WP 1 Report Status Quo Electric Propulsion

State of the Art Electric Propulsion:
Vehicles and Energy Supply
Work Package 1 Report

December 2013
Imprint
Leader of Work Package 1: Robin Krutak /Bettina Emmerling, Austrian Energy Agency
Authors of the report:
Austrian Energy Agency: Robin Krutak, Willy Raimund, Reinhard Jellinek, Christine Zopf-Renner, Bettina
Emmerling
Institute of Transport Economics: Erik Figenbaum, Randi Hjorthol
Danish Road Directorate: Hans Bendsen, Gerd Marbjerg, Rasmus Stahlfest Holck Skov
Layout: Andrea Leindl, Austrian Energy Agency
Quality management: Margaretha Bannert, Austrian Energy Agency
Project Coordinator: Erik Figenbaum, Institute of Transport Economics
Cover picture: www.vlotte.at
Preface
This report is a part of the project COMPETT (Competitive Electric Town Transport), which is a project
financed by national funds which have been pooled together within ERA-NET-TRANSPORT.
In January 2011 ERA-NET-TRANSPORT initiated a range of projects about electric vehicles under the
theme ELECTROMOBILITY+ concerning topics from the development of battery and charging technology
to sociological investigations of the use of electric vehicles.
20 European project consortia have now been initiated including the COMPETT project. COMPETT is a
co-operation between The Institute of Transport Economics in Norway, The Austrian Energy Agency, The
University College Buskerud in Norway, Kongsberg Innovation in Norway and the Danish Road
Directorate. The objective of COMPETT is to promote the use of electric vehicles, particularly with focus
on private passenger cars. The main question to answer in the project is How can e-vehicles come in to
use to a greater degree?
Read more about the project on. www.compett.org
The COMPETT project is jointly financed by Electromobility+, Transnova and The Research Council of
Norway, FFG of Austria and The Ministry of Science, Innovation and Higher Education (Higher
Education Ministry) in Denmark.
Table of Content
1
Energy storage for electric propulsion ................................................................................................. 7

1.1
1.2
Electric Propulsion Systems................................................................................................................ 13

2.1
2.2
Electric Propulsion Principle ....................................................................................................... 13

Advantages of Electric Engines ................................................................................................... 13
ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................... 15

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Batteries ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Hydrogen .................................................................................................................................... 10
Battery Electric Vehicles ............................................................................................................. 15

Hybrid Electric Vehicles .............................................................................................................. 16
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles .................................................................................................. 19
Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV) .................................................................................... 20
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles ........................................................................................................... 20
2-wheeler propulsion systems ................................................................................................... 21
Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles............................................................................................. 23
Specifications of vehicles.................................................................................................................... 24
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Vehicles on the market............................................................................................................... 26

Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects) ............................................................................ 39
Outlook: Vehicles to come ......................................................................................................... 40
Future costs of vehicles .............................................................................................................. 44
Locations for Charging Points ............................................................................................................. 49
Description of charging systems......................................................................................................... 53

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Normal charging ......................................................................................................................... 53

Double speed charging ............................................................................................................... 56
22 kW semi fast charging ........................................................................................................... 56
43-50 kW fast charging............................................................................................................... 57
Ultra fast charging ...................................................................................................................... 58
Battery exchange ........................................................................................................................ 58
Vehicle to Grid .................................................................................................................................... 61
Charging and hydrogen infrastructure ............................................................................................... 63

8.1
8.2
8.3
Infrastructure in Austria ............................................................................................................. 63

Infrastructure in Denmark .......................................................................................................... 66
Infrastructure in Norway ............................................................................................................ 68
Costs of infrastructure ........................................................................................................................ 73

9.1
9.2
9.3
Normal charge ............................................................................................................................ 73

Fast charge ................................................................................................................................. 75
Battery swap and charge stand access cost ............................................................................... 76
9.4
Summary of charging station costs ............................................................................................ 77
Abbreviations: ............................................................................................................................................ 79
Table of Literature ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Energy storage for electric propulsion
1.1
Batteries
The energy for electric vehicles is provided from batteries. The performance of the battery defines both
power and range of the car. As especially limited range is one of the most criticised attributes of
electric vehicles, a lot of concepts have been and still are developed to boost the performance of the
batteries and hence the cars. During the last decades a wide range of battery types was developed, the
following shows an overview of the most important types:
Lead-Acid Battery (Pb-Gel)
Lead batteries were used from the very beginning for electric vehicles, like in the Lohner Porsche (1899).
Lead-acid batteries are a technology that has proven itself in the market over many decades. Starter
batteries for vehicles with internal combustion engine are usually also lead-acid batteries. The batteries
are relatively inexpensive and reliable, but have only little energy density. Therefore the range of
vehicles with lead acid batteries lies well below 100 km. Life of these batteries in electric vehicle
applications is limited and thus one needs to replace the batteries over the life of the vehicle. Another
problem is disposing of used batteries, even when high recycling rates are achieved. Today this battery
type still is used for vehicles that dont need a wide range nor high power like vehicles for gardening
support in parks.
ZEBRA (Na-NiCl2)
The abbreviation ZEBRA stands for Zero Emission Battery Research Activities and was invented in the
1980ies. Advantages include a relatively high energy density and no memory effect. The ZEBRA battery
requires an operating temperature of at least 240 Celsius (Klima- und Energiefonds, 2012a). The
disadvantage of this concept is that energy is also needed when the vehicle is not in use, as the battery
has to be held at this high temperature. Therefore the battery is especially suitable for vehicles that are
used on a daily basis. Fleet trials like in Vorarlberg, Austria show that the battery performs well in
comparison to Lithium-Ion batteries in winter time. On the other hand, it was observed (Klima- und
Energiefonds, 2012a) that the battery needs more energy than that of a comparable car with LithiumIon battery (35 kWh/100 km to 20 kWh/100 km).
Nickel metal hydride batteries are used primarily in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota Prius or the Lexus
450 h. The battery reaches much higher energy densities than nickel-cadmium and lead-acid batteries,
but is more expensive. In hybrid vehicles the NiMH batteries last the whole lifetime of the vehicle.
Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-Ion)
Lithium-ion batteries consist of a negative electrode made of lithium and a positive electrode of graphite
(carbon). Out of all different types of batteries available on the market, lithium-ion batteries have the
greatest energy density and therefore are also suitable for longer ranges. There exist a number of
different lithium-ion battery types, as described in the following.
Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH)
Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

This type of battery was often used for the first electric cars with lithium-ion batteries, as it is quite safe
and delivers a good performance at a reasonable price. But energy density is less than in most other
lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium-Polymer (Li-Po)
This type of battery is also used for laptops and cell phones, as it offers a higher energy density than
LiFePO4 batteries.
Lithium Titanate
This type of battery is based on a LiFePO4 battery, but has an improved anode (lithium titanate) which
results in a longer lifetime. The battery provides a very good durability and safety performance which
makes it a good choice for fast charging and use at low temperatures. A disadvantage compared to
other lithium-ion batteries is the lower energy density.
Lithium Silizium
With a three times higher energy density than conventional li-ion batteries, this battery type represents
the next generation, to be on the market not before 2018.
Lithium Air
Lithium air cells contain a catalyst as positive electrode that charges the lithium negatively when getting
in contact with air. The potential in terms of energy density is 10-times higher than todays lithium-ion
batteries, reaching levels comparable with the energy density of gasoline. Commercial development is
not expected before 2025.
Pb-Gel
NiMH
Na-NiCl2
Li-Ion
Energy density
(Wh/kg)
2050
4080
100120
110
Power density
(W/kg)
80100
<2001300
110150
500
Operating
temperature (C)
-10 to 40
-20 to 60
>300
-20 to 60
Maintenance free
yes
yes
yes
yes
Lifetime (years)
35
Lifetime (cycles)
Costs in mass
production ($/kWh)
700800
2000
>600
>2000
50150
200
200
3001000
technically mature
fast charging
possible
requires a heating
and cooling system
needs battery
management
system
Special feature
Table 1: Comparison of battery types (Hofmann 2010)
Battery Supporting Systems
Battery supporting systems help to improve the performance of batteries:

Battery management system
A battery for electric vehicles consists of several battery cells. For the efficient use of these cells a
battery management system (BMS) is needed. Tasks of the battery management system primarily are:
supervising charging and decharging of cells

controlling heating and cooling of cells
balancing of cells
identification of degree of charging
estimation of available range
documentation of cell history
Thus the battery management system has a direct influence on the performance and durability of
batteries.
A cooling and heating system can keep

the battery in an optimum temperature range and thus help to
improve the performance of both, the
battery and the vehicle.
35
Energy consumption in
kWh/100km
Cooling and heating system

The performance of batteries very
much depends on the ambient
temperature. Especially under cold
weather conditions, the performance
weakens. Figure 1 shows this
correlation for a Mitsubishi i-MiEV
equipped with lithium-ion batteries.
The optimum temperature in terms of
energy consumption is at about 20 C.
30
Mitsubishi i-MiEV
25
20
15
10
5
0
30 C
20 C
10 C
0 C
-10 C -20 C
Ambient temperature
Figure 1: Energy consumption Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of

the ambient temperature (VK 2012)
Battery packaging
The hardware around the battery also has a direct influence on the performance and energy density of
the battery pack, these are e.g.:
1.2
tray
retention of modules
interconnections
interface to vehicle
Hydrogen
Hydrogen offers the potential to operate vehicles with zero emissions on the local level. In general,
there are two options how hydrogen is used in vehicles:
10
1. Hydrogen combustion engine: Hydrogen is burned in an internal combustion engine. The only
direct emission resulting from this process is water in form of steam and very little emissions of
nitrogen oxides. The disadvantage of this concept is the engine efficiency: as it is a combustion
engine the efficiency is below 30%.
2. Fuel Cell Vehicles: Hydrogen and oxygen react in the fuel cell which produces an electric
potential of about 0.61 Volt. To achieve a higher voltage a number of these cells are put
together to form stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapor. The
efficiency of a fuel cell system reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010).
Both concepts need hydrogen, which exists in nature primarily in bound form (e.g. in water and
hydrocarbons). Hence hydrogen has to be isolated, which is an energy intensive process. The Life Cycle
Assessment therefore depends very much on the source of electricity that is used for the production of
hydrogen.
There are different ways to produce hydrogen

Stationary production
One way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis: by using electricity water (H2O) is disaggregated into
hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). If electricity from renewable sources is used for this process, the
production generates no CO2 emissions.
For most of the hydrogen production nowadays fossil fuels are used to produce hydrogen through a
process called steam reforming. 45% of the worldwide hydrogen is thus produced from oil, 33% from
methane and 15% from coal. Another 7% result as by-products from various chemical production and
manufacturing methods (Ministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie Nordrhein-Westfalen 2010).
Mobile Production
Another possibility is to produce hydrogen directly in the car by using a reformer. There are a number of
more or less complex hydrocarbons that can be used in a reformer; in particular the following materials
are possible (Hofmann 2010):
CNG
LPG
Methanol
Ethanol
Dimethyl ether
Diesel
modified gasoline
Hydrogen from centralized respectively by-product production can be transported in liquid (LH2) or
gaseous (GH2) state. For longer distances pipelines and accordingly LH2 ships are used. For shorter
distances special wagons or trucks are used.
The storage of hydrogen is very complex. Hydrogen can be stored in liquid or gaseous state. One way is
to store the hydrogen as a gas in high-pressure tanks with up to 700 bar or in metal hydride storage
tanks. Another way is to store hydrogen in liquid form in cooling tanks which requires a temperature of 235 C (BMLFUW 2008).
11
Electric Propulsion Systems
2.1
Electric Propulsion Principle
Electric motors convert electric energy into kinetic energy. An electric motor in general consists of two
essential parts:
1. a fixed stator in which a magnetic field is produced
2. a magnetic rotor that moves in this magnetic field
Through the interchange of the two magnetic elements the rotor starts to move. This movement is
finally used to power the wheels of the vehicle.
Concept of an electric engine
The picture shows an electric engine in

parts. The rotor (on the right side in the
picture) rotates within the stator.
AEA
2.2
Advantages of Electric Engines
In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine, vehicles with electric drive show a
number of advantages:
Recuperation
A particularity of the electric motor is that it not only can be used as a motor but also as a generator to
produce electric energy. Most of the electric vehicles use this feature when the brake pedal is applied.
The kinetic energy of the vehicle is reduced by using the motor as a generator that converts the rotation
energy of the rotor (which is attached to the wheels through a gearbox and drive shafts) to electricity
which is then stored in the battery and hence can be used to power the wheels of the vehicle again
(recuperation).
Electric drives have a motor efficiency of 9399% (Hofmann 2010) that amounts to a 3 to 4 times higher
efficiency factor in comparison to internal combustion engines (ELEKTRA 2009, S.22). Thus the input of
energy is much better used to generate a forward movement than in other engines.
In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine that provide the energy optimum at a
speed of about 70 km/h, the energy consumption of electric vehicles is directly proportional to the rate
of velocity (VK 2012).
Energy Efficiency
13
Less emissions
Electric vehicles can use electricity from renewable energies like wind- , water- or solar power. Under
the assumption of an annual mileage of 10,000 km and an energy consumption of 15 kWh per 100
kilometres, renewable energies can supply energy for the following numbers of vehicles (BMLFUW
2012):
wind power: a 2 MW wind generator can produce the energy needed to power 2,800 electric
vehicles
water power: a 10 MW small scale water plant generates about 50 million kWh electricity p.a.
and hence is able to supply 33,000 electric vehicles.
solar power: 14 m2 of photovoltaic under Austrian sun radiation conditions are enough to run
1 electric car
biomass: a 0.25 MW biomass plant produces about 1.75 million kWh electricity, which is enough
to run 1,200 electric vehicles.
The life cycle analysis which also includes emissions from the production of the car and the energy
needed, direct emissions and recycling, shows an 80% advantage in terms of CO2 for an electric vehicle
powered with electricity from renewable energy sources compared to a conventional gasoline car.
Besides less greenhouse gas emissions and less air pollutants, electric vehicles also produce less noise,
as electric engines run very quiet.
No clutch, no gearbox
The energy source for the engine is direct current (DC) electricity from batteries or fuel cells (Hofmann
2010). Whereas combustion engines are only able to deliver torque when idle speed is reached, electric
engines deliver torque from the very beginning. Hence a clutch and also a gearbox are not necessary for
electric vehicles (Hofmann 2010) which save maintenance costs.
14
ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS
There are a number of different concepts how to use an electric engine in the vehicle. The most
important concepts are explained in the following section.
3.1
Battery Electric Vehicles
Wheel hub motor
The electric motor is directly integrated into the wheel. The advantages of this concept are that no
gearbox, clutch, driveshaft or differential is needed. This makes the car lighter and thus also more
energy efficient. This motor concept was used already in the very beginnings of electric mobility, as e.g.
by the famous Lohner Porsche electric vehicle in 1899, having a wheel hub motor in each of the front
tyres and performing astonishingly: the maximum vehicle speed was 50 km/h and the range was up to
50 km with a total vehicle weight of 980 kg (BMLFUW 2008). Shortly after the two-wheel drive, Porsche
and Lohner also developed a four-wheel drive car with wheel hub motors.
One of the big disadvantages of this concept so far was that the tyres became very heavy and thus
leading to an uncomfortable driving at least at higher speed on uneven pavement. New concepts try to
solve this problem by using light weight material and new suspension concepts.
wheel hub motor
The picture shows the wheel hub

concept Active Wheel from Michelin,
which arranges break, engine and
suspension within the wheel.
www.michelin.com
Single motor with reducer gearbox and driveshafts
In contrast to the wheel hub motor, this concept does not bring the power directly from the engine to
the wheel. Here in fact the electric engine is connected to the wheel by a reducer gearbox and
driveshafts. Thus, this concept needs more vehicle parts, but on the other hand does not have the
suspension problem, as does the wheel hub motor. This concept is used in most of the electric vehicles
currently on the market.
Nowadays the electric wheel hub concept is again used primarily in electric two wheelers like pedelecs
and electric scooters. However, car manufacturers (e.g. Volvo) are planning to bring this concept on the
market for electric four wheelers, too.
15
4WD system with dual motors with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts
Another concept is to use two electric motors, one for each axis, which enables 4-wheel driving (4WD).
Again the motors are connected with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts to bring the power to the
wheels. This concept is very seldom used for electric vehicles at the moment, but it is for example the
centrepiece of the new Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV.
A variation of this concept used in the Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4: the engine for the front axis is a
combustion engine and the engine for the rear axis is an electric motor. Hence the electric engine is
used to transform the car into a 4WD for short time periods.
3.2
Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Hybrid vehicles are vehicles equipped with two different types of engines. Most of the Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (HEV) are equipped both with an electric and a gasoline engine. Meanwhile also HEVs with an
electric and a Diesel engine are available.
There exist different types of HEV:

Parallel HEV:
Serial HEV:
Both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels

Only one of the engines (namely the electric engine) is connected to the
drive wheels. The other engine, normally an internal combustion engine
(ICE), powers a generator which produces electricity for the electric
engine.
Mild HEV:
These are parallel HEVs with a rather small electric unit where a pure
electric driving mode is not possible.
Full HEV:
These are also parallel HEVs but equipped with an electric unit where a
pure electric driving mode at least for very short distances is available.
Plug-In HEV:
These are vehicles that can be charged from an external energy source,
mostly a charging station with a grid connection.
Table 2: Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
16
In the automobile wording the term Micro HEV is also used often. However, here the term hybrid
is misleading, as it is not about a vehicle with two different engines. It is rather a vehicle with an internal
combustion engine with a start/stop system: the system automatically shuts down when the car stops
and restarts the internal combustion engine as soon as the brake pedal is lifted. This helps to reduce the
time the engine runs at idle, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions. In fact it is a method to
increase fuel efficiency but not a HEV concept (TU Wien 2009).
In the following section the most important HEV and their concepts will be introduced.
Full HEV Toyota Prius
Toyota Prius is the most famous and also most-sold HEV. It was introduced in 1997 in Japan and in 2003
in USA followed by Europe. Meanwhile more than 2 million cars of this model were sold worldwide. The
Toyota Prius is a parallel hybrid, which means that both engines are mechanically connected to the drive
wheels. The THS (Toyota Hybrid Concept) is a power split drivetrain (Hofmann 2010) which enables
driving just with the electric engine at least for very short distances (Full HEV).
It consists of the following components:
4 cylinder gasoline combustion engine

starter generator
planetary gear set
electric engine and generator
inverter
battery
The combustion engine is connected to the planetary gear set. The sun gear of the planetary gear is
connected to the generator. The generator starts the combustion engine and delivers energy to the
electric engine and also the battery, thus replacing the classical dynamo. The electric engine directly
powers the ring gear which results in forward and backward movements of the car. The second function
of the electric engine is to support the combustion engine, especially during acceleration phases. The
third function is that the electric engine works as a generator during braking and delivers electricity back
into the battery.
Prius 3rd generation
www.toyota.at
Meanwhile the Prius of the 3rd

generation is on the market. It is
equipped with a 1.8 litres, 73 kW
gasoline engine and a 60 kW electric
engine. The fuel consumption (New
European Test Cycle) 3.9 litres/100 km
respectively 89 grams of CO2 per
kilometre.
Mild HEV Honda type configuration
The second manufacturer after Toyota that brought a hybrid car on the market is Honda. In 1999 Honda
started with the Insight, equipped with the Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid system. Honda
launched further hybrid models like the Civic in 2006 or a new version of the Insight in 2010.
This system works as a parallel hybrid the electric engine is placed between the combustion engine
and the clutch.
A special novelty of the 3rd generation Prius is that the heat from the exhaust gases is used to bring the
engine to an optimum temperature faster.
17
Engine and fuel consumption

The actual Honda Insight is equipped
with a 1.3 litres, 65 kW gasoline engine
and a 10 kW electric engine. The fuel
consumption (New European Test
Cycle) is 4.4 litres/100 km respectively
101 grams of CO2 per kilometre.
www.honda.at
Peugeot 4WD hybrid concept
A different hybrid concept is used by Peugeot. Peugeot introduced the 3008 HYbrid4 onto the market in
2011, which is especially remarkable for two reasons:
1. It is the first diesel hybrid on the market, and
2. the hybrid concept is used to turn the car into a 4WD.
The 119 kW diesel combustion engine powers the front wheels only, whereas the electric engine
(27 kW) powers the rear wheels. Hence the electric engine is used to transform the car into a 4WD for
short time periods. The price in Austria is about 36,500 EUR including taxes.
Engine and fuel consumption

The Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 is equipped
with a 2 litres, 120 kW Diesel engine
and a 27 kW electric engine. It reaches
a fuel consumption (New European
Test Cycle) of 3.8 litres/100 km and
99 grams of CO2 per kilometre,
respectively.
Peugeot.com
18
3.3
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Toyota Prius PHEV type
The next generation of hybrid vehicles on the market are Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV). PlugIn indicates that the car can be charged with electricity from the grid. For that reason PHEV vehicles are
equipped with a bigger battery than the HEV and hence enable driving over longer distances in pure
electric mode. An example of this category is the Toyota Prius PHEV.
Car Model
Battery type
Battery capacity
Pure electric range
Toyota Prius III
Nickel-metal hydrid
1.3 kWh
2 km
Toyota Prius Plug-In
Lithium-ion
5.2 kWh
25 km
Table 3: Battery capacity Toyota Prius
The battery of the Prius PHEV exactly has 4 times the capacity of the Prius (5.2 to 1.3 kWh). The Prius
PHEV battery can be charged on the grid and enables pure electric driving of up to 25 km. The
combustion engine is used in the same way as in the Toyota Prius and charges the battery if a lower
level is reached or fuels the car on longer distance trips (> 25 km).
Using a home charging station, the Prius PHEV needs 90 minutes to be fully reloaded. The price in
Austria is about 37,500 EUR including taxes.
4WD type Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV
EV Drive Mode:
EV Drive Mode is an all-electric mode in which the front and rear motors drive
the vehicle using only electricity from the drive battery.
Series Hybrid Mode:
In Series Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine operates as a generator supplying

the electric motors with electricity. The system switches to this mode when the
remaining charge in the battery falls below a predetermined level and when
more powerful performance is required, such as accelerating to pass a vehicle
or climbing a steep gradient such as a slope.
Parallel Hybrid Mode:
In Parallel Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine provides most of the motive
power, assisted by the electric motors as required. The system switches to this
mode for higher-speed driving when the gasoline engine operates at peak
efficiency.
1
Table 4: Driving Modes Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV
www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html
Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV consists of two electric engines one on the front axis and one on the rear
axis, a gasoline internal combustion engine and a 12 kWh lithium-ion battery. With this equipment the
vehicle provides different modes of driving:
19
3.4
Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV)
A special concept are electric vehicles that use a combustion engine attached to a generator in order to
produce electricity to enable additional kilometres of driving. When the battery is running low, the
internal combustion engine is started and powers a generator that feeds electricity to the electric motor
and the battery. As the combustion engine always runs in the optimal number of revolutions per minute
(rpm), the engine works very efficiently. This concept is for example used in the Opel Ampera, which has
an electric range of up to 83 km and using the internal combustion engine a combined range of
500 km!
3.5
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
Similar to a range extender, also a fuel cell can be used for on-board production of for powering the
vehicle. In a fuel cell hydrogen and oxygen react, producing an electric potential of about 0.61 Volt in
one cell (BMLFUW 2008). To achieve a higher voltage, a number of these cells are assembled to form
stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapour. The engine efficiency of a fuel cell
reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010).
If a reformer is used, other energy sources can also be used to fuel the car, e.g.:
CNG
LPG
methanol
ethanol
dimethyl ether
Diesel
modified gasoline
From these energy sources, the reformer produces hydrogen which is then used in the fuel cell. As the
energy sources are not burned as in a combustion engine, no local emissions are produced.
In general hydrogen which is produced internally through on-board auto thermal reformers offers little
GHG benefit compared to advanced conventional powertrains or hybrids2.
The fuel cell system can be used solitaire to power the electric motor, or in combination with another
engine. Hence different types of fuel cell vehicles are constructed:
20
Fuel cell electric vehicles

Fuel cell hybrid vehicles
Fuel cell plug-in hybrid vehicles
Well-to-wheels analysis fo future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context. Version 2c, march 2007,
http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/media/WTW_Report_010307.pdf
3.6
2-wheeler propulsion systems
Power assist Pedelec bicycle type
Electric motors are also used in bicycles: a small motor delivers additional power while pedalling. The so
called pedelec is the abbreviation of PEDal-ELECtric-Vehicle. In Austria meanwhile every 10th bicycle that
is sold, is equipped with an electric motor. There are a number of reasons why pedelecs are more and
more chosen:
cycling with a pedelec is less exhausting in comparison to a conventional bike

up-hills are easier to manage
less sweating
in the same time longer distances can be reached
These number of advantages helps to win new target groups for a sustainable way of driving.
The electric motor assists when pedalling up to 25 km/h and some pedelecs recharge the batteries when
going downhill (recuperation). Pedelecs normally have a range - of 3080 kilometres without
recharging, depending on the model. The costs for a good quality pedelec are about 1,5002,500 Euro,
whereas energy costs amount only to 0.12 cent/km in comparison to 7.0 cent/km for a car (Koch 2012).
Meanwhile there are hundreds of different models of pedelecs available on the market. Hence there
have been established some websites to give a market overview, for example:
www.extraenergy.org
www.topprodukte.at
There are only a few power train producers for pedelecs on the market which are used by all (quality)
bicycle manufacturers; these are predominately Bionics, Bosch and Panasonic.
21
There exist three different solutions for the construction of pedelecs:
Rear wheel hub engine

An electric wheel hub engine is
installed in the rear wheel. This leads to
better traction on slippery surfaces. On
the other side, the handling of the bike
is weak, as the engine is mounted in
the rear part of the bicycle.
AEA
Middle engine
The engine is placed in the middle of

the bike, which makes the handling
easier. Costs are in general higher than
for wheel hub solutions.
AEA
Front wheel hub engine
22
This concept uses a wheel hub engine

in the front wheel. The danger of
slipping away is higher with this
construction, as the front wheel is
heavier and has only little traction, in
comparison to the rear wheel. The
concept is especially useful for bicycles
which are used to carry children or also
goods, as the front engine balances the
bike.
AEA
3.7
Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles
E-scooters are already mass-produced and are available from various vendors although the selection
from OEM manufactures is still very low. E-scooters have the potential to replace two-wheelers with
internal combustion engines and hence reduce noise, CO2 emissions and air pollutants.
One of the first e-scooters from an OEM manufacturer available in Europe is the Peugeot e-Vivacity.
Peugeot e-Vivacity
The Peugeot e-Vivacity is equipped with

an 3kW electric motor. The range ist
between 45 60 km. The Scooter is
already available in Austria for 4.200,EUR.
AEA
Also electric motor bikes are available on the market, e.g. the Vectrix or BMW.
BMW C_evolution
The BMW C_evolution is equipped with

an 11kW electric motor delivering a
peak performance of 35kW. The range
of the vehicle is about 100km. It will be
available in Austria from April 2013.
AEA
All these vehicles and also the BMW

C_evolution use a rear wheel hub
motor as an engine.
AEA
Rear wheel hub motor
23
Specifications of vehicles
In Austria financial incentives and purchase tax credits are offered for new cars with
alternative propulsion systems: e.g. a tax credit of 500 EUR for hybrid vehicles. Electric vehicles are
exempted from the purchase tax and the annual motor vehicle tax, resulting in about 4,000 EUR savings
over five years.
Fleet owners receive a funding if they change from conventional to electric vehicles. The rates of
financial support are staggered according to the type of vehicle introduced, the level of CO2 reduction
achieved and the amount of renewable energy used:
Up to 4,000 EUR are granted for purchasing EVs, if powered with renewable energy, otherwise only
2,000 EUR. Since 2013 also PHEVs and REEVs are eligible within the new funding regime and get
subsidies from 500 3,000 EUR, depending on the level of CO2 reduction and amount of renewable
energy used.
Pedelecs are granted with 200 resp. 400 EUR (when powered with green electricity), E-scooters get
subsidies from 250 500 EUR.
In Vienna electric duty vehicles get a subsidy of 10,000 EUR
Denmark has a number of preferential treatments for electric vehicles. BEVs and FCEVs are
exempted from the registration tax until the end of 2015. This is an essential bonus, as the current
Danish registration tax for passenger cars is very high (up to 180%) and is based on the value of the car
plus VAT. Both categories are also exempted from annual tax until 2015 (IEA-HEV 2012).
On the other side, there is no tax reduction on hybrid vehicles; therefore they are hardly sold in
Denmark (DRD 2012).
Norway: Prices quoted are without destination charges (transportation etc. usually 7,000
10,000 NOK / 9371,339 EUR), but including a 2,400 NOK / 320 EUR end-of-life fee which will be
returned to those who in the end deliver their vehicle for recycling or scrapping.
Electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles are exempted from VAT as well as from the vehicle purchase tax.
Prices for plug-in hybrid vehicles include 25% VAT and the vehicle purchase tax. The vehicles purchase
tax is levied on all vehicles with combustion engines. It is based on the weight of the vehicle, the
combustion engine maximum power and the CO2 emission of the vehicle. In general, the sum of these
taxes on PHEV vehicles is low, compared to gasoline and diesel vehicles. Hybrid vehicles in general,
including plug-in hybrids, get a 15% deduction of weight (as of 01.07.2013) prior to the calculation of the
weight tax because of the additional weight of the electrical systems and the battery.
24
The annual motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles is 405 NOK / 54 EUR. The tax is 2885-3360 NOK / 386450 EUR per year for vehicles with combustion engine. Electric vehicles are also subject to a reduced
company car tax rate (50%).
Mark: Unless otherwise stated, the quoted car prices in the following section are minimum prices for
end consumers, including all additional costs (e.g. taxes etc.). As a currency exchange value for NKK and
DKK to EUR the average exchange rate in 2012 was used (1EUR=7,5DKK=7,47NOK).
25
4.1
Vehicles on the market
BEV drive
Bollor Bluecar
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
30 kWh
150250 km
365-170-161
12,000 EUR +
80 EUR/month
for the battery)
Bollor
Smart ED
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
17.6 kWh
140 km
270-156-154cm
19,420 EUR
AEA
Smart ED Brabus
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Daimler
26
BEV
Lithium-Ion
n.a.
150 km
270-156-154cm
n.a.
German E-Cars Stromos

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
19.5 kWh
120 km
372-166-159 cm
31,500 EUR
AEA
Mia
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
mia electric
BEV
Lithium-Ion
8/12 kWh
80/125 km
287-164-155 cm
27,952 EUR*
159,900 NOK
(21,406 EUR)
186,900NOK**
(24,920 EUR)
*) including 4.490 EUR for the battery

**) version with 12 kWh battery
Mia L
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
*) including 4.490 EUR for the battery

**) version with 12 kWh batter
mia electric
BEV
Lithium-Ion
8/12 kWh
80/125 km
319-164-155 cm
30,036 EUR*
165,900 NOK
(22,209 EUR)
192,900NOK**
(24,920 EUR)
27
Citroen C-Zero
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
16 kWh
150 km
348-148-161 cm
27,588 EUR
169,900 NOK
(22,653 EUR)
215,990 DKK
(28,799 EUR)
Mitsubishi I-MiEV
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
AEA
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
16 kWh
150 km
348-148-161cm
29,500 EUR
168,300 NOK
( 22,440 EUR)
209,995 DKK
(27,999 EUR)
BMW i3
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
Price
BMW
28
BEV
Lithium-Ion
49 kWh
160 km
11/2013
35,700 EUR
From 250,300 NOK
(33,373 EUR)
Tesla Model S
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Price
Price
Tesla
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
60-85 kWh
390-502 km
from 72,000 EUR
446,600 NOK
(59,786 EUR)
563,000 DKK
(75,067 EUR)
Renault Zoe
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
BEV
Lithium-Ion
22 kWh
160 km
409-179-154
Price
20,780* EUR
Price
161,400** DKK
(21,520 EUR)
AEA
*) Battery for rent only: 79 Euro/month

**)Battery for rent only starting by: 93 Euro/month
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
22 kWh
170 km
423-183-182 cm
24,360* EUR
204,000* NOK
(27,200 EUR)
158,900* DKK
(21,187 EUR)
Renault
*) Battery for rent only starting by 86,40 EUR, 715 NOK (96 EUR) or
789DKK (105 EUR)
Renault Kangoo ZE
29
Ford Focus BEV

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
23 kWh
160 km
436-186-148 cm
39,990 EUR
259,900 NOK
(34,653 EUR)
Nissan Leaf
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
AEA
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
24 kWh
175 km
445-177-155 cm
37,490 EUR
231,790 NOK
(31,029 EUR)
209,690 DKK
(27,958 EUR)
Renault Fluence ZE
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
AEA
30
*) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month
BEV
Lithium-Ion
22 kWh
170 km
475-183-146 cm
25,950* EUR
Peugeot I-On
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
16 kWh
150 km
348-159-159 cm
29,640 EUR
193,300 NOK
(25,773 EUR)
215,990 DKK
(28,7899 EUR)
VW E-up
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Available from
Price
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
18.7 kWh
150 km
354-164-147 cm
Autumn 2013
~ 22,500 EUR
182,700 NOK
(24,360 EUR)
AEA
Plug-in Hybrid
Toyota Prius Plug-in

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
PHEV
Lithium-Ion
5.2 kWh
20 km (electric only)
km in total n.a.
448-175-149 cm
37,920 EUR
327,300 NOK
(43,640 EUR)
AEA
31
Volvo V60 Plug-in

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
PHEV
Lithium-Ion
12 kWh
50 km electric only
km in total n.a.
463-186-148 cm
58,900 EUR
610,400 NOK
(81,387 EUR)
AEA
Range Extender Electric Vehicles
Opel Ampera
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
AEA
REEV
Lithium-Ion
16 kWh
83 km electric only
500 km in total
450-179-144 cm
45,900 EUR
369,900 NOK*
(49,518 EUR)
*) Campaign model sold fall 2013
for 349,900 NOK, this model used
to cost more than 400,000
Chevrolet Volt
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Chevrolet
32
REEV
Lithium-Ion
16 kWh
61 km electric only
610 km in total
450-212-144 cm
42,950 EUR
Mitsubishi Outlander
Plug-in RE
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
AEA
Price
REEV
Lithium-Ion
12 kWh
880 km in total
55 km electric only
465-180-168cm
48,000 EUR
From 434,900 NOK
(57,987 EUR)
Fisker Karma
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
AEA
Price
REEV
Lithium-Ion
20 kWh
83 km electric only
480 km in total
499-198-133 cm
no longer sold
Quadricles
Renault Twizy 45/80*)
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
Price
AEA
BEV
Lithium-Ion
6.1 kWh
120/100 km
234-124-145 cm
69,300 NOK
(9,240 EUR)
6,990/7,690 EUR
**)
58,540*** DKK
(7,786 EUR)
*) maximal Speed
**) Battery for rent only: 50
to72 Euro/month
*** Battery for rent only: 70 to
91 Euro/month
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
33
Buddy Electric Buddy

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
BEV
Ni-Mh
n.a.
120 km
244-149-151 cm
169,900 NOK
(22,744 EUR)
AEA
Tazzari Zero
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
Price
Moser Parts
34
BEV
Lithium-Ion
14 kWh
150 km
288-155-140 cm
19,000 EUR
162,490 NOK
(21,752 EUR)
Light Duty Vehicles
Goupil
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
AEA
BEV
Lead-Acid
8.619.2 kWh
60100 km
322*-110-200 cm
4 m/ n.a. kg
20,000 EUR
*) large edition: length 370 cm
Piaggio Porter
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
BEV
Lead-Acid
n.a.
110 km
337-139-187 cm
4 m/450-540 kg
20,500 EUR
AEA
Citroen Berlingo
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
BEV
Zebra
23,5 kWh
120 km
414-172-182 cm
3.3 m/500 kg
43,000 EUR
Citroen
Peugeot Partner
Price
Price
BEV
Zebra and Li-Ion
22.5 kWh
170 km
414-196-183 cm
3 m/ 600 kg
42.000 EUR
with ZEBRA Battery
241,000 NOK
(32,262 EUR)
with Li-Ionen Battery
Peugeot
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
35
Renault Kangoo ZE
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
Price
AEA
BEV
Lithium-Ion
22 kWh
170 km
423-183-182 cm
3.5 m/650 kg
24,360 EUR*
190,000 NOK*
(25,333 EUR)
*) Battery for rent only: 86,4 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114
EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway
Ford Transit Connect

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
28 kWh
130 km
428-180-181 cm
3.8 m/410 kg
n.a.
AEA
Renault Kangoo MaxiZE

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
Price
AEA
36
BEV
Lithium-Ion
22 kWh
170 km
460-183-182 cm
3.5 m/650 kg
26.400 EUR*
198,000 NOK
(23,810 EUR)
*) Kangoo maxi Length 460 cm, Loading cap. 4,6 m

**) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114
EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway
Mercedes Vito E-Cell

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
36 kWh
130 km
500-189-190 cm
600-850 kg
n.a.
Mercedes
Iveco Daily
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
34/51 kWh
90/140 km
508 (548)-188-226(263) cm
7.310.2 m
~ 100,000 EUR
APA-OTS/Strasser
German E-cars Plantos

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Loading capacity
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
40 kWh
120 km
n.a.
950 kg
79,500 EUR
German E.cars
37
Electric Scooters
Peugeot e-Vivacity
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Length /Weight
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
3 kWh
60 km
123 cm /115 kg
4,199 EUR
AEA
IO Scooter 1500 GT
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Price
BEV
SiGel
1.7 kWh
60 km
170-88-127 cm
1.850 EUR
io-scooter
Etropolis Future
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Length /Weight
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
n.a.
70 km
180 cm /135 kg
2,195 EUR
Etropolis
Honda EV-neo
38
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Length /Weight
Price
Honda
BEV
Lithium-Ion
0.9 kWh
34 km
183 cm /110 kg
n.a.
E-max 90S / 110S

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Length /Weight
Price
Price
Price
BEV
Silicon/Silizium4 x 12V / 60Ah
90 km
190 cm /160 kg
2,995 /3,295 EUR
DKK
NOK
Foto: : www.scooterman.at
4.2
Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects)
Mercedes F-Cell 2011 model

Drivetrain
Max. Range
FCEV
400 km
Daimler
Hyundai Tucson ix 35
Drivetrain
Max. Range
FCEV
588 km
Hyundai
39
4.3
Outlook: Vehicles to come
Audi e-tron Detroit

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Available from
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
49 kWh
250 km
393-178-122 cm
n.a
n.a
AEA
BMW i8
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
PHEV
Lithium-Ion
n.a
35 km electric only
n.a.
~ 200,000 EUR
BMW
Ford C-max Energi

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
PHEV
Lithium-Ion
n.a
32 km electric only
n.a.
n.a
Ford
Ford Mondeo Energi
40
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
Ford
PHEV
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Mahindra Reva NXR

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
Lead-Acid
n.a.
120 /80 km
n.a.
n.a.
or
REVA
Mercedes B-class F-Cell

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
Mercedes
FCEV
Lithium-Ion
n.a.
350 km
n.a
11.500 NOK
(1,539 EUR) /month*
*) Norway: Leasing only; excl. VAT
Mercedes SLS E-Cell

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
60 kWh
250 km
June 2013
~ 420,000 EUR
Mercedes
41
Nissan NV200 van

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
Nissan
BEV
Lithium-Ion
24 kWh
175 km
2013*)
n.a.
*) tested by FedEx in London
VW Golf Blue E-Motion

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Size (l-b-h)
Available from
Price
AEA
42
BEV
Lithium-Ion
26.5 kWh
150 km
420-179-148 cm
n.a
n.a
picture n.a.
VW Golf Plug-in Hybrid

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
picture n.a.
PHEV
Lithium-Ion
8 kWh
50 km electric only
2014
~ 25,000 EUR
VW Passat Plug-in hybrid

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
PHEV
Lithium-Ion
n.a
50 km electric only
2014
n.a
VW Caddy E-motion
Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
26 kWh
n.a
2014
n.a
Volkswagen
Volvo C-30 BEV

Drivetrain
Battery
Battery Capacity
Max. Range
Available from
Price
BEV
Lithium-Ion
24 kWh
150 km
n.a.
n.a.
Volvo
43
4.4
Future costs of vehicles
The costs of electric vehicles are a major barrier for a broader market implementation at the moment.
Depending on the car model, EVs cost up to 2.5 times more than comparable cars with internal
combustion.
Segment 1
Segment 2
Segment 3
Segment 4
Vehicle example
Fiat 500 I-MiEV VW Polo Nissan Leaf Skoda Octavia EV
Mercedes E-Class Opel Ampera
Price []
10.490 26640
19145
30000
40606
48000
30451
42000
Performance [kW]
49
47
65
80
125
88
90
81
Energy costs [/km]
0,06
0,03
0,07
0,03
0,097
0,03
0,09
0,03
Maintenance costs [/km]
0,06
0,03
0,06
0,03
0,06
0,03
0,06
0,03
Range [km]
> 500
144
> 500
160
> 500
160
> 500
160
Table 5: Indicators for conventional and electric vehicles in the reference scenario for 2013 (Umweltbundesamt 2012)
So the development of the prices will have a major influence on the future market chances of electric
vehicles. The most important cost driver is the price of the battery.
Source Technical University Vienna (Technische Universitt Wien 2009):)
Starting at 700 EUR in 2010, the prices decrease to less than one third till 2050.
Figure 1: Development of costs for lithium-ion batteries 20102050 (Technische Universitt Wien 2009)
In this scenario, the development of fuel cell systems costs starts in 2020, as before this time line no
mass market production is expected to happen.
44
Figure 2: Development of costs for fuel cell systems 20202050 (Technische Universitt Wien 2009)
Source European Hydrogen Association (EHA)

Another source regarding the development of costs is the study carried out by the European Hydrogen
Association (McKinsey & Company 2011) using data from participating car manufacturers like BMW,
Daimler, Ford, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, KIA, Nissan, Renault, Toyota, and Volkswagen.
Whereas the development of battery costs is predicted by EHA quite similar as by the source mentioned
before, the development of fuel cell stack costs shows a different and much more optimistic picture,
with a mean price for fuel stacks of 43 EUR/kw in 2020. The reason for this is that EHA expects a very
soon FCEV mass market uptake with already 100,000 FCEV units installed by 2015 and 1,000,000 FCEV
units installed by 2020.
Figure 3: Development of battery costs for batteries and fuel cell stacks (McKinsey & Company 2011)
The same source also shows the development for different types of drivetrains for cars from the Total
Cost of Ownership (TCO) perspective. Whether a car seems to be expensive or not, not only depends on
the sales price, but on all costs related to buying and running a vehicle.
Cost categories considered in a TCO analysis (sterreichischer Wirtschaftsverlag 2012):
Financing costs (depreciation, taxes, interest rate)
Operating costs for fuel/energy
Insurance costs
Maintenance costs
Administration costs for fleet operators like car selection processes and accounting
Other costs (e.g. parking fees, road tolls, car washing etc.)
45
From this perspective, cars with internal combustion engine remain cheaper than electric vehicles in the
near future, but price differences are balancing in the long run:
Figure 4: Total Cost of Ownership development for FCEV, BEV, PHEV, and ICE for C/D segment vehicles (McKinsey &
Company 2011)
E-Car-Sharing
A different approach to reduce the costs of (electric) car driving is car sharing. There exist already a
number of car sharing services with electric vehicles in Europe:
46
Autolib is a public car sharing-service with electric cars in Paris. The service was started in December
2011. The cars can be used for one way trips also. Meanwhile 1740 Bollor Bluecars are running and are
offered for rent at 1100 stations. 5000 charging points were installed. The target is to reach 3000 cars
and 6000 charging points until 2020.
Autolib rates
Package
Member fee
Rate
Autolib' 1 day
0 / day
9 per 1/2h
Autolib' 1 week
10 / week
7 per 1/2h
Autolib' 1 month
25 / month
6.5 per 1/2h
Autolib' 1 Year Premium
120 / 1 year (10/month)
5 per 1/2h
Shared 16h Premium
100 /month for 8h of shared utilization

Number of included subscribers: 4
Package to share between 1 to 4 users, for a 2-month subscription.
Table 6: Rates for Autolib

www.autolib.eu
Move About was founded in 2007 and has launched according to their own disclosures world's first
public car sharing service with EVs (in Oslo). Till now almost 100 electric vehicles are in operation in
Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Germany. Main areas of the service are the cities of Oslo, Gothenburg,
Helsingborg, and Copenhagen. Move About operates both public car sharing services and closed
systems to corporate customers.
24/7 access to dedicated vehicles

24 hour roadside assistance
a web based vehicle booking system
individual contact-less access cards
vehicle insurance
maintenance and service
change to summer / winter tires
fill wiper fluid, check tire pressure, etc.
regular cleaning inside and out
www.moveabout.net
For a fixed monthly fee, Move About provides complete financing and service for companies, including:
47
Car2go is a subsidiary of Daimler AG that provides car sharing services in European and North American
cities with Smarts. In Amsterdam Car2go operates 300 electric smarts, which are available for one way
trips also.
If the battery performance display sinks below 20% (shown on the round instrument on the left), the
journey has to be stopped at the nearest charging station for reloading.
Customers pay 0,29 per minute and 14,90 per hour. If the car is parked between drives the rate is
0,19 per minute.
www.car2go.com
48
Locations for Charging Points
Electric vehicles require different charging habits than we are used from fossil vehicles. Charging electric
vehicles takes much more time than filling up a conventional vehicle with gasoline. Thus charging
electric vehicles is favourable when long parking times occur, like parking overnight at home or during
work on the company site. Being on tour fast charging solutions are planned with a very high charging
power to gain additional kilometres in short time.
Home charging
Vehicles are charged at home with a standard plug or a wall box.
Figure 5: Wall box for home charging, AEA
Normally only low charging power is used, as a conventional plug allows a maximum of 3.6 kW. The low
charging power often is not a problem as the vehicles park all night long at home. So there is enough
time to reload the batteries.
and
charging
New building projects often already

consider new mobility. The picture
shows a new building project in Vienna
offering Elektrotankstelle bei jedem
KFZ-Stellplatz a charging facility for
electric vehicles at every parking space.
AEA
New buildings
facilities
49
Company charging
Also company sites are well suitable for charging electric vehicles, as vehicles are parked often also for a
long time.
Company charging
Picture shows a company parking area

with solar modules as sun protection
and power source. Electric vehicles can
directly be charged with the power
from the solar plant.
AEA
Semi-public charging (public garages)
Public garages are also a good place to recharge batteries.
Figure 6: A Toyota Prius Plug-In is charged in a public garage, AEA
50
Public charging (charging points along the street or in public spaces)
Charging in public is the most critical location for charging electric vehicles and requires safe technical
solutions.
Figure 7: Public charging in the model region for electric mobility in Vorarlberg, AEA
Pathway charging:
Fast charging stations along travel routes bring additional 100 to 150 kilometres in only 20 minutes
(VC, 2009).
Fast food fast charging
Austrian Energy Agency
A Burger King outlet in Vienna offers

fast charging while dining in the
restaurant: Electric vehicles can be
plugged to a Chademo fast charging
station.
51
Description of charging systems
The most common way to recharge the batteries of electric vehicles is by connecting to the grid. The
charging systems, plugs and sockets are still not completely standardized. Therefore the various options
are introduced in the following.
Charging systems can be divided according to the speed of charging. Normal charging gives 1530 km of
range per hour of charge, double speed charging 50 km, semi fast charge 120 km and fast charge
typically 220280 km/hour of charge. Ultra fast charge could be more than 400 km/hour of charge.
Battery swap systems replace a discharged battery with a fully charged 24 kWh battery in only 3
minutes.
For public charging stations one needs to add the time to deviate from the desired route to get to the
charging or battery swap station. In addition, the charging station could be occupied and one would
have to wait for the charger (if it is a fast charger) or the battery swap station to be available which adds
more time. Or worse, in the case of normal charging it may be necessary to drive to another charging
station. This means that the effective kilometers one can get per hour of charge can be substantially
lower than the theoretical ones. The issue with occupied stations could be mitigated with real-time
information and reservations systems.
6.1
Normal charging
Normal charging or slow charging is a term used when charging electric vehicles from standard
household sockets or dedicated wallmounted charge stations (popular name wallbox), which gets its
power feed from one of the regular household/building circuits.
53
Types of normal charging
Figure 8: Normal charge systems, (TI 2013, based on Civitas Stavn 2012, supplier websites
There are four types of slow charging, Mode 1, Mode 2 and Mode 3 conductive and inductive charging.
Mode 1 is essentially an electric cable between the vehicle and a power socket mounted on a wall or
charge stand inside a garage or outdoors. The power socket will be part of a building installation
consisting of a fuse protecting the cable installation and a ground fault interruption device. In older
houses in Norway the entire electrical installation is protected with one ground fault interruption
device. New installations have one in each fused circuit. This mode of charging has been used on older
vehicles but is no longer in compliance with relevant European standards for charging electric vehicles.
On the mains side the Schuko socket is used. This is not really rated for 16A continuously over many
hours, so charging should be limited to 12-13A.
54
Mode 2 introduces a protection device mounted on the charging cable. This is called an Electric Vehicle
Supply Equipment (EVSE). It consists of a combined ground fault interruption device and circuit breaker,
a maximum current limiting function and a pilot signal built into the cable going to the vehicle. The latter
verifies that there is a proper ground connection between the vehicle and the EVSE. It also assures that
when the vehicle is disconnected, the pilot signal is breached before the power is breached. This makes
it possible for the circuit breaker in the EVSE to open before the power is breached and there is no risk
of arching. This reduces fire risk and there is less wear on the connectors on the vehicle side. However,
the mains side of the EVSE is not protected, so the user must keep in mind to first disconnect the vehicle
side. The IEC standard introducing the use of EVSEs for charging electric vehicles specifies that the EVSE
should be located within 30 cm of the mains plug of the cable. On the mains side the regular building
installation socket (in Norway Schuko) is used. This is not really rated for 16A continuously so charging
should be limited to 12-13A for a socket fused with 16A fuse.
Mode 3 conductive charging improves safety even more by moving the EVSE into the charge stand/wall
installation making it a charge station. Normally this means that the cable to be used is attached to the
charge station, but it is also possible to use a loose cable. The latter requires the use of a connector on
the vehicles side and on the charge station side that has a built-in pilot signal circuit.
This mode of charging station is the safest one as it protects the entire cable between the vehicle and
the mains power. It is also possible to set up a 20A power supply to these charge stations, allowing them
to provide 16A charge power continuously.
Mode 3 inductive charging station is a device that is being developed and will come on the market in
some countries from 2013. The electric power is transferred by inductive coupling across a narrow air
gap between the transmitter on the garage floor and the receptacle under the vehicle. This means that
charging proceeds without physical connection between the vehicle and the electrical installation of the
garage. The system can employ manual or automatic docking to the receptacle device mounted on the
floor inside the garage. The data-communication between the vehicle and the charging station uses a
wireless protocol.
Infrastructure requirements
Mode 3 conductive charging is rather different in that it provides a dedicated electric vehicle charging
infrastructure. The charging station, which often is called the wall box, is permanently attached to the
buildings electrical installation. It is a requirement in the electrical code that this installation has to be
done by an authorized electrician. Normally a dedicated circuit is used, protected by a 20A fuse in the
buildings fuse box. In home charging units the cable is often permanently attached to the wall box, while
in public places it would be possible to use a loose cable to connect to the wall box. This reduces risk of
wear and tear on the public equipment and will probably be the preferred option as it also reduces the
cost of the loose cable that comes with the vehicle. In workplaces with closed garage facilities, a wall
box with built-in cable could be an option. The charge power will be up to 3.6 kW.
From the infrastructure side, mode 1 and mode 2 are equal. The mains socket that the charging cable is
connected to is part of the buildings regular electrical system. Power sockets already installed in
garages, outside buildings and in stands for power connection to engine block heaters can be used
immediately. This allows a great number of people to start using electric vehicles quickly. There is
however an issue with the Schuko plug system, 10A installations use the same socket as 16A
installations. Some countries even use 13A. In mode 2 charging this can be solved by making different
EVSE units for 10A, 13A and 16A installations, or providing a switch to select charge power on the EVSE
unit or inside the car, so that the built-in charger limits it power draw to what the building installation
can handle. All electric vehicles delivered today are equipped with a mode 2 charge cable as standard.
This is a costly item born by the owner of the vehicle, not the infrastructure provider. The different car
manufacturers have different policies. Some only deliver 10A limited cables, others only provide cables
that require 16A circuits and that draw 13-14 A from the socket. For the user it is not possible to see if a
Schuko socket is rated for 16A or 10A. In general, new installations would be 16A in Norway while older
ones could be both. Power rating would be in the 2.3 to 3.2 kW range.
55
Mode 3 inductive charging is the only charging station type that offers the potential of fully automated
charging, eliminating the need for a charge cord. From the infrastructure side however this looks the
same as the other mode 3 charging systems. The receptacle is mounted on the floor of the parking area.
This requires accurate positioning of the vehicle and this can be done manually with visual guidance aids
or fully automatically by the vehicle (there are already vehicles on the market with an automated
parking capability). The parking area must be dedicated to the electric vehicle. Snowy and icy roads
could cause some issues with these systems, even if the power transmitting unit is mounted in a closed
garage, as the underside of the vehicle with the receptor unit could be covered with snow. This might
limit the systems usage to garages with temperatures kept above freezing.
In general, there could be a capacity issue if many electric vehicles are charged simultaneously in a
residential area. The owner of the vehicle has the right to charge it from his existing household
installation, as long as he stays within the maximum rating of the installations main fuse. Any capacity
issue would then be the responsibility of the owner of the electricity distribution network. When
installing many public charging stations in the same location, it is possible that the electric distribution
network will need to be reinforced. This will have to be covered by the legal entity that sets up the
charging stations (in Norway this is regulated by law).
6.2
Double speed charging
Some electric vehicles are equipped with double speed chargers that have to be connected to 230 V,
32A supply networks. This is available in private houses as the main fuse is rated at 32A but could
require a higher capacity of the buildings electricity supply or require some sort of intelligent load
shedding in the building installation (or delay in the charge start-up time to a period with low load on
the electric distribution network). Apart from the higher power rating of up to 7.2 kW, the charge
station will be a dedicated mode 3 wall box having the same EVSE functions as the 3.6 kW versions.
Also an inductive charge station can be used for this charge level.
6.3
56
22 kW semi fast charging
This charge mode is essentially the same as the regular fast charging mode with half the available
power. The reasoning behind this charge level is that AC power level of 22 kW is readily available in
many places (32 Amp, three phase 230 V AC) and that some applications do not require a higher charge
rate.
This charge power requires the use of mode 3 charging stations.
This mode of charging is relevant for public charging stations for example outside shops, restaurants and
other places where you would stay for an hour or two. This could also be used in fleet vehicle
applications. Depending on the size of the building installation it is attached to, this may require
reinforcement of the electric distribution network.
6.4
43-50 kW fast charging
Figure 9: Fast charging systems, (TI 2013, based on Civitas Stavn 2012)
There are two main directions on fast charging, mode 3 AC with the charger inside the vehicle and mode
4 DC with the charger external to the vehicle. In many cases the installation of fast chargers requires
electrical distribution network reinforcement, normally a bigger transformer in the connection point.
Mode 3 AC fast charging is the other main direction. From 2013/2014 vehicles with on-board fast
chargers that require 43 kW AC supply (400 V, three phase, 63A) will come on the market. This will be a
high power variant of mode 3 charging with dedicated charge stations, with an integrated charge cable
for connection to the vehicle. Apart from the power level, the charge stations communicate with the
vehicle using the same protocol as normal mode 3 charging and contain the same protective equipment,
but off course with a higher power rating.
The two options can be combined easily into "combo" chargers capable of delivering both types of AC
and DC fast charge power.
In Norway it has been reported that fast chargers only deliver about half of the power to the vehicles
when it is cold in the wintertime, as the cold batteries are not capable of handling the full 50 kW charge
power. This comes in addition to the range being drastically reduced in the winter due to the need to
Mode 4 electric vehicle charger stations are DC fast chargers providing DC power to the vehicles
batteries. In this case the charger is external to the vehicle. The Chademo 50 kW DC charge standard is
the most commonly used DC fast charging standard. Chargers of this type have been deployed in
Norway. Up to 2012, this was the only type of fast charger that could be used by the vehicles sold in
Norway. This includes the best-selling electric vehicles, Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi I-MiEV, Peugeot Ion and
Citroen C-zero.
57
overcome higher resistive forces when driving and using electric energy to heat the vehicle. In addition
the batteries available energy content could be reduced in cold weather conditions. In Norway a range
reduction up to 50% in the coldest winter period can be experienced when these factors are combined.
6.5
Ultra fast charging
Charging above 50 kW is termed ultra fast charging. The vehicles need to be prepared for this charge
level, as it is for example the Tesla Model S.
Tesla Model S will be capable of charging at a charge rate of 90 or 120 kW at dedicated charge stations.
The first stations were currently erected by Tesla in North America (23 stations) and Norway (6
stations)so far by october 2013.
Only the Model S vehicles with the largest (85 kWh) battery packs or Supercharging -enabled 60kWh
vehicles can use these stations.
Tesla Superchargers are capable delivering up to 50% battery capacity in about 20 minutes and are, for
Tesla drivers, free of charge.The charging stations are similar to the ones rated at 50 kW, apart from the
higher power output. On the vehicle side this requires very efficient cooling of the battery.
A quick roll-out of further Supercharge stations is planned in North America and Europe. In 2014 the
network will according to Teslas plans expand into Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands,
Luxembourg, Austria, Switzerland and the UK.
6.6
Battery exchange
Rather than fast-charging electric vehicles, the infrastructure development company Better Place
proposed to swap out the battery and replaced it with a fully charged one when the vehicle was
undertaking a longer journey. Unfortunately Better Place went bankrupt and the battery swapping
system is not in use anymore. The future development will show if there is a new chance for this idea,
for the sake of completeness the system is explained in the following:
Better Place has developed battery swap stations that can replace batteries in less than 3 minutes. The
advantage of the system was that it was much faster than fast charging. Only one vehicle was available
with the battery swap system, the Renault Fluence.
58
Better Place sold the vehicle without the battery. The customer then payed for an all-inclusive monthly
subscription which includes the battery, access to the charging stations, the set-up of a wall box in the
car owners garage, the electric energy used by the vehicle and warranty and insurance on the battery
pack. The customer monthly fee was depending on the expected mileage driven.
In 2013, Better Place was bankrupt and the battery swap system seemed to be closed down. But in
autumn 2013 E.ON bought the charging stations as part of a strategic focus on green transportation in
Denmark. Until now, E.ON has been focusing on gas for heavy transportation. By investing in the
already established charging infrastructure, the company takes a significant step towards realizing their
ambitions for the EV market, which they consider to have an interesting potential in Denmark. Further
details are unknown until now.
Figure 10: former Better Place Battery swap station, Source: Better Place Denmark
Charge type
Building installation
requirement
Charge power (Typical

with safety margin)
Normal charge
10A household socket

20A Wallbox charge station
32A Wallbox charge station
400V three phase 32A
400V three phase 63A
Chademo charge station
Tesla supercharge station
Off board charging of
swapped battery
2 kW
2.5 kW
3 kW
3.6 kW
7.2 kW
20 kW
40 kW
50 kW DC
90 or 120 kW
New 24 kWh battery,
which gives vehicle
range up to 150 km,
replaced in 3 minutes.
Double speed charge

Semi fast charge
Fast charge
Battery swap
Theoretical maximum
km of driving per hour of
charge in the summer
15 km
20 km
25 km
30 km
50 km
120 km
220 km
280 km
?
3000 km
For public charging stations one needs to add the time to deviate from the desired route to get to the
charger or battery swap stations. In addition one may have to wait for the charging station to be
available or drive to the next station if it is expected to be occupied for a long time period. This means
that the effective kilometers one can get per hour of charge can be substantially lower than the
theoretical ones. This is of course also true for internal combustion engine vehicles that need to deviate
from the desired route to fill gasoline or diesel, but this only is needed every 5001000 km whereas for
electric vehicles this would be needed approximately every 100 km. In addition the waiting time is much
smaller for the filling of gasoline or diesel as this only takes a few minutes for each vehicle and the
network of filling stations is extensive.
Table 7: Summary of charging systems
59
Vehicle to Grid
Most of the time vehicles are parking, on average 23 hours a day (VC 2012). Energy suppliers see this
as a big potential to buffer energy for short periods in vehicles.
A big problem for energy suppliers is that electric energy is not always used in the same moment as it is
produced. There are different reasons for this, e.g.
-
electricity demand is lower than expected

good weather conditions for wind or solar plants, which leads to an oversupply of electricity
Electric energy cannot be stored in the grid, so if it is not used it is lost. One way to solve this problem is
to deploy pump power stations. In times of energy surplus, electricity is used to pump water uphill. If
more energy is needed this water can then be used to produce electricity in a water power plant.
Storing surplus energy in electric vehicles would be another option for buffering energy: Electric vehicles
which are connected to a charging station receive energy from the grid in times when more energy than
needed is produced. At a later time, when more energy is needed in the grid, the energy which was
buffered in the vehicles batteries is transferred back into the grid.
At the moment this concept is tested in pilot projects in Austria and Denmark.
Austria, Kstendorf
In the model region Kstendorf in Austria vehicle to grid concepts are actually tested. Therefore about
60 houses were selected as core area for the project. Half of the houses have installed a PV system on
the roof and 37 households use an electric car. Target is to demonstrate how the low voltage network
can be kept stable if the PV systems are producing energy in combination with the operation of the
electric cars. During sunshine periods the photovoltaic systems produce more energy than is consumed
by the households in the area, and the electric cars offer an interesting opportunity for energy storage.
SMART LOW VOLTAGE GRID
Project partners:
AIT, Salzburg Netz, Energie AG Netz,
Linz AG Netz, Siemens, Fronius, TU
Wien und BEWAG
Duration: March 2011 February 2014
www.smartgridssalzburg.at
Vehicle to Grid
Salzburg AG
61
Denmark, Bornholm
On the island of Bornholm a smart grid concept is tested in a full-scale demonstration with 2000
households. Energy is mainly produced from renewable sources, mainly wind power (30 MW), biomass
(16 MW), Photovoltaic (2 MW) and biogas (2 MW). Part of the project is also a vehicle to grid model, to
buffer the energy from the different renewable sources in the batteries of the vehicles. By November
2012 there were 1058 registered EcoGrid EU households on Bornholm joining the project.
EcoGrid EU
Project partners:
The EcoGrid EU Consortium represents
16 partners with global industry
experiences and also applied/industrial
research competence.
Duration: 2011 2015
www.eu-ecogrid.net
Vehicle to Grid
eu-ecogrid.net
62
Charging and hydrogen infrastructure
8.1
Infrastructure in Austria
An overview on Austrian charging stations is given on the website www.e-tankstellen-finder.com.
e-tankstellen-finder.com
CEE 3 polig
CEE 5 polig
CEE 7 polig
Typ2 Plug
Home Plug
Yazaki Typ1
XLR Stecker
CHAdeMO
Total
Province
Salzburg
Carinthia
Vorarlberg
Upper Austria
Vienna
Styria
Lower Austria
Tyrol
Burgenland
Normal charge
points
101
263
29
269
77
129
334
58
58
313
289
13
161
1,070
4
48
9
1,907
Fast charge points Chademo

0
0
1
0
4
0
3
1
0
Table 8: Charging points in Austrian provinces
Another platform for charging stations in Austria is on the Website www.elektrotankstellen.net. At the
moment there are 3,297 charging points listed on the platform. These are mostly gas stations, hotels,
community organizations and also private households.
There exists one public and two non public hydrogen stations in Austria.The public station was opened
in October 2012 in Vienna and is managed by the Austrian oil company OMV. 1 kg of hydrogen costs 9
EUR. Filling up a Mercedes B-Class Fuel Cell vehicle therefore amounts to 33 EUR and provides a
maximum range of 385 km. It is planned to open a second public hydrogen filling station in Upper
Austria in the near future. This would set the first hydrogen corridor leading from Vienna to Germany.
At the moment there exists 1 hydrogen car in Austria (Kurier 2012).
The existing charging stations are defined according to the provided plug. Actually there are 1,177
charging stations listed. Meanwhile also Germany, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Poland and Slovenia
join this platform. In total about 1,800 charging stations are listed.
63
Model regions for electric mobility
Within the Austrian Climate and Energy Fund the introduction of e-mobility is promoted by R&D
projects and the pilot regions for e-mobility. These regions focus on electric vehicles powered by
renewable energy sources and the integration of vehicle use schemes in combination with the public
transport system. Users within the pilot regions pay a monthly mobility rate which includes not only
the electric vehicle, but also the use of public transport.
To date, eight pilot regions have been established reaching about 3.5 million people or 40% of the
population of Austria. These model regions are the major drivers for the establishment of charging
infrastructure in Austria:
(1)
in 2009 the Vorarlberg/Rhine valley region (VLOTTE Project) with 360 e-cars/LDVs and 120
charging stations; mobility services contracts including leasing of e-cars, railway/public transport pass,
car sharing and free charging; provision of 20m2 photovoltaic power for each e-car;
(2)
in 2010 the Greater Salzburg Area with 100 e-cars and 750 e-bikes; ElectroDrive e-mobility with
the public transport pass: leasing/purchasing concept for e-bikes, e-scooters, Segways and e-cars; free
charging with green electricity (photovoltaic; hydro-power);
(3)
the urban agglomeration of Graz: e-mobility Graz; goal 500 e-cars, 1200 e-bikes, 140 public
charging points; e-mobility services packages for large fleet operators (vehicles, public transport,
charging stations);
(4)
Vienna metropolitan area; e-mobility on demand; goal of 500 cars, 100 charging points; multimodal mobility and public transport pass with focus on commuters and fleet operators; renewable
energy for 2000 e-cars;
(5)
The City of Eisenstadt and rural surroundings e-mobilised; focus on e-busses and e-taxis for
commuters, wind energy.
(6)
e-mobility in Lower Austria: 49 municipalities, use of electric vehicles by commuters, promising
last mile solutions;
(7)
The Austrian Post e-mobility delivery services in Vienna metropolitan and 12 regional
distribution centres: 200 electric utility vehicles for postal mail delivery
(8)
e-log in the City of Klagenfurt; promising e-logistics solutions with 200 electric vehicles (goal)
with focus on SMEs.
64
As a next step, particular attention will be given to linking the different pilot regions by facilitating
interoperability of electric vehicles and charging stations. For all the pilot regions particular attention is
given to further integration of e-mobility and public transport, the facilitation of multi-modal solutions
and interlinking the different pilot regions to facilitate interoperability of electric vehicles and the
charging infrastructure.
Figure 11: Pilot regions for electric mobility in Austria, www.e-connected.at
65
Plans for expansion of infrastructure in Austria
The European Commission has published a proposal for the deployment of alternative fuels
infrastructure in Member States (European Commission 2013). The proposal foresees:
Minimum number of recharging points for EVs reaches set values per Member States, with at
least 10% publicly accessible
Hydrogen refuelling points to connect those already existent in Member States, with maximum
distances of 300 km
According for Austria the set value is 116,000 charging points, wherefrom 12,000 shall be publicly
accessible.
8.2
Infrastructure in Denmark
Two major companies are pushing the build-up of a charging infrastructure in Denmark.
www.clever.dk
CLEVER is a Danish electric mobility

operator (EMO) owned by the utilities
SE and SEAS-NVE. Customers who buy
an E-car get a charging station at home
and access to other charging stations.
CLEVER also sells charging stations to
companies, shopping centres and
municipalities. At the moment they
provide about 60 charging stations
around Denmark, 28 of them in
Copenhagen. Next steps are to increase
the number of normal charging stations
to 300, and to build up a quick charging
infrastructure (ChaDeMo) with 60
stations (DRD 2012).
66
Shell is the first petrol company with

fast Charging stations. The e-vehicle
operator Clever is setting up fast
charging stations at 15 Shell petrol
stations in the bigger cities of Denmark.
The project is made together with VW,
which are putting VW e-Up! at the
market.
Better Place Denmark
E.ON
The German energy utility company

E.on has bought 770 recharging
stations, from the bankrupted company
Better Place in September 2013, due to
a greater focus on green transport
solutions in Denmark.
Better Place invested heavily in the
battery-swapping technology, but the
German company has decided against
continuing with that research and
chose not to purchase Better Places 18
battery-swap stations.
In June 2011 the first 700 bar hydrogen station was opened in Holstebro. It enables refuelling of cars in
only 3 minutes (IA-HEV 2011). 2 more stations of this kind are planned for the near future in the city of
Copenhagen preparing for a market introduction of FCEV in 2015 (IEA-HEV 2012).
67
8.3
Infrastructure in Norway
Electric vehicle recharging network
Publicly available electric vehicle charging stations in Norway

In Norway the electric vehicle association has been in charge of establishing an online database of
publicly available recharging stations for electric vehicles. The last years this work has been supported
by the government body Transnova.
The database is available free of charge to developers of applications, for instance information services
and navigation systems. The database has been built up in the early days by the pioneers of electric
vehicle driving, reporting charge station locations and characteristics directly in the database. Transnova
has required everyone they have supported with funding for the establishment of charging stations, to
register the funded stations in the database.
As of November 2013 the database contains 4029 regular charge points in over 1000 locations as well as
127 fast charge points (mostly 1 in each location, some are under construction), serving a total of about
16,000 electric vehicles (including a few plug-in hybrid vehicles) in the vehicle fleet. The split between
the provinces is shown in the table.
Province
68
Akershus
Aust-Agder
Buskerud
Finnmark
Hedmark
Hordaland
Mre og Romsdal
Nord-Trndelag
Nordland
Oppland
Oslo
Rogaland
Sogn og Fjordane
Sr-Trndelag
Telemark
Troms
Vest-Agder
Vestfold
stfold
Total
Normal charge
points
771
99
241
14
79
565
84
68
57
62
977
242
90
283
100
31
55
65
146
4029
Fast charge points Chademo

Existing and under-construction
32
1
11
0
6
13
3
4
2
5
13
18
1
5
0
2
3
8
127
Table 9: Charging points in Norwegian provinces. Source: www.gronnbil.no, stand 12.11.2013
The database is always up to date, and given the rapid development in Norway, the number of stations
is increasing every week.
Database: www.ladestasjoner.no/
Home charging
Owners of electric cars normally have access to home charging facilities that could take the form of a
household type socket in the garage, carport or on the building wall next to the parking place for the
vehicle. In Norway 58% of households have a garage or a carport. Another 25% of the households have a
dedicated parking place. So access to or the possibility to establish charging facilities for mode 2 and
mode 1 charging in the home environment, should in general be good in Norway. Of course there could
be challenges with establishing charging for some of these, for instance parking facilities in apartment
houses and in housing cooperatives, also the dedicated parking could be away from the
house/apartment.
Workplace charging
Workplace charging facilities may or may not be included in the database of charging stations, that the
electric vehicle association keeps updated. It depends on whether the charging station has been
reported to the database. In general, they want it to be available in the database. There is a filtering
option that allows you to see only the charging stations that are open access.
In 2005 79% of Norwegian employees had access to limitless free of charge parking, another 8% with
space limitations and 4% with parking charges. It therefore should be no problem to establish a
workplace charging infrastructure to support electric vehicles.
In some places there are already power outlets for engine block heaters available. These can also be
used for mode 1 and mode 2 charging of electric vehicles.
Parking free of charge, always available places
79%
Parking free of charge, limited number of places
8%
Parking with fee owned by employer
4%
Public road, square, no parking charges
4%
Public road, square with parking charges
2%
No parking
1%
Table 10: Workplace parking facilities in Norway, Source: TI, Norwegian travel survey 2005
69
Charging stations in the Kongsberg region
In Kongsberg there are 24 normal charge points available at 6 different locations. There are 2 fast charge
points available in 1 location.
Figure 12: Location of charging points in Kongsberg. Source: www.gronnbil.no
In the greater Kongsberg region extending towards the south western municipalities around Oslo (Nedre
Eiker, Drammen, Lier, Ryken, Asker, Brum) and including Oslo the total number of normal charge
points in the region is 1481 and there are 25 fast charge points.
Figure 13: Location of charging points Greater Kongsberg-Oslo Region. Source: www.gronnbil.no
Municipality
70
Normal charge points
Fast charge points
Kongsberg
24
Nedre Eiker
34
Drammen
89
Lier
17
Ryken
Asker
44
Brum
292
977
13
Total greater
region
Kongsberg
Table 11: Number of charging points Greater Kongsberg Region. Source: www.gronnbil.no
It makes sense to treat the area of Kongsberg to Brum and Oslo as one region as there is a lot of
cooperation between engineering companies in this Norwegian "engineering region". This generates
transport along a southwestern axis. The distance between the Oslo centre and Kongsberg is84 km,
within driving distance of modern electric vehicles.
Hydrogen infrastructure in Norway
In January 2013 a total of 5 hydrogen filling stations were in operation for passenger cars and 1 station
for buses. These are located in the following areas: Herya in Porsgrund municipality, Kjelstad outside
Drammen City, Akershus EnergiPark in the municipality of Lillestrm 20 km north of Oslo, and 2 stations
in Oslo at Gaustad and kern along the main ring road (Ring 3) around Oslo. The Bus station is at the bus
depot at Rosenholm just outside of Oslo, serving a bus route to Oslo centre.
4 of the hydrogen stations were built up for serving the national research program "Hynor". The 5th
station at Gaustad served the EU-project "H2-moves Oslo". The bus station is part of a EU project called
"CHIC- Clean Hydrogen in European Cities".
Most of the stations for passenger cars were built for demonstration purposes and have the capacity to
dispense only about 25 kg Hydrogen/24 hour period. An exception is the station at Herya which gets
by-product hydrogen through a pipe from the industrial chloride production at Rafsnes. This pipe has a
large spare capacity.
The future of the filling stations for passenger cars is unsure, as the industrial partners in the projects
that erected them, backed out of all hydrogen activities in 2012 and new partners have not been found.
All stations, apart from the one at Akershus EnergiPark, are now run and owned by a new company
called HYOP. HYOP have received intermediate funding support from various funding agencies and
municipalities to keep the filling stations operational. The bus station is part of a 5 year project.
71
Costs of infrastructure
The cost data has been compiled in Norway. Norway is a high-cost country and in general lower
installation costs would be expected in other European countries, but the cost of the charge station and
other electrical equipment itself should not be much different.
9.1
Normal charge
Home charging
The cost of the infrastructure for mode 1 and mode 2 normal charging is zero in the cases where existing
household sockets can be used.
The cost of installing a new domestic outdoor/garage 16A Schuko socket for mode 2 charging could be
around 2704003 EUR excl. VAT, but also higher cost can occur, depending on the need for new circuits
and fuses in the buildings electrical installation.
Wallboxes for mode 3 charging cost 1,770 EUR excl. VAT in 2011 including standard installation costs (up
to 5 meters distance from available fused 20A circuit)4. In fall 2012 a new supplier offers this standard
installation for 1,060 EUR5. It should be noted that if a new fused electrical circuit from the fuse box is
needed, then at least another 340 EUR is added bringing the total to 1,4602,170 EUR.
Public charge stations
In Norway a big government-financed program for the support of infrastructure build up for electric
vehicles was undertaken in 20092011 as part of the 2009 financial crisis mitigation effort. The program
was operated by the government body Transnova. The program had a total scope of 6.7 million EUR and
resulted in the establishment of 1,900 charge points supporting mode 1 and 2 charging. The total cost of
the charge stations was 100% reimbursed with a maximum limit of 4,000 Euro. In Denmark Better Place
has spent private venture capital on the initial developments of their charging station and battery swap
station network, but recently they received a loan from the European Investment Bank providing 30
million EUR for further expansion in Denmark6. Better Place Denmark also received some 4.95 million
EUR of funding from the European Union infrastructure development Ten-T program for pilot projects in
Denmark and the Netherlands7.
Average 2012 currency rate of 1 EUR = 7,47 NOK, source:_www.norges-bank.no

Press release from Nissan and proXLL 23.08 2011.
5
Salto AS
6
Better Place sikrer ln p 300 millioner DKK fra den Europiske Investeringsbank, Press release Better Place Denmark,
28.aug.2012
7
Greening European Transportation Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles, 2010-EU-91117-M, factsheet updated Feb 2011.
4
The cost summary of the program is shown in the diagram. Total average cost of 1,126 charge points, for
which total cost data was available, was 2,680 EUR excl. VAT. The lowest cost charge stations could be
lockable household outlets in a car park, whereas the most expensive ones would be curb side stands
with the need to do excavation along the road to a nearby connection point for the grid. Note that the
most expensive spots with costs above 4,000 EUR have been curbed at 4,000 EUR in the calculations, as
the real cost is not known. Transnova in that case paid out the maximum cost of 4,000 EUR (in the
documentation available, the total real cost is not shown when it exceeds 4,000 EUR), leaving the
73
balance to the applicant to cover. This is a minor uncertainty in the average cost estimate of 2,680 EUR.
Not many stations were above 4,000 EUR and those that were, were in general not far above.
In general 2,680 EUR excl. VAT can be seen as an estimate of average charge station cost for a
diversified infrastructure program where charge stations are being built in parking facilities indoors and
outdoors as well as curbside along the public roads. The costs are probably on the high side as there was
no incentive in the program to minimize the costs. With a lower maximum limit, there would have been
more pressure on the applicants to find cheap locations so that a lower average cost could have been
achieved, this can also be seen in the diagram below.
Figure 14: Norwegian cost data Normal charge mode 1 and mode 2 charge stations 100% financed by the government body
Transnova
There was no visible trend with regards to multiple charge station applications having a lower cost.
Rather costs appear to be completely independent of number of stations as seen in the diagram. This
may be because if you put up many stations in one location you reduce the construction costs but may
end up having to re-enforce the electrical distribution network, thereby adding costs. Also the material
cost would be the same.
74
Figure 15: Cost of charge station vs. number of stations per application
9.2
Fast charge
The cost of building fast charge stations will vary depending on the location of the station. In locations
where there is spare capacity in the grid, costs are limited to the charge station itself and the
construction work. If there is no spare capacity in the grid in the proposed location, then the grid
supplier can demand an investment contribution to pay for the cost of the added required installations
in the grid, for example a new or upgraded transformer. In the case of no investment contribution, costs
would be in the range of 67,000134,000 EUR. In the case with investment contribution the cost would
in general be at the level of 134,000 EUR excl. VAT but could also be even higher.
The owners of the fast chargers are using different business models. Some offer a monthly subscription
with the addition of a small cost per minute of charging. In this case non-subscribers pay a high cost per
minute of charging. Others only charge a set rate by the minute or per kWh or for a fixed time period. In
the introduction period some fast chargers have been free of charge. In the table below some examples
of user costs are given.
Merker kommune, saksfremlegg 2012/60-5, Sknad fra Green Highway om tilskudd til bygging av hurtigladestasjon for
el-biliMerker. Cost estimated to be 33 000 NOK/year.
9
Alternative forretningsmodeller for etablering av hurtigladestasjoner - Del 2, Report R-2012-007, Pyry
Little is known about the running costs and maintenance costs. It seems that early estimates for
maintenance (not including electricity cost) are in the region of 4,400 EUR8 and 5,350 EUR/year9 excl.
VAT, but no real numbers from day to day operations have been presented yet.
75
Operator
Nissan dealer Birgen N. Haug
Eidsiva (Energy company)
EV Power (EV infrastructure
provider)
Fortum (Energy company)
Statoil ASA (fuel retail, filling station
owner and operator)
Price per charge incl. VAT

5.75 EUR/15 minutes
5.9 EUR/15 minutes
13.4 EUR per charge for those that
have a subscription of 6.6 EUR
/month
4 EUR/charge
Comments
Leaf owners pay 3.35 EUR
Also offers subscription of 40 EUR

/month for unlimited access
5.9 EUR/15 minutes
Table 1: Cost of fast charging in Norway, the operators in general have fast chargers in different regions, explaining the big
variation in pricing (Source: Figenbaum and Kolbenstvedt 2013.
9.3
Battery swap and charge stand access cost
Better Place Denmark, bankrupt 2013, offered an all-inclusive battery rental and access to battery swap
and charge stations including cost of electricity monthly rental subscription. The cost depended on km
driven per year and the rental period length.
The fee for 20,000 km/30 months was 254 EUR per month. This could be compared with Renault lease
cost for the battery of 117 EUR/month for 20,000 km/30 months. Renaults offer does not include
electricity costs nor access to charge stations or battery swap stations. Typical electricity costs of 0.2
EUR/kWh and an electricity consumption of 200 Wh/km adds up to 67 EUR per month.
Then the rough estimate for Better Place Denmark, cost of access to charge stations and battery swap
stations was: 70 EUR/month.
76
9.4
Summary of charging station costs
Norway:
Type of charge
Installation
Domestic socket in
garage/on wall for
mode 1 and 2
Normal charge
Wallbox for mode 3

Wallbox for mode 3
with new circuit
Investment cost
excl. VAT
270400 EUR
1,0701,340
EUR
1,4701,740
EUR
Maintenance
cost per
station
Electricity
costs (incl.
taxes)
0.13
EUR/kWh
0.13
EUR/kWh
0.13
EUR/kWh
0
0
Normal charge public

area, mode 2,
without payment
system and no
communication
Average costs of
1126 charging
stations built in
Norway 2009 for
mode 1 and 2
charging
2,680 EUR
19 EUR
0.13
EUR/kWh
Normal charge public

area, Mode 3 type 2
equipment
Robust EVSE unit,

Wallbox or stand,
mode 3 type 2 with
communication and
payment system
Estimated:
4000-7000 Euro
No data,
estimated
100-600 EUR
0.13
EUR/kWh
Fast charging
Chademo DC 50 kW
charger
67,000134,000
EUR
Better Place
Denmark battery
exchange and charge
stand access cost
estimate
Battery swap station

and charge stations
networks as
employed by Better
Place in Denmark up
to 2013
Part of the subscription cost
5,350 EUR
Special rates
could apply
User costs
including
taxes
0.13 EUR/kWh
0.13 EUR/kWh
0.13 EUR/kWh
Normally free
of charge
(covered by
owner of
facility) or
included in
parking fee
Business
model is not
known yet.
413.4 EUR
per charge,
many limit
charge time to
15 min.
One operator
offer unlimited
access for 40
Euro/month.
Rough
estimate was
70 EUR month
Table 12: Charging station costs in Norway
Type of charge
Installation
Investment cost excl.

VAT
private station
semi public
public
Mode 3, 3.7 11kw

Mode 3, 3.7 11kw
Mode 3, 3.7 22kw
Chademo DC 50 kW
charger
200-5,000 EUR
200-4,000 EUR
4,000-21,000 EUR
Maintenance
cost per
station
150-500 EUR
80-450 EUR
500-1400 EUR
20,000 40,000 EUR
n.a.
Fast charging
Table 13: Charging station costs in Austria (Technische Universitt Wien 2012)
Austria:
77
Denmark:
Type of charge
Installation
Better Place
Denmark battery
exchange and charge
stand access cost
estimate
Battery swap station

and charge stations
networks as
employed by Better
Place in Denmark
Table 14: Costs of Better Place in Denmark
78
Investment cost
excl. VAT
Maintenance
cost per
station
Part of the subscription cost
Electricity
costs (incl.
taxes)
User costs
including
taxes
Rough
estimate is 70
EUR month
2WD
4WD
AC
AEA
BEV
BMS
C
CHAdeMO
CNG
CO2
DC
DKK
DRD
EHA
EUR
FC
FCEV
GH2
GHG
H2
ICE
kg
km
kWh
LH2
LIB
LNG
Ni Mh
NiCd
NOK
NOx
OEM
p.a.
Pedelec
PHEV
PM
TCO
TOI
V
V2G
VAT
Wh
ZEBRA
10
2-wheel-driving
4-wheel-driving
Alternating Current
Austrian Energy Agency
Battery Electric Vehicle
Battery management system
Celsius
This brand name for fast charging stations is an abbreviation for the Japanese
expression O cha demo ikaga desuka translating to English as "How about
some tea?", referring to the time it would take to charge a car as CHdeMO
charging stations can charge a car in less than half an hour.10
Compressed Natural Gas
Carbon Dioxide
Direct Current
Danish Krone
Danish Road Directive
European Hydrogen Association
EURO
Fuel Cell
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Gaseous Hydrogen
Greenhouse Gas
Hydrogen
Internal Combustion Engine
Kilogramme
Kilometre
Kilowatt -hour
Liquefied Hydrogen
Li-Ion batteries
Liquefied Natural Gas
Nickel Metal Hydride
Nickel Cadmium
Norwegian Krone
Nitrogen Oxides
Original Equipment Manufacturer
Per annum
PEDal-ELECtric-Vehicle
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Particulate Matter
Total Cost of Ownership
Transportkonomisk institutt (Norway)
Volt
Vehicle-to-Grid
Value-Added Tax
Watt-hour
Zero Emission Battery Research Activities
http://www.chademo.com/01_What_is_CHAdeMO.html
Abbreviations:
Abbreviations:
79
Table of Literature
Books & Reports:
Austrian Energy Agency AEA (2009a): Pre-Feasibility-Studie zu Markteinfhrung Elektromobilitt in sterreich,
Wien 2009
Austrian Energy Agency AEA (2009b): Potenziale und Chancen der Elektromobilitt im Land Salzburg, Wien 2009
Austrian Energy Agency AEA (2011): Machbarkeitsstudie zur Frderung von elektrischen Nutzfahrzeugen in Wien,
Wien 2011
BMLFUW Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management (2008): klimafreundlich
mobil, Exhibition Catalogue, Vienna 2008
BMLFUW Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management (2012): Klimafreundlich
elektrisch unterwegs, Vienna 2012
BMLFUW, BMVIT, BMWJF (2012): Electromobility in and from Austria, Vienna 2012
Civitas Stavn (2012): Helhetlig utbyggingsplan for infrastruktur til ladbare biler i Fylkene Akershus, Hedmark,
Oppland og stfold, 15.05.2012.
Deborah Gordon, Daniel Sperling, David Livingston (Gordon et. al. 2012): Policy Priorities for Advancing the U.S.
Electric Vehicle Market, Washington D.C. 2012
Erik Figenbaum and Marika Kolbenstvedt (2013): Electromobility in Norway - experiences and opportunities with
Electric vehicles. Institute of Transport Economics, TOI report 1281/2013.
European Commission (2013): Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the
deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure, Brussels 2013
Fraunhofer-Institut (2012): Produkt-Roadmap Lithium-Ionen-Batterien 2030, Karlsruhe 2012
Green Highway (2012): Elbil- och laddhybridguide, 2012
IA-HEV (2008): Hybrid and electric vehicles: The electric drive gains momentum; 2012
IA-HEV (2012): Hybrid and electric vehicles: The Electric Drive Captures The Imagination; 2012
Klima- und Energiefonds (2012a): Monitoring Modellregion VLOTTE, Summary Vienna 2012
Klima- und Energiefonds (2012b): Statusbericht der E-Mobilittsmodellregion Eisenstadt e-mobilisiert, Vienna 2012
Table of Literature
McKinsey & Company (2011): A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis, 2011
80
Ministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie Nordrhein-Westfalen (2010): Wasserstoff: Nachhaltige Energie mobil,
stationr, Nordrhein-Westfalen 2010
Norwegian travel survey (2005)
sterreichischer Wirtschaftsverlag (2012): Fuhrparkhandbuch Kompendium 2012, Wien 2012
VK sterreichischer Verein fr Kraftfahrzeugtechnik (2012): Batterieelektrische Fahrzeuge in der Praxis, Wien

2012
Peter Hofmann (2010): Hybridfahrzeuge ein alternatives Antriebskonzept fr die Zukunft, Wien 2010
Technische Universitt Wien (2012): SOL - Studie fr die Organisation der zuknftigen Ladeninfrastruktur fr
EFahrzeuge in sterreich, Wien 2012
Technische Universitt Wien (2009): ELEKTRA: Entwicklung von Szenarien der Verbreitung von PKW mit teil- und
vollelektrifiziertem Antriebsstrang unter verschiedenen politischen Rahmenbedingungen, Wien 2009
Technische Universitt Wien (2008): ALTANKRA: Szenarien der (volks-) wirtschaftlichen Machbarkeit alternativer
Antriebssysteme und Kraftstoffe im Bereich des individuellen Verkehrs bis 2050, Wien 2008
TOI (2012): Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles - Exhaust emissions and user barriers for a Plug-in Toyota Prius, Oslo 2012
Umweltbundesamt (2012): Elektromobilitt in sterreich - Determinanten fr die Kaufentscheidung von alternativ
betriebenen Fahrzeugen, Wien 2012
Newspapers, Magazines and Press Relaeses

Kurier (17.10.2012): 1. Wasserstoff-Tankstelle: "Knftig tanken wir Kilos", Wien 2012
AMTC (2013): Auto Touring Jan/2013, Wien 2013
th
VC (2012): Carsharing rechnet sich unter 12.000 Autokilometer pro Jahr, Press release from Sep 19 , 2012
Presentations:
Danish Road Directive (2012): E-vehicles and transport in Denmark: An overview, Copenhagen 2012
Helmut Koch (2012): The Austrian Cycling Masterplan and E-Bike Boom, Moscow 2012
Webpages:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_battery#ZEBRA
http://www.chademo.com/01_What_is_CHAdeMO.html
http://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html
http://www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20121017_OTS0143/omv-eroeffnet-erste-oeffentlichewasserstofftankstelle-oesterreichs-bild
http://www.smartgridssalzburg.at/forschungsfelder/stromnetze/smart-low-voltage-grid/
www.autoverbrauch.at
Table of Literature
http://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html
81
www.ecodrive.org
www.e-connected.at
www.extraenergy.org
www.h2euro.org
Table of Literature
www.topprodukte.at
82
83
Table of Literature

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State of the Art Electric Propulsion:

Vehicles and Energy Supply

Work Package 1 Report

Energy storage for electric propulsion ................................................................................................. 7

Electric Propulsion Systems................................................................................................................ 13

Electric Propulsion Principle ....................................................................................................... 13

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................... 15

Battery Electric Vehicles ............................................................................................................. 15

Vehicles on the market............................................................................................................... 26

Locations for Charging Points ............................................................................................................. 49

Description of charging systems......................................................................................................... 53

Normal charging ......................................................................................................................... 53

Vehicle to Grid .................................................................................................................................... 61

Charging and hydrogen infrastructure ............................................................................................... 63

Infrastructure in Austria ............................................................................................................. 63

Costs of infrastructure ........................................................................................................................ 73

Normal charge ............................................................................................................................ 73

Summary of charging station costs ............................................................................................ 77

Energy storage for electric propulsion

Lead-Acid Battery (Pb-Gel)

Energy storage for electric propulsion

Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH)

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

Energy storage for electric propulsion

Table 1: Comparison of battery types (Hofmann 2010)

Battery Supporting Systems

Battery supporting systems help to improve the performance of batteries:

supervising charging and decharging of cells

Energy storage for electric propulsion

A cooling and heating system can keep

Cooling and heating system

Figure 1: Energy consumption Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of

Energy storage for electric propulsion

There are different ways to produce hydrogen

Energy storage for electric propulsion

Electric Propulsion Systems

Electric Propulsion Principle

Concept of an electric engine

The picture shows an electric engine in

Advantages of Electric Engines

Electric Propulsion Systems

Electric Propulsion Systems

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS

Battery Electric Vehicles

Wheel hub motor

wheel hub motor

The picture shows the wheel hub

Single motor with reducer gearbox and driveshafts

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS

Hybrid Electric Vehicles

There exist different types of HEV:

Both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS

Table 2: Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Full HEV Toyota Prius

4 cylinder gasoline combustion engine

Prius 3rd generation

Meanwhile the Prius of the 3rd

Mild HEV Honda type configuration

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS

Engine and fuel consumption

Peugeot 4WD hybrid concept

Engine and fuel consumption