller
Balancedfieldtakeoff
CANSO(theCivilAirNavigationServicesOrganisation)
Climb
Stepclimb
Cruise
Descent
Flightdispatcher
Flightplan
Holding
Instrumentflightrules
Landing
Runway
Takeoff
Taxiing
Visualflightrules
Maximumtakeoffweight
Maximumlandingweight
Maximumzerofuelweight
Flightplanningproviders
AirData
AirPartnerPLC
AirSupportPPS
AirRoutingInternational
ARINC
ElectronicDataSystemsEDS
FlightAware
Fltplan.com
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flugwerkzeugeaviationsoftwaref:wz(partofSabreHoldings[6])
Jeppesen
LufthansaSystems
NavtechInc.
PortableFlightPlanningSoftware(Military)
RocketRoute
SabreAirlineSolutions
SITA
TakefliteSolutions
TopoFlight
UniversalWeatherandAviation(BusinessAviation)3dFlightPlanningSoftware

References
1.Simpson,L.,D.L.Bashioum,andE.E.Carr.1965.ComputerFlightPlanningintheNorthAtlantic.Journalof
Aircraft,Vol2,No.4,pp.337346.
2."Section121.631aboutredispatch".FederalAviationRegulations.RisingUp.
3.OfficialdetailsregardingDeadSea(http://www.deadsea.co.il/ENA/Index.html)
4.DavidArthurGaryRose(1977).BoeingAirliner."REDISPATCHforfuelsavingsandincreasedpayload"
5.LowAltitudeAlternateDepartureRoutes(http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atbarc/004.htm)
6.SabreHoldingsacquiresflightplanningcompanyf:wz(http://phx.corporateir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=73098&p=irolne
wsArticle&ID=1475404&highlight=)

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