UNCLASSIFIED TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD THIS DOCUMENT CONTAINS INFORMATION AFFECTING THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF THE UNITED STATES WITHIN THE MEANING OF THE ESPLONAGE ACT, 50 U.S.C. 31 ‘AND 32, AS AMENDED. ITS TRANSMISSION OR THE REV- ‘Technical Aspees of Ch ELATION OF ITS CONTENTS IN ANY MANNER TO AN pered under the supervision UNAUTHORIZED PERSON IS PROHIBITED BY LAW. United States Army, and is pi of all concerned. ESPOWE 461 (20 ape 4).1 Classified CONFIDENTIAL by authority of By Onoex or rue Oxume, Co The Chief, Chemical Warfare Service. Initials LEG 29 April 1946> 99 April 1946 Orrice or Tem Csxurr, Cumrtcan Waneane Suxvice, Wasmmarox 25, D. C., 30 June 1945. Technical Aspects of Chemical Warfare in the Field has been >re- pared under the supervision of Chief, Chemical Warfare Service, ‘United States Army, and is published for the information and guidenee of all concerned. [SPOWH 461 (29 April 46).] By Ozomn or tus Crm, Cnreanioan Wana: Sznvice: Enro Lax, Cotonel, OWS, Breoutive Officer.CONFIDENTIAL PREFACE THE PROJECT COORDINATION STAFF The Project Coordina‘ion Staff to the Advisory Committee on the Bifectiveness of Gas Warfare Matériel is an international group formed at a meeting held 4 March 1944 at which the U. 8. Caemical Warfire Servico and British Commonwealth Chemical Warfare organizations were represented by their chief executives. The staff was charged with the review of the data accumulating at the several testing stations in the cooperating countries, in order that « common basis for doctrine could be achieved. To this end, appropriate Ameri- can and British Commoawealth organizations have been represented. on thestalf since its inception. ‘The following have been assigned to the staff during the periods indicated: Barrett, H. M, Suffield Experimental Station, Canada, Apr, 1944-Publieation ate, Clar.dge,P-, P, Major, B B, Britis Army, Sept. 1945-Mar. 1048, Day,B. A. Major, CWS, U.S, Arey, Oct, 1944-Tan, 1945, Doheny, J.J. Ist Lt, CWS, U, & Army, Apr. 44-Apr. 1045. Fishback, Joe, Major, CWS U.S army, Mar. 1945-Pubiteation date, Goddard, RF, Major, OWS, U.S. Army, Sept. 1945-Dee. 105. Green, J. W., Geptain, CWS, U. 8. Arms, Oct. 1944-Feb, 146. Hadvw, H. 5, Chem, Det, Res, Dect, U.K. Oct 2945-Pabileation date ‘Hall, CA, Ceptain, CWS, U,8, Army, Apr. 1044-Feb, 166, Hillman, J. H., TE, Captain, CWS, U. 8. Army, ADE. 104-Apr. 1945, Hinyard, J. N.,Cotonel, CWS, U. 8. Army, Apr. 1944-Apr. 1985, Hotehens, J. 0., Captaia, CWS, U.S, Army, ADT. 1944-Joly 1044, Irist, HB, Captain, AG, U.S. Arry, May 1044-Oct. 15, Jone, B,W. 3st Lt, OWS, U.8, Army, ADs. 1MM-Feb, 3946, Lows, Bada. Lar, RAT, Ape. 1944-Nov. 1045 MeLean, P.©, Lt, Colonel, MC, U.S, Army, June 1244-Sept, 1945, Moore, Stunford, Division NDI, U. 8, Apr. 1944-Oct, 1945 Noyes, W. Au Jr, Division 10, NDRO, U. 8, Apr. 2944-Publieation date, Parker, B.' 1st Et, CWS, U.8. Army, ADr. 1DH-Nov, 185. Ritter J.11, Captain, CWS, U.S. Army, Apr. 1044-Tan, 1045 Root, 5. , Division 10, NBRC, U.S, Oct 1044-Sept 1045. ‘Trotman, 6, ,, Chew, Det. es, Dept, U.K. May 1044-Nov. 1045, ‘Winsche, W.B,, Division 1 NDRO, U.S. Sept, 1044-Tuly 445, exeher, J.A, Captain, CWS, U.S. Army, Nov. 1O44-ADr. 1045, v ‘The following have b tributed to this report: Arthn, W. 1a, Captains ‘Beckwith, J.B, Captain Bile, A.W, Major, 0 Ciborowskd,§. B, Capia Cullumbine, Ht. Oo, Fish, HJ, Sufield Baye Gract,1.P., Lt Colonel, Grimta, B. A, Safteld Hormats, Sl, Teshnle, Johnston, Harold Divi Karnotsky,D.A, Gupta! ‘Merril, BT, Divllon Pillsbury, P-L, Copten, Renshavr, Birdsey, Dit. Show, W-A,t. (Lg) € Somervilo, Walter, Lt alt, G. W.C, Sufleld Talbot, T.H, Jr, Lt. Cor Becks, Masur Brown, Atherta, WA Kober ave bid Longley, Helen M, Ted Cooperation aind Yala tary and civilian. pecm grounds, arsenals, and { monwealth ard the Un these many contfibutide ‘The present report is! for comment in May.1% 2 April 1048,international group b ths U. S. Chemical Chemical Warfare pocutives. ‘The staff ting at the several order that a common appropriate Ameri- 78 been represented B during the periods Apr, 1944-Publleation ‘The following have been attached to the staff, or have directly con- tributed to this report: Arthor, W.1.,Captatn, AC, U. 8. Army. ‘Beckwith, 3. Captain, MO, U.S. Army. Birnie, A. W, Major, Suifield BS, Canada, Othorovsi, & 1, Captain, OWS, U8. Army. Gullumbine EL, Et, Col, RAM, Chem, Det, Res, Dept, U.K Fish, E,. Stileld Brperimenta? Statton, Canada, Gract, .P. Lt Colonel, MO, U.S. Army. Grifit, B. A, Sulla Experimental Station, Carada, Hormats, Sx Teehoieat Division, GWS, U.S. ARB. Johnston, Harold, Division 9, NDRO, U. 8. Karnotsiy, DA, Captain, ¥.0,U.8, Army, Merrit, R.D, Division 9, NDRG, U. 8 Piusbury, P-f., Captain, MC, 0.8, Army, Renshaw, Birdsey, Divistoa 0, NDRG, U. 8, Ut. Gg) USNR. ‘Walter, Tt, Col, RAMO, Sufleld B. 8, Chnada, ‘Tait, . W.C.,Sufietd mspertinéntal Station, Canada, ‘Talbot TR, Jr, Lt. Coma. U. 8. Navy. Sronerantan Starr Becker, Marguerite FL, Technical Division, OWS, U.S. Army. Brown, Atberia, WAC, U. 8 Army. Ketter, ZaVeda, Diviston 10, NDRC, U.S, Longley, Helen M, ‘Technieal Division, OWS, U. 8. Army. Cooperation and valuable aisistarice have boon received from mili- tary and civilian. personnel at. the various hoadquarters, proving grounds, arsenals, and testing. stations throughout the British Com- monwealth and the United States. Individual acknowledgment of these many contfibutions is impossible because of their number. ‘The present report is based on an earlier drat which was circulated for comment i May 1945 as Project Coordination Staff Report No. 9. 25 April 1946. Auwey H, Warr, Major General, USA, Chairman, Advisory Committee on the Effectivencss of Gas Warfare Matéridl. sarc aCONFIDENTIAL TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD Part 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Lemopvoriox see es bee eee L Cuapren 1. Taoutrzai. Factons Atrnorme te Ust or Cunai- ‘car, WARrARE. Section 1. List of Factors « beet e eee 5 Section 2, Meteorological Conditions ‘Wind Speod.. : : Tr Ground Temperature | : : & Air Temperature. : 9 ‘Turbulence : 0 Thermal Turbulenes |: t : a laversion, Lapse, Neutral Conditions) Mechanical Turbulence. . we 2 Cloud Cover... 1B Gravity Effect. >) | : rr Humidity. 2222) : 5 Rainfall 2222) : 16 Section 8, Terrain and Local fects ‘Hills, Slopes, snd Valleys « 18 Vegetation»... 9 Moisture Content of the Ground 20 Cities and Towns. se ees : m Seetion 4. Agents Definition of Dosage... ss 2 Non-Persstent Agents 0G (Phoagene). ees bese ™ CK (Cyanogen Chloride) | tt 25 AC (Hydrogen Cyanide) 8 Pernt gmt: 1 (uird Gay) Introduction... e ” Liquid H Physiological Eifeots . 6 5. 28 Contact Hazard... | 39 ‘Traversal and Advance under Fire | 20 Occupation... .. at Durstion of Hazard from 1 ‘Centaming- tion. Definitions: Temperature Ranges, Tasks, ‘and Terrain Classifcations .. . . | | narra 1 Curren?Cmarexa 1. Sedtion 4—Continued Density of Ground Contamination for Con- ‘tact Hazard for Ofensive Purposes . = « H Spray THE FIELD HL Vapor: Physiologies! Effects. . « Definitions of Degrees of Disability Bifect of Air Temperature and of Sweat ing Developinent of Casusities from H Vapor. Systemle Erfects bees ‘Acaqited Hypersensitivity Comulative Etfect Dosages of H Vapor for Ofensive Pur poses. ee Infection of H Burns Standardized H Chargings EMeieney of Froteetion Against H Ocher Persistont Agents HHN-I (Nitrogen Mustard) L (ewisite) 1. Protection against Agents Introduction Pratetion against Non-Persistent Agia - Protection aginst Pereistent Agent. Introduction . British and U. (Class J, If, and III Protection) Life of Trapregnated Clothing. « Protection afforded by Tmpregnatel Clothe ing against Liquid If tee Wearability of Impregnated Clothing Proteetive Ointment Collective Protection . <1 + German and Japanese Protection agaist HL as Detection Devices bees Munitions ‘Munitions Charged Nop-Persistent Agents. Behavior of Non-Persistont Agerts when ‘Dispersed from Munitions e ‘Munitions Charged Persistont Agents. General Characteristios of Munitions Charged Persistont Agents... ws Betavir of when Dispeeed to Muni ‘ions. : te Cuaeren 2, Croton ov Acawrs axp Musenioxs Sestion 1. Introduetion Seation 2 Non-Persiatont Agente ‘Tasks Suitable for Non-Persistent Agents « Production of Casualties through Imperfect Gas Discipline among. Personnel Equipped with Gas Masks. «Seatloa 2. Munitions Charged (Cuarron 2. Section 2—Continued Production of Casualtios through Penetra- ‘ton of Gas Mask Canisters... Production of Casualties among” Personnél Not Equipped with Gas Mask, Haresements see Seotion 8. Porestent Agente. Task Suliable for Pordstont Agents « « « Coien of Agent... es nt Choiee of Munition, Section 4. HJetiveness of Gas opainet Bield Portes Section 6 Towns and Gitiee |. 2222212 5. Municiox Exrawsrrones Wee Against Personnel Provided With Gas ‘Maske. ‘To Cause Casualties through Imperfect Gas Diseipine. .. . « wee To Cause Cesualtios by’ Penetration of “apanere Canisters . Fer Harassment . : Use Againet Unproteded Pertonnel » 1 Section 3. Ground Buret Munitions Charged H for Vopor Eifec. Ietroduction. . Terrain and Meteorological Conditions» Dosage and Time of Achiovement . «+ Proportion of Target Covered . . Method of Using the Expenditure Tables for Ground Burst Munitions... . Usiligation of Total Dosage > Example of the Use of the Expenditure Teblee eee ee Expenditure Tables for Ground Burst Aiveraft Bombe. Instructions for Using the Tables... « Examplesof Aircraft Bomb Expenditures. + Bzpenditure Tables for Grownd Burst Mortar aud Artillery Shel Notos on Using the Tables... se. Examples of U. 8.4.2 inch Chemical Mortar Txpenditures sve ae Section 4, Arreraft Spray Munitions Charged E for Vapor Efe. Procedure for Estimation of Expenditure Expressed as Weight of He... cs Ezample of the Use of the Expenditure Tables Beponditure Tables for Aircraft Spray Tanke ‘and 8. €. 1. Notes on Using the Tables... . 6 70 n cc ™ 15 8 102 108 108 105 107 108 (Carne 3. SoCuarrem 8, Section 4—Continued ‘Procedure for Batimating the Number of Spray Tanks and Spacing of Airoraft . ample of Caleulation of the Number of Spray Tanks snd Spacing of Aircraft. « Examples of H Spray Expenditures for ‘Vapor Eifect, . . Section 8. Airburel Airerat Bombe and Airbural Shell Charged H for Vapor Bifect. Iatrodustion British 6.5 iash Alcburst DB. E Arlilory Shell... ‘Procodure for Fntimation of 600 1b, Alrburst Bom Expenditures. . Downwind Drift of Spray. |! Examplis of 500 tb, Alrburst Bomb Bee ppendisures for Vapor Iifoet Procedure for the Estimation of Expeadi- ‘tre in Rotnds of 25-pounder Airburst B.E.Sholl sees Bxampies of Expenditures ‘of 25-pounder ‘Airburst B, E, Shell for Vapor Efect . « H Spray Muniions for Divect Anti-Personnal Attack, Casualty Prodcing Densities «6... Target Coverage see ee Expenditure Tobles for Aireraft Spray Tanks ‘and §. CZ. Expenditures :n Pounds pet Square 100 x 100 yards... Expenditures in Terrie of Tanke and Ait craft. . Exsinpl of Caleulation of Bxpenditure . > Brpenaiture Tables for British L. C. 606 1b. “Airburat Airsroft Bom. Prost for Estimating the Expenditure ‘of Aitourst Bombs. : Example of Caleulation of Expenditure | + Expenditure Tobles for British 25 Pounder “Airburat B. 8, Chesnical Shel ‘Prosedure for Estimating the Expenditure ‘of British 25 Pounder Airburst B. E. Chemieal Shel Production of Liguid Contact Hazard’ om Ground and Vegetation xpend:ture for the Production of Liquid Contset Hasard . . Durstion of Hazard with Munitions with Burstors, and Spray Munitions Duration of Hazard with Munitiona without Borsters Persistenes of Hasard using HT Chargings | ‘Compasison with Safo Times... 4 +Cuapren 4. Hazauos 10 Fumxpuy Pensoxxen Fao Dowswix ‘Taaven or Gas Seation 1. Introduction. oe ee ee 135 Section 2. Non-Peraiuent Agente. v2 211d Meximum Safe Dosage » i 397 Estimation of Safe Downvwitd Distance 138 Example of Estimation of Safe Downwiad Distance for Nou-Persistent Gas... 139 Section 8. Persistent Agents Msximum Sufo Dosage of Ft Vapor wat Estimation of Safe Downwind Distance uaz Example of Estimation of Safe Downwind Distance for H Vapor... es Ms Guossany eee See eee ee cece lll Page oo LIST OF TABLES Pee | Duration of Hazard from H Contamination: Munitions with Bursters 20 9. Minimum H Spray Densities for Direct Auti-Porsonnel Attack, 32 |. Dosages of Hl Vepor for Production of Injuries... .. . 28 Dosages for Production of Casualties by H Vapor. 2 2 26 ‘Aireraft Bombs Charged Non-Porsistont Gas: Expenditures to ‘Cause Casuaition through Imperfect Gas Discipline... . 62 .. U. 8, 4.2 iuch Chemiesl Mortar Shell Charged CG; Expendi- ‘tures to Causa Casualties through Imperfect Gas Diseipline, 53 Airoraft Bombs Charged CK: Expenditures to Cause Casualties by Penetration of Japanese Canisters 33 ‘Table 8, Airoraft Eombs Charged Non-Persistent Gat Causo Cesualt:es among Unprotooted Personnel... a ‘Table 9, 4.2 inch Mortar Charged CG: Expenditures to Cause Castaltios ‘Among Unprotected Personnel : 3a Rate Factors: All Munitions Charged Hi... | 38 ‘Table 11, Total Dosage Fraction for Given Times: Ground Burst Airoraft Bombs Chagall. ee ee 9 ‘Table 12. Pactors to Convert Tolal Dosage Fraction to Final Product Ground Burst Aireraft Bombs Charged Cy ‘Table 18, Expenditures for Vapor Effet: Ground Buret Aireratt Bombs Charged H Strong Lapse cy ‘Table 14. Bxponditires for Vapor Effect: Ground Burst Aireraft Bombs ‘Charged H: Moderate Lapse... 6 ‘Table 15. Expenditures for Vapor fect: Ground Burst Alrorsti Bombe Charged H: Neutral Conditions... - « a ‘Table 10. Expenditures for Vapor Effect: Ground Burst Aireraft Bombs ‘Charged H: Irversion e ‘Table 17, Examples of Expenditures of MA7A2 and’ M70 Bombs Charged ‘ (Leviastoin) for Vapor Tfect 6 ‘Table 18, Total Dosage Fraction for Given Times: Ground Bust Mortar ‘and Artilery Stell Charged He... Tabre 19 ‘Table 20. ‘Table 2, Table 22 ‘Table 28. ‘Tablo 24, ‘Tablo 8. Table 26. ‘Table 27, ‘Table 28, ‘Tablo 29. Table 30. ‘Table ai, ‘Table 32 Table 38. Table a4. Table 35. Table 36. ‘Table 37, Pablo 38. Table 30 Table so. ‘Table 4. Table #2. ‘Table 4. ‘Table 44 acto Gre Bxpee art Exp art Art Expo ‘ar Exam HO Thi Total Factor WS, Expen Cspaci ‘UathieTebte 19, Table 20. Table 2. ‘Table 22 ‘Tele 28. actors to Canvert Total Dossgo Fraction to Final Product: Ground Burst Mortar and Artillery Shell Charged Hl... Expenditures for Vapor Eafect: Ground Burst Mortar and ‘Artillery Sholl Cherged H: Strong Lapse... sv ws Expenditures for Vapor Bleot: Ground Burst Mortar and ‘Artillery Shell Charged H: Moderate Lapse... ss «+ Expenditires for Vapor Bitect: Ground Burt Mortar and “Artillery Shell Charged H: Neutral Conditions... . «= Expenditures for Vapor Effect: Ground Burst ‘Artillery Shell Charged H: Inversion. . Examples of Expenditures of U. 8. 42g Mota hat Caged HL (Lovinstin) for Vapor Eifect 8. Thickening Factors for Aireraft Spray. < . ‘Total Dosage Fraction for Given Times: 11 Spray Munitions + , Factors to Convert Total Dosage Fraction to Final Product: Tebte 20. Table 31. Teble 82. Table 88. Teble 34. Table 86. Table 86, Tee 87. ‘Tobie 38. Tabie 29, Table 40 ‘Table 41 ‘Table 42. ‘Table 43. ‘Table 44 'H Spray Munitior . |. Expenditure Constant: Hi Spray Munitions. 3. Capacities of Airerait Spray Tanks, Lengths of Centamination Pattern from Spray Tanks. Unthickened H Spray: Examples of Expenditures for Vapor Eflect from Low Altitude Airoraft . . eee ‘Thickened H Spray: Examples of Expenditures for Vapor Btfost from Low Altitude Aircraft... Examples of Expenditures of British 500 1b, Airburst Aireraft Bombs Charged HSC/MM for Vapor Bifect. Factors to Convert Total Dosage Fraction to Binal Product: Brith 25 younder Airburst B, E, Chesmical Shell. . . Expenditure Constent: Brstih 25 pounder Airburst 3," E, ‘Chemical Sell, Bxamples of Expenditures of Brith 25 pounder Airburst B. B, ‘Chetaieal Stell Charged HSC/MM for Vapor Effect... « Airornft Spray Expenditures in Ib. H per Square 100 x 100 yard Expenditures of Brivish L. ©, 600 lb. Aicburst Aircraft Bombs Charged Thickened H for Diroot Anti-Porsonnel Attack . Expenditures of Beitish 2i-pounder B. E. Chemical Shell Charged 'Thickened H for Diroct Anti-Personnel Attack. « ‘Weights of H Charging in Aireraft Bombs, Artillery and Mortar Shell : Liguid Contact’ Hazard’ Duration ‘Pactor: “Munitions with Bursters ard Spray Munitions Charged H. . . Liquid Contact Hazard Duration Factor: Munitions without Bursters Charged H.. . Dowawind Travel of Non-Persistent as Downwind Tstvel of H Vapor . Peet 65 65 68 Cy er 03 1 a n n a 2B a B aCONFIDENTIAL TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD Patt 1 INTRODUCTION 1. This document stmmarizes modern knowledge on the technical aspects of chemical waxfaro in the field. Consideration is confined to standardized American and British matériel. 2. Factors such as logistics, tacties, and supply are not ecnsidered, but in cases where the froperties of an agent influence the tactics of its use, tho best manner of achieving results is given. 3. Tho effectiveness of gus compared, or combined, with other ‘weapons, such as high explosive, flame or incendiary is not ecnsidered. Only the agents OG, CK, AC, and H are dealt: with, 4. ‘Tho document is published in two parts. Part 1 sets out the information required in the field, including munition expenditure tables. ‘The experimental evidence on which Part 1 is based is dis- cussed in Part 2. Norm: Certain expressions which are used in a special sense (for ‘example: traversal, zone of attack) are defined in the glossary. CONFIDENTIAL,Chopter 1 TECHNICAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE USE OF CHEMICAL WARFARE Section 1 LIST OF FACTORS 5. The influence of the following technical factors on the effective- ness of chemical warfare will be described: a, Meteorological conditions. 8. Terrain, including vegetation and other ground cover. o. Agents. d. Allied and enemy protection. ¢. Munitions available, ‘These factors will be considered in the sueceeding sections of this chapter. Section 2 METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS 6. General ‘Meteorological conditions, especially those of the sir near the ground (usually referred to as micrometeorologieal), have a control- Ting influence on the effectiveness of chemical warfare matériel. The influence of the various meteorological factors on the field behavior of chemical agents must be known to the officer responsible for making recommendations to the ficld commander concerning the use of gas. Such officers must be able to predict tho field behavior of agents in terms of micrometeorological factors, and to advise on the effective- ness of gas which might be used by the enemy. 7. Wind Speed a, Wind speed is important in determining the rate at which a gas cloud is swept over a given area, and influences the rete at which persistent agents evaporate,Chapter 1 Section 2 5. Wind speed is significant ir the use of nonpersistent agents since casualty effects are produced by exposure of personnel to high con- centrations of gas for short time intervals, genorally of only a few ‘minutes duration. The hizher the concentration the shorter the time of exposure required to produce casualty. ‘Thus, the maximum wind speed at which s given nonpersistent gas munition is effoctive increases with increase in the amount of gus delivered on unit azea in ‘unit time, ‘This factor is incluced in the expenditure tables given in Chapter 3. 6. Inthe case of persistent agents, most of the agent is discharged from the munition in liquid form and evaporates slowly to provide a continuing source of vapor. [The rate of evaporation of a liquid persistent agent whose surface is exposed to the free air increases as the wind speed increases. With liquid H, the rate is roughly propor- tional fo the wind speed; for example, if the wind speed doubles, the rate of evaporation approximately doubles, 8. Ground Temperatu «ffoct of ground temperature alone on nonpersistent: gases is ble, except with AC (paragraph 23). ‘The rate of evapora- tion of persistent gases is grestly influenced by this factor. (‘The higher the ground temperature the greater the rate of evaporation, hhence the shorter the time required to obtain a given dosage and the shorter the time the liquid agent will persist on the ground.) 9. Air Temperature ‘The average air temperature has an important bearing oa the tendeney of the body to parspire, and hence on the sensitivity of the skin to vesicant chemical agents, and on the ability of individuals to tolerate the wearing of protective equipment. ‘These two poinss aro discussed. in paragraphs 88 and £5, 10, Turbulence ‘To be effective, chemical agents must remain near the ground when released. ‘The tendency to remain in casualty producing concentra- tions at ground levels is governed largely by the turbulence of the air in the lowest layers. ‘This turbulence can be both of thermal and of ‘mechanical origin: thermel convection currents are set up when the ‘ground is heated by the sun; eddies are produced mechanically as the air stream moves over the ground, When the turbulence is great, the gas is distributed upward and outward; conversely, when there is little turbulence, gas will remain near the ground. Since the turbu- lence of the air tands to o8 of gas is reduced as it tram, 11. Thermal Turbulence . When the ground is, become warmed and, bein cooler air from above, T adds to the turbulence of which gas is dissipated. 1 the ground by radiation. ‘cooler than the tir immed vwill then be lowest, and mix and for gosto be diss . Ineverston. When more dense, than the air ¢ be negligible ard an “in will exist. This eonditia use of chemical agents an terrain on clear or partly to shortly after sunrise miles per hour. ¢. Laver, When the o above, turbulence will 0° being replaced by the eo0 conditions will then exial the temperaturedifference in the field, ifs temperatun air. As this oomurs, the § rents, ‘Thus, lapse condi Lapse conditions will pre ‘lear days from about aif sunset. Mechanical turbo of about 15 miles per how great enough to dominw However, such wind spe uneconomical. d, Neurmat, Conpirtot in air temperature with the ground, a “neutral eo convection currents are + ‘mechanical turtulence int surface, Neutral conditi 02804—40—pt.1—2agents since to high con- of only @ few 'ftte of evapora- is factor. (The of evaporation, Paragraph 10 lence of the air tends to cause dilution of a gas cloud, the effectivensss of gas is reduced as it travels downwind. 11, Thermal Turbulence a, When the ground is heated by tho sun the lower layors of aiz become warmed and, being less dense, they rise and are replaced by cooler air from above, ‘The stirring which is introduced in this way adds to the turbulence of the atmosphere and increases the rate at which gas is dissipated. At night if the sky is clear, heat is lost from the ground by radiation, In these conditions the ground will become cooler than the air immediately above. ‘Phe denser cool layers of siz ‘will then te lowest, and there will be no tendency for the layers to mix and for gas to be dissipated by thermal convection, B, Lvvensiox, When the air at ground level is colder, and henoe more dense, thar: the air above, turbulence due to thermal effects will be negligible and an “inversion” or “stable” atmospheric condition will exist, This condition is generally most fevorable for the field ‘use of chemical agents and will prevail on open or sparsely wooded terrain on clear or partly overcast nights from shortly before suse: to shortly after sunriso when the wind speed does not excoed 6 to 8 miles per hour. Ss ¢, Larse, When the air at ground level is warmer than the sir above, turbulence will occur due to the warm, light air rising and being replaced by the cooler air from above. “Unstable” or “lapse” conditions will then exist and the degree of instability increases as the temperature difference increases. When a gas or vapor is libernted in the field, its temperature rapidly approaches that of the surrounding air. As this occars, the gas is carried upward by the rising air cur- rents. ‘Thus, lapse conditions are least favorable for the use of gas. Lapse conditions will prevail on open or sparse'y wooded terrain or clear days from ebout an hour after sunrise to-sbout an hour befcre sunset. -Mochan‘eal turbulence increases with wind speed and at speeds of about 15 miles per hour the stirring effect from this cause alone is great enough to dominate the purely thermal effect due to lapse ‘However, such wind speeds will of themselves render the use of gas uneconomical. 4, Nroreat, Coxprmioxs. When there is no important change in air temperature with height in the air layer up to 50 feet above the ground, “neutral” condition will exist. Tn this condition thermal convection currents are weak and are small in comparison with the ‘mechanical turbulence introduced by wind movement over the ground surface, Neutral conditions are generally less favorable for the use co2ses—se—p. 12 5Chapter 1 Section 2 of gas than ave inversion conditions, and higher expenditures are consequently needed. Neutral conditions will prevail during overcast days or nights and for a short period of time after sanrise and before sunset on clear days during the transition period letween inversion and lapse and vice versa, At high wind speeds, especially over rough ground, mechanical turbulence diminishes temperature differences ‘and conditions tend to become neutral. 12. Mechanical Turbulence 4, Tho extent of the mechanical turbulence introduced into the air stream as it moves over the ground increases with increasing wind speed and is enhanced by ground surface roughness or the amount of obstruction to sir flow by trees, buildings, and sharp ground contours. No satisfactory method is available by which the combined effects of ‘wind speed and ground roughness can be estimated accurately, but certain generalizations, which will serve as a guide, can be made. 3. For the same free air wind speed, the wind speed near the ground is lower over broken, or over serub covered, ground than it is over level, open ground. 0. Correspording to this lowering of wind speed there will be an increase in vertical mixing and a decrease in the tendency of the gas to remain near the ground. 13. Cloud Cover ‘By day clond will prevent the sun’s rays from reashing the ground and will reduce the thermal turbulence, At night cloud cover hinders radiation from the ground and lowers the degree of inversion attained as compared with a clear night. 14. Gravity Effect ‘Non-persistent agents evaporato very rapidly on release from muni- tions and the doud formed is initially cooler, and thus denser, than the surrounding air. In addition, OG and CK clouds at high concen- trations aro slightly denser than air at the same temperature, ‘The cloud therefore tends to sink to the ground and to flow into hollows. ‘This gravity effect dominates the behavior of the gas immediately after release from large munitions for a period the length of which depends upon the degree of turbulence of the atmosphere. In lapse conditions the effect is observed for a few seconds only, but: in an inversion, the gravity effect reinforces the existing tendencies and it may influence the behavior of the cloud for an hour or more. ‘The gravity effect is further discussed in Paragraph 62. ‘6 15, Humidity 4. An inerea perature more: with dry skin perspiration (7 8. The usefa of body perspir are parspiring shorter interva clothing is diss @. The prote: gon chloride) i the canister. 1 humility of th tho protection canisters conta’ cont by a fewh @. Theevepo in the dissipati decreases with conditions, the 16. Rainfall a, Heavy rais agents by washi . A light sh ‘will cause ¢ dn lowed by a tan shower. More sensitivity of t ¢. CK isnot: little effect on d, Water de For surprise w gas.are obtaine: will not be sui e. L (lowisit,ease, than, high concen- The Paragraph 15 15. Humidity 4, An increase in humidity results in an increased tendency of the body to become moist with perspiration, which in turn greatly increases the sensitivity of the skin to H (mustard gas). At the same air tem- perature more H vapor is required to produce casualties among troops with dry skin than is required among troops who are wet with perspiration (paragraph 38). }. ‘The usoful life of impregnated clothing is shortened by the effect of body perspiration. ‘Thus, under hot, humid conditions, when troops are perspiring freely, reimpregnation of clothing will be required at shorter intervals than in drier, cooler climates. ‘The life of protective clothing is discussed in more detail in paragraph 93, ¢. Tho protection offared by gas mask canisters against OK (cyano- gen chloride) is influerced by the moisture content of the charcoal in the canister. ‘The moisture content increases with rise in the relative humidity of the air drawn through the charcoal bed. As an example, tho protection against CK afforded by Japanese Army gas mask canisters containing dry absorbent may be reduced as much as 50 per- cont by n few hours woar in an atmosphere of high humidity. 4, The evaporation of perspiration cools the skin and aids materially in the dissipation of keat from the body. ‘The rate of evaporation decreases with increase in humidity, co that under hot and humid conditions, the wearing of protective equipment becomes less tolerable, 16. Rainfall a, Heavy rainfall may tend to reduce the effectivensss of chemical agents by washing away the liquid on the ground 3. A light shower falling on an area freshly contaminated with It will cause a drop in tke vapor concentration during the shower, fol- lowed by a temporary increaso in the vapor concentration after the shower. Moreover, wetting of the skin by rainwater will increase tho sonsitivity of the skin to H vapor, unless itis already wet with sweat, e. CRis not readily destroyed by water and a light shower will have little effect on the clowa. d, Water destroys CG (phosgene) more readily than it does OK. For surprise attacks against trained troops, where the effects of the gas are obtained vithin.2 minutes or less, the amount of agent destroyed ‘will not be suficient to nullify the effectiveness of the agent, ¢. L (lewisite) is rapidly hydrolized by water.Chapter 1 Section 3 Section 3 TERRAIN AND LOCAL EFFECTS 17. The nature of the terrain will have a marked influence on the effectiveness of chemical agents. Tt has been pointed out that the mechanical turbulence in the air inereases with the ground surface roughness and reduces the tendency of the gas to remain near the ground, In additioa, the influence of other characteristics of terrain, such as slopes, valleys and vegetative cover, must be appreciated in planning a ges operetion, 18. Hills, Slopes, and Valleys 4, Under favorable meteorological conditions where the turbulence of the air or the wind speed is not sufficient to overcome the gravity effect, clouds of nonpersistent gas will move down slopes and valleys and will settle and remain in depressions. (On hilly, jungle terrain under inversion conditions, clonds of OG and CK have been observed to remain in valleys in concentrations of military sigrificance for 2 to 4 hours.) ‘The significance of this is that in a ges cperation in hilly terrain, highly effective offensive dosages of nonpersistent agents can bo obtained in valleys and depressions. Consideretion should also be given to the safety of friendly troops in adjacent low lying areas. Effective dosages of nonpersistent gas are difficult to attain on sharp crests or sides of precipitous ridges or hills but can be achieved at low swind speeds when to erests or ridges are well rounded. To achieve effective dosages of H vapor on hilly terrain, coverage must be as uniform as possible because the wind eannot be relied upon to carry the vapor to the erests of hills, 8. The loss of heat by the ground on clear nights, ns already de- scribed in paragraph 11a, will cause the lower layers of air to be cooler and derser than the upper Inyers, On sloping ground the denser air will tend to flow downhill, causing shallow “katabatio” winds which may locally have a direction different from that of the general air flow of the district. If the ground has been wetted by re- cent rainfall, these winds are considerably diminished in intensity. ‘Tho effect is naturally greater on open grotmd, where the heat loss is rapid, than in wooded country. ‘The reverse effect, “anabatic” winds, may occur on exposed slopes in sunny weather and is caused by the warm and lighter air tending to low uphill. ‘The kacabatio winds are of more importance as they occur during times favorable for the use of gas, ‘They become very pronounced on the sides of high moun- tains and they may extend out onto the plains at the foot of the 8 slope. Thit to friendly ‘the foot ofa 19. Vegetot a The ve stability, wi by foliage, d and the suit: 8, Asdise into the air the ground. ‘the ground perature gre wil not sho sidering the however, mo the day, and night. Tests that daytime covered terra ical turbulen eanopy, andi rays, will be Sn the eanopy ‘ground, andt the day than ditions in the ‘be most favor ¢, The resi fn the wind s in tho open. deme forest ‘gass therofo for much lon, rain is more ‘ground wherParagraph 18 Slope. ‘This matter must, be considered in estimating the danger to friondly troogs, for example, troops assembling during the night at the foot of a hill. 19. Vegetation a. Tho vegetative cover of the terrain will influences atmospheric stability, wind speed, ground temperature, amount of agent absorbed by foliage, distributior of the agent after functioning of the munition, and the suitability of Zuzes. B. As discussed in paragraph 11, the extent of turbulance introduced, into the air by radiation varies with the amount of sunlight reaching the ground. ‘Thus, in heavily wooded areas} the leaf canopy shades the ground surface and reduces heating. For this reason the tem- perature gradient conditions underneath a forest or jungle canopy will not show very great deviations from neutral coaditions, Con- sidering the temperatare gradient up to a height of several yards, however, moderate inversions will exist underneath the canopy during the day, and neutral or slight lapse conditions may be measured at night. ‘Tests have shown that it should not he concluded on this basis that daytime is more favorable for the use of gas in jungle or forest covered terrain than is nighttime. In the daytime some of the mechan. ical turbulence caused. by the passage of the wind cver the top of ‘eanopy, and a partion of the thermal turbulence induced by the sun’s rays, Will be transmitted below the canopy. ‘The scattered openings in the canopy permit some sunlight to reach the lower leaves and the ground, and the tendency of gas to dissipate upward is greater during the day than night. Ttmay bo token as a working rule that when con- ditions in the open are most favorable for the uso of gas, they will also be most favorable in the jungle or forest. ¢. The resistance of trees to air movement leads to a sharp reduction in the wind speods found in wooded areas when compared with those in the open, Wand speeds near the ground underneath jungle or denso forest canopy rarely exceed 2 miles per hour. Nonpersistent gases therefore remain in effective concentrations in wooded terrain for much longer than they do in the open. A Tow wind in jungle ter- rain is more turtulent than @ wind of the same low seed over open ground where there are fewer obstructions in its path. Nearly all For purposes 0: ‘ilgbtly wooded area 9° one sonealaing wontterod tres or clump of beshes shold bs cou: ‘dered an open tervec. To wooded arean where freer re not Ia leat ce-where the flings Ines been Gesteoyed by orovlows gue attncks, the suallsht wil etzike the ground and Comper. ‘ature gradient Wil be abner a those measbred in the open 9Chapter 1 Section 3 winds in these low ranges also shift frequently in direction and are relatively unpredictable from this standpoint, d. At the margins of wooded areas, particularly where there is a comparatively abrupt edge, as with jungle, there are spe:ial effects to be taken into consideration. A. wind blowing towards the edge will tend to carry over the tops of the trees any gas released upwind, and only a low proportion will penetrate to the interior. At the down- wind edge, eddies vill be produced and the wind direction at ground level may be opposite to that of the wind blowing over tke tops of the trees. ‘The wind speed will fall off steadily in the interior as tho distance from the edge of the forest increases. e. Ground surface temperature on heavily wooded terrain will be practically the same as the air temperature and generally lower during the day than that measured on open ground. Since the rate of evap- oration of persistert agents is a function of temperature, the persist~ ence of liquid H will be greater on the ground underneath a denso canopy than in the open. #- High concentmtions of toxic gases will destroy most vegetation. Within a few days following an attack, grass or weeds will turn brown and trees will become largely defolinted. “The destruction of foliage means that some of tho agent is absorbed, but neither the amount nor the rate of absorption of H vapor, CK, or AC (hydrogen eyanide) on the target, is great enough to reduce significantly the effectiveness ‘when used in the amounts given in the expenditure tables. CG is more readily absorbed than either CK or AC, but this effect is not important in surprise attacks in which results must be obtained within 2 minutes. g. In lapse conditions it is more difficult to produce effective dosages {n small clearings than in the surrounding woods. The surface of the cleaving is heated by the sun’s rays and the warmed air cends to rise: cooler air from among the trees will move in to replace the rising ‘warmer air and a permanent updraft will be set up during the day- time, This will occur whether the clearing has been made during cultivation or by defoliation due to the action of chemical agents. A, When munitions charged with Hare functioned in a vegetated area the charging is distzibuted on the foliage and the ground. ‘The amount on each depends on the height of burst and the density of the vegetation. EEhe liquid distributed on foliage and branshes presenta a greater hazard immediately after burst than would be the ense if no ‘Fegetation were present. Moreover, the dispersed charging will evap- orate more rapidly as it is better exposed to the air than would be the ase had all the liquid fallen on the ground, 10 4. A thick jungle in a spray of liguié ground. 3. Wher munition or fired into jungle before striking the canopies of virgin 1 all but a small frae ground to be effet? reparation of expe required. 20. Moisture Contes a. Very softorss agents released fro tend to tury, and becomes excessive. | the craterto a heigh bof the barstshad: 6. TE free water sistence of Hi will] troops crossing the persist for very lo ‘amount of vapor gi 21. Cities and Towr Knowledge of th meager. Under oo speed is lower in cit Tence is mach greate gas cloud is spread the wind tends toe vertical circulatory 22, Definition of Do Ps ; ~aie hit aban ‘thes? factors mustParagraph 19 4. A thick jungle or fcrest eanopy will prevent most of the droplets in a spray of liquid H released above the eanopy froin reaching the ground. j. When munitions eqaipped with instantaneous fuzes are dropped. or fired into jungle or forest canopies, some of them may function before striking the ground. It has been shown that, except for dense canopies of virgin forests which may extend up to 150 feet in height, all but a small fraction of the charging will fall noar enough to the ground to be effective. This has been taken into considsration in the preparation of expenditare tables and no correction for tree bursts is required. 20. Moisture Content of the Ground 4a, Very soft or swampy ground is unsuitable for the use of chemical agents released from ground burst munitions. Chemical munitions tend to bury, and with a persistent gas charging, the crater loss becomes excessive, (Nonersistent agents may be blown upward from the crater to # height where they may be less effective than they would be if the bursts had oceurred on the surface, 6. If free water is present on the surface of the greund, the per- sistence of H will be increased, as will the liquid contact hazard to troops crossing the contaminated area, H covered ky water will persist for very long periods with corresponding decrease in the amount of vapor given off. 21. Cities and Towns Knowledge of the bekavior of chemical warfare a meager. Under corresponding meteorological conditions the wind speed is lower in cities than in open country but the mechanical turbu- lence is much greater. Winds are deflected along the streets so that gas cloud is spread out axoss the mean direction of travel, Moreover, the wind tends to enter the streets from roof-top level and to cause vertical circulatory eddes between the buildings, Section 4 AGENTS 22. Definition of Dosage Ce ees on nap ot pct xapor. “gest mepEAT no! only onthe air but also-on-the.time during which men.are expesed.tait- Both these factors must be taken into account in defining the effectiveness WChapter 1 Section 4 of any attack. ( Short exposure to high concentration may produce the same effects as Tong exposure to low concentration and, for prac- tical purposes, the effects caused are in proportion to the product of the concentra‘ion and the time of exposure. ‘This product is referred tons the dosage. For expressing dosage, the coneentration expressed jn milligrams per cubic meter (mg./cu. m.) is multiplied by the time expressed in minutas. ‘The unit of dosage is thus milligram minutes per eubie meter (mg. min./cu. m.) and this unit is used wherever dos- ago is mentioned in this document.t [For each gas there is a minimum dosage which must be attained in order to produce effects sufficiently severe to bo ircapacitating. } Similarly, from the defensive standpoint, there is for esch gas 9 maximum dosage to which cur own troops ean safely be exposed if fighting efficiency is not to be reduced by minor injuries, NONPERSISTENT AGENTS 23. Unlike persistent agents, the effects of nonpersistent agents on man and the field behavior of these agents are not significantly influenced by either high temperatures or high humidities, except insofar as high temperatures may be accompanied by unstable atmos- pheric condit.ons. Tt may be taken that the munitions expenditures apply to all temperatures likely to be encountered in the field except in the ease of AC which should not be used when ground temperatures are much below 82° F. No meteorological considerations other than those for which factors are given in the expenditure tables need to be taken into acconnt in planning attacks with nonpersistent. gases, CG, CK, and AC are the standardized nonpersistent agents, 24, CG (Phosgene) a, Toxtcrry. CG has the highest toxicity of any of the standard- ized nonpersistent gases, and is especially effective if casualty-produc- ing but nonlethal dosages are taken into consideration, Tt causes waterlogging (edema) of the lungs, which, if severe enough, results in death. Less severe cases may reqiuire hospital treatment for sev- eral weeks. The rule of gas training that masks must be worn when- ‘ever gas is detected is therefore of special importance in the caso of CG, since no concentration that ean be detected by smell can be regarded as safe. If the breath is held and the mask is put on imme- diately, the parpose of a surprise attack can be defeated. Munitions 7 body cap deal wih ams quantitog of certatn gute, rch as AC, comtinsoualy an witht tazfat ete, ether by detoxeetio within the body o by excretion "tizomple: Rxpontre for 20 minutes to a coocntretion of 100 me /eu. a. would be & ‘douage of 200 ne. mia-/eu.m._ Siolariy,expovure for 40 tinue fo concentration ot [ome /eum would also tea dosage of 2.000 mgm ou expenditures for a dosage of 32% ‘tration sufficient minutes, there ¥ breath were not tightness in the may follow the no signs oF sym] and fight with L be slow, with ra ‘with collapse, ¢ ciont, oxygenati collapse occurs, total number of all or nearly all ‘would require bs die. ‘The remai of 1 te B weeks, 2, Brecon (1) Britisha: States gos mask breathing rates concertrations ¢ time. There is being penetratei (2) Gorman protection of th Britsh types. ( lower protection make it: improb attack AI otf ive good protec desigrs. Té am canister absorb increased. In canister by CG stances, for exa o. Sranmurry: it is transferred ensure that theParagraph 24 expenditures for casualty production are based on the attainment of ‘dosage of 3,200 mg. min./cu. m. Tn personnel exposed to a concen- tration sufficient to produce this dosage within a period of 1 or 2 minutes, there would be irritation of the respiratory tract, and if the breath were not held, there would immediately be coughing, choking, tightness in the chest, and lachrymation, A. period of 2 to 6 hours, may follow the initial respivatory irritation during which there are no signs or symptoms, and during which men would be able to work and fight with little or no discomfort. ‘The onset of symptoms may bo slow, with rapid, shallow breathing and painful cough; or rapid, with collapse. Cyanosis (blue discoloration of the skin, due to insufli- cient oxygenation of che blood) is a prominent symptom. When collapse occurs, the skin beeomes cold, clammy, and gray. Of the total number of individuals breathing the casualty-producirg dosage all or nearly all would become totally disabled within 12 hours, and would require hospital:zation, while & considerable proportion would die. ‘The remainder would racover slowly, most of them over a period of 1 to 3 weeks, 8, Evricmmscy or Prorncrion: (1) British and United States Gas Masks, All British and United States gas masks give excellent protection against CG, Evea at high breathing rates corresponding to heavy exercise, and against high concentrations of gas, compete protection is maintained for a long time, There is small chanee of any British or United States canister being penetrated by this gas under field conditions. (2) German and Japanese Gas Masks. German gas masks give protection of the same high order as that given by United Siates and Britsh types. One Japanese gas mask, the army small model, gives lower protection against CG, but the protection is sufliciently good to male it improbable that peretration by OG could occur in any one attack, All other Japanese gas masks (army, navy, and civilian) give good protection similar to that given by United States and British designs. Tf any gas mask is worn in humid air, the contents of the canister absorb moisture and the protection against OG is thereby increased. In general, it may be accepted that penetration of any canister by CG could rot be achieved except in very special cireum- stances, for example, with large amounts of gas in caves. ¢. Srammrry 1 Sronsar, CG isstable in storage in munitions. If it is transferred from ane munition to another, care must be taken to ensure that the new maniticn is dry and that water is not allowedChapter 1 Section 4 to enter ducing filling. Water will cause decomposition of some of the gas ané dangerous pressure may develop in the munition. @. Pru Bantavion, CG isstable toward detonation, Ttis absorbed by foliage to a greater extent than is either CK or AG (paragraph 19f). Beceuse of the cooling produced by sudden evaporation and expansion, the initial cloud is denser than the surrounding air. As a result, the gravity effect is pronounced for CG munitions, 25. CK (Cyanogen Chloride) a. Toxiemrr. CK is less toxic than either CG or AC. Munition expenditures for casualty production are based on the attainment of a dosage of 11,000 mg.min,/cum, OK is very irritant to breathe, even in low concentrations, and causes severe lachrymation. It s also irritant to the skin, notably around the elge of the gas mask and, particularly in hot humid conditions, it causes severe irritation of the serotum, Hrritation of the skin and lachrymation pass of fairly quiekly in gas-free air and no lasting effec's are caused. Becazise of the inritancy of this agent there is little likelihood of a dangerous concentration being undetected, even among other war smells. Furthermore, when breathed in high concentrations, its irritaney is such that it causes a brief involuntary stoppage of breathing, and this should decrease the probability of an individual breathing » lethal dosaze before the gas mask is put on, Whether or nat this irvitaney reduces the military usofulness of the gas to a sign’ficant extent cannot at present be stated. Unmasked personnel who expe- rience a dosage of 11,000 mg.min,/eum. would be immediately inca~ pacitated through temporary blindness and dificulty in breathing, and ‘many woul become unconscious and die within the space of a few minutes. The effects upon masked personnel, in dosages sufficient to penetvate the canister, would be similar. 8, Erricmxcy or Provecrion (1) General. CK is much less readily ebsorbed by charecal than is CG, especially if the charcoal is moist. In addition, CK is net Sirmly held by untreated gas mask charcoal, and as a result it may be given off (desorbed) when the gas mask is subsequently worn. Absorption and retention can be greatly improved by special treatment of the charcoal. (2) United Statee and British Gas Masks. Modern United States and British gas masks contain charcoal which has been specially treated to protect against CK, so their standard of protection is high. It can be accepted that United States and British troops are well protected against this gas. 4 @ also agait not ¢ low, steps impr’ tainc field aesor it-wo anese oxide butth air.) the tinue toact ‘stor mg. canst if the toach the w () is mat which prior the e canst ing a these of the af of sto tions. not by ships contai filing(paragraph ition and [C. Munition attainment ss off fairly Because of ‘8 dangerous F breathing a or not this significant who expe- Paragraph 25 (3) German and Japanese Gas Masks. Recent German gas masks also contain specially treated charcoal affording good protection against OK, Older German canisters (for example, the FE-41) did not contain specially treated charcoal and their protective value was low, particularly if the gas mask had been worn in humid air, but steps were taken to treat the charcoal in these canisters in the field to improve the protection agninst CK. Modern Japanese canisters con- tain charcoal which is capable of being specially treated by the German field process for improving OK protection. When treated by the German process, such Japanese canisters would show lees tendency to aesorb CK and the initial protection would be somewhat ‘mproved, but it would be far less than that against CG. (An extension to the Jap- anese Navy gas mesk is provided for protection against earbon mon: oxide. When new, this extension gives good protectior, against CK, but the protection falls off when the extension has been worn in humid air.) Penetration of a canister with OK in sufficient amounts to make the gas mask intolerable to wear (and to kill the wearer if he con- tinued to wear it) would be feasible in situations which are favorable to achieving high dosages. Munition expenditures for Japanese can- ister penetration are hased on attainment of a dosage of 200,000 mg. min,/cu m, A lower dosage may cause penetration of Japanese canisters by enough gas to make the gas mask intolerable to wear, even if the charcoal were treated by the German process, so that in order to achieve effects of some military significance, it is not essential that the wearers encounter the full dosage of 200,000 mg. mit./cu, m. (A) Humidifioation of Canisters. Since the protection against CK is materially less i the sharcoal in the canister is moist, any action which will make the enemy wear his gas mask in humid conditions prior to an attack with CK will increase the chance of penetrating che eanister. This is particularly true in the ease of the Japanese canistor. Enforeed wearing could be achieved by using gas in harass- ing amounts. In the tropies (humidity 80 percent or more) wearing these gus masks for about 12 hours would eause enough humidification of the charcoal to reduce OK protection to a low level. @, Sranutry 1x Stonsor. Provided that instructions for conditions of storage are carefully sbsorved, CK is stable in standardized muni- tions, Itis partictlarly important that munitions charged OK should aot be exposed to direct tropical sunlight or stored in the holds of ships when high tamperatures are likely to be attained. Munitions containing CK must be specially cleaned and dried internally prior to {illing, otherwise decomposition may occur and dangerous pressuresChapter 1 Section 4 develop. The agent should not be transferred from one munition to another in the field. 4d, Frm Brnavior, Detonation does not affect OK. It is not so readily removed by water and foliage as is CG, and hence in forests and jungle it persists for a longer time. This is favorable to its use for penetrating gas mask canisters, since a long persistence is favor- able to produetion of the high dosages, 26. AC (Hydrogen Cyanide) a. Toxrctrr. ‘The toxicity of AC is intermediate between thase of CG and CK. AC is not effective in very low concentration, since the body can absorb and neutralize small amounts of the gas contin- uously, Iti less irritant to breathe than is OG or CK, and doos not irritate the eyes or skin, Munition expenditures for casualty pro- duction are based on a dosage of 8,000 mg. nin./eu. m., to be aitained in a maximum of 2 minutes. When breathed in appreciable amaunts, ‘AC eanses an increase in the rato of breathing, and this stimulation prevents the breath being held while the gas mask is being put on, increasing the probability of lethal dosage being inhaled. ‘This probability is further increased if the initial concentration of th gas is 9,00) mg./eu. m., or higher, so that the lethal dosage may ba ab- sorbed within 1 minute, An individual breathing such a concentra~ tion would become mentally confused after the first few breaths and ‘would then quickly become unconscious and die within 18 or £0 min- utes. AC is consequently of value immedistely before an assault by ‘our own troops. ‘Those breathing less than the lethal dosage would probably recover from any ill effects within a few hours. At excep- tionally high dosages enough AC can be absorbed through the akin to cause death, 3, Eericrency or Protsorox. (1) General, Gas mask charcoal does not give a high degreo of protection against AC unless the charcoal is either of a very bigh quality or is apcially treated for this gas. (2) British and United States Gas Masks, United States gas mask canisters contain charcoal which has been specially treated, during manufacture, 80 that the protection against AC is very high. Brit- ish canisters contain chareoal of high quality and the proceetion agains; AC is good. It may be accepted that United States and British forces are well protected against this gas at dosages likely to be encountered in the field, (8) German and Japanese Gas Masks. The latest types of Ger- man gas mask canisters contain charcoal which is specially treated 6 andt ters gait gives lth: ‘gait in th In 5 exam be po penet stand storay expos tompe is user tions unaut the fie at to be foneti 27. tn as portar forme ‘the lic contro humar have! smunit, by th possib oft outst arisin ‘the va, from ualty- contacpacentration, since of the gas contin- OK, and does not 4 for casualty pro- 1 or 20 min- an assault by dosage would 8. At excep- high degree of of a very high States gas mask By treated, during high, Brit- the protection ted States and Fdosages likely to types of Ger- ally treated Paragraph 26 and they therefore give good protection against AC, Japanese eanis- ters so far known give poor protection against this gas, as they do against CK. The auxiliary canister referred to in paragraph 255 (3 gives very good protection except after use in humid conditions Althongh Japansse gas masks give only a relatively poor protection against AC, canister penetration is hardly likely to be accomplished in the open owing to the difficulty of achieving very high dosages. In special situations where very high dosages can be achieved, ior ‘example, by use of close range gas weapons against caves, it would bo possible to kill wearers of Japaneses gas masks with AC, partly by penetration of the charcoal and partly by skin absorption. o, Sramuary ry Sroxaoe, AC is stable under field conditions in, standardized munitions, provided the recommended conditions of storage are observed. It is particularly important that prolonged exposure to tropical sunlight and storage in ships holds, when higl temperatures are likely, should be avoided. Munitions in which AC is used must be sorupulously clean in order to avoid dangerous condi- tions arising, Transfer of AC from one munition to another, or unauthorized recharging of munitions, should not be carried out ir the field. d, Frew Brravior. AC may inflame and special means will have to be used to prevent its igniting when burster type munitions are functioned. PERSISTENT AGENTS: H (MUSTARD GAS) 27, Introduction 4, Studies conducted in recent years have resulted in greater im- portance being attached to the vapor of Has a war ges than wee formerly the cass. Knowledge of the effects of both the vapor and the liquid is more precise than it was in World War I, as a result of controlled gas caamber tests and of realistic field trials in which human volunteers have participated. In addition, intensive studies have been made of the field behavior of H and its dispersion from munitions which permit expenditure tables, for causing casualties by the vapor, to be drawn up on a surer basis than was hitherto possible, 6/11 is effective both as free liquid, which oan be picked up from. contaminated surfaces or can fall on the body as spray, and as vapor arising from the liquid as it evaporates. If the evaporation is rapid the vapor concentrations will be high but short-lived while the hazard from free liquid will disappear rapidly. If evaporation is slow cas- ualty-prodecing dosages will take a long time to aceumulate but the contact hazard w°Il be prolonged/ 7Chapter 1 Se: uauiD H 28. Physiological Effects ‘The maximum degree of injury caused by liquid H is normally reached in 24 to 48 hours. Liquid burns are deeper than vapor burns and are more severe, involving a greater amount of destruction of tissue, ‘Third degree burns, in which all layers of the skn are destroyed, are uncommon following vapor barns, but they may cocur after contamination with liquid. ‘Thus, the healing time of liquid burns may be greatly prolonged. 29. Contact Hazard ‘Pho hazard from contact with liquid H, to troops traversing or occupying a2 area, cannot be divoreed from vapor hazard, since where here is liquid there will be vapor. Under some conditions, the hazard from vapor may outweigh that from liquid, and vice 30, Traversal and Advance Under Fire @, It is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rules on. the danger of treversing contaminated ground since so much depends on the type of ground, the age of the contamination, the actions of the men, and the nature of their protection. Asa result of work carried out in recent years, however, it is possible to angment previous in- formation and to draw some general conclusions. 8. It must be emphasized that the times given in this section represent the times after contamination at which troops could, with reasonable sefety, traverse the area, It is not intended that hey should be used as more than a guide in cases where very early eatry into a contaminated, heavily vegetated area is essential, for exemple, recotinaissance after an H bombardment, traversal of a contaminated area in order to reach an area of safety, or occupation or demolition of a position before the enemy reoceupies it, After 24 hours under hot or temperate conditions, the hazard to men in Class I or Class I protection is greatly decreased. It will be several days, however, before men ean occupy the area without wearing masks, ‘¢. When impregnated clothing is worn, the danger from traversing. fan area depends upon the hazard from contact with liquid H, since protection by the mask and protective elothing against vapor hazard is adequate. The risk from liquid Ht depends upon the degre> to which troops may succeed in avoiding areas of freo liquid contamina- tion, either on the ground or on vegetation. If troops in Class T or Class IE protection are not under fire, and consequently may eon- centrate dense jan serious 1 still furt mustard a. Itt crawl, oF ‘they eam contain until are ished ine e. The terrain, greater, j. The vulnerab have toh 31, Oca. Thohe in part some ins taken, fo ual prot ing blew liquid w ground upon the 32, Dun For w the safe of terrai resent may not under fi‘e normally ‘yapor burns Paragraph 30 centrate on avoiding contaminated areas, they may traverse even dence jungle in daylight a fow minutes after contamination without serious risk, (he risk of chance contamination from vegetation is still further reduced ‘f as much as 1_hour is allowed for liquid mustard to drop or evaporate from foliage.’ 4, If troops cannot choose their paths, and if they have to kneel, cravl, or lie on the ground when in contact with the enemy, so that they cannot depend upon avoiding craters and other areas of heavy contamination, traversal cannot be performed with relative safety until ateas of heavy contamination have been eliminated or dimin- ished in extent by disappearance of the free liquid I. ¢. The danger from traversing contaminated, heavily vegetated terrain, to troops not equipped with impregnated clothing is much greater, especially witk the charging HT (paragraph 45 ¢ (2)). 7. The hands, forearms, and knees are the parts of the body most vulzerable to burns formen vith Class I and Class II protection, who have to kneel, crawl, orlie on the ground, 31, Occupation Pie hazard from ocenpying contaminated ground is dependent only in part upon liquid H, the primary hazard being from vepor. Tn somo instances simple protective precautions against liquid could be taken, for example, turning aver fresh earth, laying down the individ- ual protector o cape before sitting or lying on the ground, or seatter- ing bleach. By the use of such simple expedients the hazard from Tiguid would be greatly minimized. The practicability of cceupying ground within a few hours after contamination depends primarily upon the ability of troops to wear the mask continuously. 32. Duration of Hexard from H Contominetion For use in planning operations, table 1 may be used as a guide to the safe times when troops may traverse and occupy different types of terrain, ‘The times ziven are not to be regarded as exact ; they rep- resent estimates of the periois after which troops could perform the ihed tasks without sustaining injuries of combat significance. alarly true of the periods given for men without protee- tive clothing, for in this case H vapor is frequently the chie? danger. Safe periods for oceupetion must be determined by means of the Brit- ish Pocket Vapour Detector or the United States Detector Kit when these are available. ‘The times take into account the faet that troops ‘may not be able to avoid areas of contamination, such as craters, when ‘under fire or when traversing at night. 9Chapter 1 Section 4 33, Defnitions a, Trgeeearone RAGES (1) Hot refers to temperatures above 80° F. (troops with skins wet with sweat). (2) Warm refers to temperatures from 60° to 80° F. (skins not wet with sweat). (8) Cool refers to temperatures below 60° F. b. Tasns (1) ‘Traversal refers to troops walking only, and not under enemy fire. Maximum time in area, 2 hours. (2) Advance under fire refers to troops required to throw them- selves to the ground. Maximum exposure 2 hours, half of whieh is spent in conta:t with the ground. (3) Occupation refers to troops remaining in the area 24 hours. TABLE 1, DURATION OF HAZARD FROM H CONTAMINATION Maniions With Borsters le ae ear |, amprenate max steele ce ee | em | Bot GS | ober % | Bs | | j | Pact, sad, osc | 0. “Pera png es Law reetation. | stom | Phau. es rests nomi agian rndoans_| snows, (pat wowing sas) rae ste ty sn [Beri vei | 40a Hoon. |e aoeuantga s,m rr | bean] Rowm Fi EEREREID [peer er | wt |S) ase vases | to] | are a Oeetin eet + en] onan a SEE.TANGL A ele mata | tar | how | Ce Se zeal veetatos. | 2¢hour.| Boa. fraSana ary owas |? eae | seta ‘oxcnaton Laelia og f ee, Lg aN er te hn nee aa or “ES RSS ER ona cent an get Far ssenwtbnut mpssvaaiad cothing whoare eagied Wo taccesetsiacistad are es hoa ie Eee) Gaerne abso tan nantes et aie eae cron . : foie cer Sg Pgs ae es nora ees Decca atin, ene ae area eat at |sround) wher the tes would be abproniuatoly those a to tab “= co, Torna (1) Bares height. @) Lowy (3) High @ Devs (30 to 19034 100% 100 yar 34, Donsity¢ Purposes a. For offe the ground w accept @ risk deterrent. 1 including the of contamina eneny. Lig ot under fir zons. Liquic tated terrain path. 3. ‘Thearet erossing it & weather the 9 of the two hat ¢. Where it ‘contaminatio 100 yards! tion 7) arobs by refreshes of the contan @, Munitia with a docres swith other fo 35. H Spray @. Some mn the target. 1 ‘captble of clothing (dir 3. Densry Dieser Aw 92seatto throw them- half of which is ae pteerme el it |sgaomet sat "erry es ae ce | eign dare, rs iit hits the Paragraph 33 co. Terran (1) Bare soil, sand, or short grass includes grass not above shoe-top height. (2) Low vegetation includes knee-high serub and grass. (8) High vegetation includes jungle and high undergrowth. —_ ‘yy 4. Dexarry cP coxTAMINATION. 10 to 50 grams Hl por square meter (30 to 150 short tons per square mile; 200 to 1,000 pounds per square 100% 100 yards, approximately). 34, Density of Ground Contamination for Contact Hazard for Offensive Purposes a. For offensive purposes it must be accepted that contamination of the ground with H will not be a bar to a determined snemy, willing to accept a risk of cascalties within 24 hours. It will act as strong deterrent, ‘The effectiveness of H will be a function of many variables, including the size of the contaminated area, the dispersion and degree of contamination, the terrain, and the conditions of traversal by the enemy. Liquid contact hazard will be least effective when troops are not under fire and are able to choose a path through :he contaminated zone, Liquid contact hazard will be at a maximum on thickly vege- tated terrain under conditions where troops are not able to choose a path, 8. The area of contamination may be of such a size as to expose those crossing it to casualty producing vapor dosages. Except in cool weather the vapor danger from H chargings is more often the greater of the two hazards against tien without impregnated clothing. 2. Whete it is desired to create liquid contact hazard on the ground, contamination at the rate of 400 to 800 pounds of Ht per square 100 X 100 yards should be used.XThe expenditure tables (chapter 3, sec- tion 7) are based on maintenance of the hazard for olfensive purposes by refreshment with half the original quantity when about 50 percent of the contamination has evaporated. d, Munitions charged HT yield a more persistent contact hazard a decreased vapor recovery, as compared with munitions charged with other forms of H (paragraph 45 ¢ (2)). 35. H Spray a. Some munitions are designed to discharge H into the air above the target. A spray of droplets falling on enemy personnel will bo capable of causing casualties by direct contamination of skin and clothing (direct antipersonnel attack). B, Densiry or Contamination Nuorssary To Caves Casvaurmns BY Dumecr Anrimsonmet, Avtack. Tho contamination density of H 69260446019 2Chapter 1 Section 4 Aroplets nesded to cause casualties varies with the state of the skin and the amount of clothing as well as with the subsequent activity of those contaminated, ‘Thus in the tropics, where the skin is hot and sweaty, and the clething is thin, the required density is much less than that noeded in cool, temperate conditions. ‘The minimum contamination Aensities to be used in computing H spray expenditures are set out in table 2 below. ‘The densities are those measured on the ground and are capable of producing severe partial disability among troops hit by spray if protected only by gus masks. TABLE 2. MINIMUM H SPRAY DENSITIES H VAPOR 36. Physiological Effects 4a. H vapor produces eye injuries, damage to therespiratory tract and skin burns. Casaalties among personnel not provided with gas masks are caused primsrily by eye injuries, temporary blindness being in- duced by exposure to dosages insufficient to produce incapacitating respiratory injury or skin burns. Incapacitation of masked troops requires higher cosages and is due primarily to skin burns, while at high dosages in hot weather nausea, vomiting, and prostration fre- quently occur. Depending upon their severity, skin burns may limit or entirely prevent movement of the limbs and body. If the skin is hot and wes with sweat, the effects are more severe than if the skin is cool and dry and considerably smaller dosages will produce incapaci- tating effects In tablo 8 are given estimates of the degree of injury and dis- that would occur among personnel exposed to different dosages . of H vapor with or without masks, and without protective clothing (dosages required to penetrate impregnated clothing are discussed in paragraph 820). Although single figures aro given for dosages in this table, it should he appreciated that the severity of the injuries sustained by different individuals exposed to a given dosage exhibits considerable variation. The dosages listed. as producing partial and total disability apply to approximately 50. pereent of exposed troops: ‘The maximam sae dosages apply to all except occasional, highly sensi- tivo individuals, No appreciable difference in sensitivity between the white races, Negroes, and Asiatics has been demonstrated. 22om) 70 condvout 09 coven 8 ‘ut saesop Joy ws sdoory paysout Jo ue puno# ay wd aq sdoon, uous ‘uy possnosrp axw 3 a DOSAGES OF H VAPOR FOR PRODUCTION OF INJURIES con ee tay tenes. 96 YdesBoIngChapter 1 Section 4 an 37. Definitions of Degrees of Disability 2. Toratix Disapteo. Tneapable of performing any militazy duties; incapable of usefully remaining in the field, regardless of the serious ness of the military situation, Tt is recognized that, in its strictest terms, total disability is attained only at death, which is not attained with H among masked men by reasonable expenditures in open or ‘wooded terrain, b. Pawrauty Disamtrn. Capable of performing limited military Auties; includes many individuals who would be evacuated in accord- ance with British or United States practice but who in a critical situation could be retained in the lines as eapable of contributing to an action, particularly to static defense. 6, Insure Wirnour Drsamaary. Capable of performing all mili- tary duties: injuries such that military effectiveness is interfered with only slightly or not at all. Not classified as a easualty, 4, Severe generalized burns aro likely to cause total disability; severe genital burns alone ordinarily cause only partial disability. ‘The skin of the genital region and the arm pits is usta-ly moist, oven at temperatures as low as 60° F, so its sensitivity varies less with temperature over the range 60° to 100° F. than does that of the bedy scrface as a whole, which may be cool and dry at the lower temperatures, but thoroughly wet with sweat in hot and humid weather. 88. Effacts of Air Temperature and of Swe 9 ‘The effectiveness of Hi vapor as a din injurant varies markedly with the degree to which the skin is wet with sweat, which depends not only on air temperature, but also on such factors as relative humidity and physical activity. Entries in the dosage tables are based arbi- trarily on temperatures above and below 80° F, ‘The entries for “hot and humid weather” strictly apply to heavily sweating troops, even though the air temperature is less than 80° Fs the entries for “warm -weather” apply to troops who are not sweating over the gereral body surface, even though the air temperature be over 80° F. 39. Development of Casualties from H Vapor a, Toner or Oxser, Total disability due to severe generalized burns caused by high vapor dosages can be expected to develop within 2% hours after exposure; the rapid development of such burns, and the nausea, vomiting and weakness which are frequently associated with them in hot and humid weather, produce partial disability within 4to 12 hours, When the vapor dosage is sufficient to burn severely 24 hig shy atFany military duties; ess of the serious- hat, in its strictest is not attained ditures in open or limited military ted in accord~ ‘who in a critical Hs of contributing to forming all mili- mess is interfered ossualty. total disability; tial disability. is usually moist, ivity varies less in does that of the dry at tho lower Bond humid weather. pt varies markedly entries for “hot, ing troops, even entries for “warm r the general body Paragraph 39 only the genital region, the time of onset of partial disability is often delayed for sever: days. 0. Devavormenr or Disantirry. (in contrast, with burns due to eon tamination of the skin with Liquid H, which gonerally reach their max- mum within 24 to 48 hours, burns with vapor arg slow in devslop-_ ment. Maximum injury usually occurs at about the 10th gay] but serious injuries fom H vapor usually develop within 8 or 4 days; in any ease it: does not follow that an assiult oni a position should be delayed for as long a period as 10 days after a bombardment with H. Not all enemy troops ean bo expected to bo exposed to a very high dosage and the injured but not disabled men may be almost com- pletely recovered :f the assault is too long delayed. ‘The period which should elapse to ellow casualties to develop after bombardment with munitions charged H will be determined by the tactical situatic 2 to 4 days is suggested as a guido.) e. Hearse Tre. ‘The mean tiine for healing of vapor burns is of tho order of 20 days, and raw areas are, on the average, not. appreciably longer in healing. No treatment has any appreciable effect on the healing time of the burns, although appropriate treatment can do much to add to the comfort of an injured man, 40. Systemic Effects In addition to bums of the skin, H vapor frequontly causes systemia effects under trozical conditions, especially with temperatures of 90° F. or above. ‘These effects are shown by such symptoms as nausea, vomiting, malaise, weakness, elevation of body temperature, and rapid pulse. Systemic effects generally occur earlier than do skin burrs. ‘They have been noted 4 to 12 hours after expoture. ‘The incidence and severity of systemic effects are not, however, sufficiently welll known to establish their military significance, and early easualties from such effects should not be relied upon until more is known. 41. Acquired Hypersensitivity Persons who are severely burned by H vapor or liquid, or who experience repeated minor burns, or who are exposed to very small concentrations of vapor over a period of years (for example, in fae- tories) become moro sensitive to H{ than are normal individuals. ‘This increase in sensitivity varies from one person to another and with the extent of the previous burns or exposure, but in extreme cases small dosages of vapor which would not affect normal persons will cause serious effects. No cases are known in which hypersensitivity ‘was not acquired Ey previous burns or exposure.Chapter 1 Section 4 42, Cumulative Effects ‘The effects of HI vapor are cumulative within certain time limits, ‘That is to say, subsequent exposures add their elfects to those of previous exposures if they occur within a certain time, and the result is substantially the same as it would have been if the total domge had been experienced at one time. Thus, a number of exposures to small dosages, any one of which by itself would produce no detectable effect, may edd up to a total dosage which is harmful. ‘This is.a most, im- portant: preperty of H vapor -and should: e-fully_appreciatel.~ The safe period between exposures, that is the time which must elapse between exposures for them not to be cumulative, has not’ been thor- oughly studied. Tt is not possible at present: to give a definite time limit. ‘The evidence available indicates that exposures are likely to be cumulative if repeated in less than 12 hours, but that the effect of any one total dosage is probably reduced if given in two parts at an interval of 2 or 3 days. 43. Dosages of H Vapor for Offensive Purporos Since H vapor is a more powerful offensive agent in hot. weather than in cocl, it is possible to achieve results with more certainty if the tempersture is high. ‘The basic dosages to be used in computing ‘munition expenditures aro given in table 4, TABLE 4, DOSAGES FOR PRODUCTION OF CASUALTIES BY Hl VAPOR (Wen protected only by gor masks It is enphasized that the adoption of these dosages, which are highor than those given in table 8, does not mean -hat lower dosages are in- effective, ‘The dosages are set high enough to give a margin of eafety which will ensure results of military value when munition expendi- tures ure computed from them, 44. Infection of H Buns H burns, whether from liquid or vapor, are liable to infection, but the tendency is no greater than it is with thermal burns, wounds, or 26 cuts. must} 48. 51 al of the it ist Inan thet Aight freesin tanks. ‘proces for pr lowing aU @) form « muni ppereen @) and, € so far tion ( odor b H (le sembli sible f nevesst relaxal the da Kit or inated rapid ever, d oB a) practi bo take the ew @) linrgifat that the effect in two parts at fin hot. weather ore certainty if din computing inition expendi- p infection, but wounds, or Paragraph 44 cuts. Under conditions where wounds tend to become infected, it must be expectei that H burns will show the same tendency. 45. Standardized H Chargings a. Han bemanufuctured in several ways. Its purizy and the nature of the impurities vary with the method of manufactare, In general, it is uneconom‘eal and unnecessary to prepare the pure compound. In any case, steps mest be taken, in the use of HI for spray, to ensure that the charging does not solidify either in cold weather or during flight at high altitudes, ‘This is done by dilution with a liquid of low freezing point or by thermal insulation of the munitions or spray tanks, British and United States H chargings are made by different processes and the chargings have slightly different characteristics, but for practical purposes, their vesieant powers are the same, ‘The fol- lowing are the standsrdized ehargings: B. U.S. Crraxorxes (1) HD is the standard United States H charging. It is the purest form of Hat present standardized, but it is not available as yet in munitions. It is made by distilling H (Levinstein) and contains 95 percent TZ. (2) H (Leviastein) is a United States substitute standard charging and, except for a limited number of mortar shell charged FIT, it has so far been used in all United States munitions. It contains a propor tion (about 80 percent) of inactive impurities which resemble Ht in odor but evaporate much more slowly. Hence, from any area where H (Levinstein) has been used there is likely to bo a residual smell re- sembling that af H long after the danger has passed. Officers respon- sible for gas in the ficld should be made aware of this so that un- necessary gas prec itions by friendly troops can be avoided, but relaxation of precautions should on no account be permitted unless the danger is known to have gone, either from tests with the Detector Kit or from knowledge of the date on which the area was contam- inated. H_ (Levins:cin) decomposes slowly in storage and more rapidly at high temperatures, Even under adverse conditions, how- ever, decomposition is only slight up to 6 months or 1 year. cc. Brrmisn Cerancres (1) Several chargings are available in British munitions, but for practical purposes (with one important exception, HT) they can all ‘be taken as equal in efficiency and persistence, They all eontain about the same proportion of pure H as does Ht (Levinstein). (2) HT is different from the other British and United States cliargings. It consists of 60 percent H mixed with 40 percent of aChapter | Section 4 another vesicant liquid (T) which is many times more persistent than is H. Hence, when this agent is used in the field, the H evaporates first and creates a vapor danger about equal to that of other H cha: ings, and a res'due is left: which, because it has a very low vapor pres- sure, causes little vapor danger but gives a very long danger trom contact of the liquid with the skin. Many British munitions and a Limited number of United States 42-inch mortar shell have been filled with this charging. d, Truckex H Onaromas. In this type of charging the His made vistous by adding a small amount of a suitable thickening agent, ‘The purfose of this is to give larger drops of liquid when the charging is dispersed from munitions. Such chargings are not used at present in any United States munitions, though methods of thickening H (Levinstein) and HD are available. Thickened chargings are desig- nated by addirg V to the code letters, for example HTV. 'Thickored His used exclusively in British air-burst artillery shell, the British 500-pound aireraft bomb, and British aireraft spray tanks, ‘There is no major difference in the total yields of vapor from thickened and unthickoned chargings, though evaporation is slower with thickened owing to the formation of larger drops (paragraph 658). 46. Efficiency af Protection Against H ‘The gas mask gives complete protection to the fnce, eyes, and args against H vapor. Protection of the body against H vapor requizes specially impregnated clothing, Where the chance of coming into contact with heavy Tiquid contamintion is high, impervious clothing of oilskin or rubber must: be worn for complete protection, but this clothing imposes such limitations on the efficiency of the wearer that its use is restricted to special tasks, such as decontamination, removal of contaminated stores and munitions, or bridging operations on ecn- taminated sites. Use of complete impervious clothing by fighting troops is not practicable. British and United States forces have adopted impregnated porous clothing for protection against H vapor. ‘This is described in the section on protection, paragraphs 51 to 59. OTHER PERSISTENT AGENTS 47. HN-| (Nitrogen Mustard) ‘This isa limited standard Unitod States agent. It is not available in munitions, HIN-1 has gonerally similar properties to those of H, with the main differenes that it is considerably less persistent. 28 48. Lilew Lisas soveral di have muni 49, Introd Persone protective Neither th taminatio. 50. a. nonpersis artics of b, AU protectior inerease 0. CKi is moist,« condition, is subseq proved by protection masle ean insure ad a. Can against £ United § treated d AC. Br ‘good prot@ persistent than the H evaporates, fof other Hi charg- fry low vapor pres- ng danger from b munitions and a ot used at present of thickening H wings are desig- eyes, and lungs vapor requires of coming into pervious clothing ection, but this the wearer that ination, removal s forces have jogainst H vapor, Paragraph 48 48. L (Lewisitel Lis a substitute standard United States agent. As a war gas it has several disadvantages and is generally inforior to H. ‘The Japanese have munitions charged with a mixture of Hand L. Section 5 PROTECTION AGAINST AGENTS 49. Introduction Personal protective equipment includes the gas mask and canister; protective clething (impervious or impregnated) , cintment, and capes Neither the protection of animals nor the general problem of decon- tamination is considered in this document. PROTECTION AGAINST NONPERSISTENT AGENTS 50. a. Shert notes on protection against the various standardized nonpersistent agents have been included in the diseussion of the prop: erties of thess agerts in the preceding Section (paragraphs 24 to 26) b, All United States and British gas mask canisters afford adequate protection against CG. Complete protection may be maintained for long periods at high breathing rates corresponding to heavy exercise and against high concentrations. Absorption of CG increases with increase in the moisture content:of the charcoal. ¢. CK is not readily absorbed by charcoal, especially if the charcoal is moist, as is the ease when the gas mask has been worn under humid conditions, and may be given off again (desorbed) when the gus mask is subsequently worn, Absorption and retention can be greatly im- proved by special treatment of the charcoal, which enables adequate protection to be attained. Modern United States and British gas mask canisters contain charcoal which has been specially treated to insure adequate protection against OK. 4. Canister charvoal does not afford a high degree of protection against AC unless it is specially treated or of very high quality. United States gas mask canisters contain charcoal which has been treated during manfacture to give a high degree of protection against AG. British canis‘ers contain chareoal of high quality which gives ‘good protection against AC.Chapter | Section 5 ¢. The later models of German gas mask canisters give adequate protectin ageinst CG, OK, and AC. Earlier German models afforded little pretection against OK or AC, but protection could be improved by ficld treatment, ‘The most modern Japanese canisters afford ade- quate protecticn against CG but only fair protection against CK, ‘The majority of Jepanese canisters give poor protection against AC; one exception is the auxiliary canister for the Japanese Navy mask whch affords zood protection against AC excep: after use in humid conditions. PROTECTION AGAINST PERSISTENT AGENTS 51. Introduetien , Adequate protection of the eyes, face, and respiratory tract: against persistent agents is afforded by American, British, German, and Japanese gas masks. Further protective equipment is necessary to protect the rest of the body. ‘The American and British forces have produced both impregnated and impervious protective clothing for this purpose, but the Germans and Japanese have produced only im- pervious clothing. ‘The uso of completely impervious clothing by fighting troops is not practicable because it imposes severe limitations on the wearer; it ean be worn advantageously only by special troops engaged in decontamination or other tasks involving certain coxtact with liquid contamination. 2B. Tmpregnated clothing gives protection against. H vapor and same protection against smears of H liquid. Tt gives no protection agninst JHN-1. Normal (unimpregnated) battledress gives some protection against L, since the latter is destroyed by water and the moisture con- tent of the uniform is suficient for this purpose. Impregnation with ‘OC-2 will give somewhat improved protection. ¢, All armies have individual eapes or covers made of impervious material, ‘These provide protection against direct droplet contamina- tion from spray if adjusted in time. 3d States Protection, a. For protection of the body against H vapor, British and United States forces have adopted impregnated clothing as standard excip- ment. The items included in the equipment will depend on the nature of the daties and the anticipated hazard to which troops will be ex- posed. The outfits are classified below. 3B, (1) Class I Protection. This affords the highest degree of pro- tection practicable in the field for combat troops. ‘Two layers of im- 30 In Britis for the 1 arm fron (2) clothing vapor th when al of comfc The Gas Imp Iny Iny Ing Im Con by () 6 from H respirat outfit ecgive adequate afford ade- Be use in humid ritish, German, Bent is necessary tish forces have clothing for pus clothing by limitations fy special troops certain contact ome protection moisture con- ation with eof impervious eplet contamina Paragraph 52 pregnated clothing give protection of the whole body against H vapor, ‘The clothing consists of the following items: Gas mask, Impregnated long-limbed underwear. Impregnated one- or two-piece cotton outergarment. Impregnated hood. Impregnated socks. Impregnated cotton gloves. Combat boots treated with shoe impregnite (United States) or boots treated with protective dubbin (British). In British Class I protection, short-sleeved underwear is substituted for the long-sleeved variety, hence the danger of lesions of the fore- arm from contect with liquid His correspondingly increased. (2) Class II Protection. One and one-half layers of impregnated clothing give protection to the whole body against a lower dosage of Ht ‘vapor than Class I protection. ‘This is intended for the use of troops when a lower degree of protection is permissible an a greater degree of comfort is desirable. The clothing consists of: Gas mask. Impregnaied short drawers Impregnated one- or two-pieco cotton outergarment. Impregnated hood. Impregnated socks. Impregnated cotton gloves. Combat boots (United States) treated with shoe impregnite or boots treated with protective dubbin (British). (8) Class Til Protection. ‘This is intended for use when danger from H vapor is a minimum, Protection is afforded to the eyes and respiratory tract, brt is very limited for the rest of the body. ‘The outfit consists of : Gas mask, Protective oitment. (4) British Protection. For wear in warm and cool climates Brit ish troops have serge battledress (AV battledress), impregnated with a different impregnite, instead of the cotton outergarment listed under Class I and Class II protection, ‘This impregnite is not suitable for use in the tropics. ©. Degree of Protcotion Afforded, Both United States and British gas mask canisters give virtually unlimited protection against H vapor, aChapter 1 Section 5 and if the gas masks are kept in good condition, complete protection of ‘tho eyes, faze, and breathing passages ean be taken for granted. Im- pregnated clothing, on the other hand, does not give unlimited -rotec- tion agains: vapor, even. when in new condition, since the amount of impregnite which can be used is limited by the quantity the cloth will hold without becoming unsuitable for wesr. With the garments in unworn or freshly reimpregnated condition, troops dressed as de- seribed above would be protected against at least the following dosages in hot, trogical conditions without chowing anything more thea red- ness of the skin due to H vapor: Class I Protection=12,000 mg.min./ouan, Class II Protection=6,000 mg.min,/eu.m. Class IIT Protection=100 mg.min./cu.m. ‘The figures given assume that the mas and protective clothing are fully adjusted by the time exposure begins. ‘To the extent that this is not realized, protection will be inadequate. Injury will result if clothing is not properly adjusted. 53, Life of Impregnated Clothing 4. When stored in the original packages in cool, dry conditions, impregnated clothing remains stable for a period of years. In wear, however, particularly in tropical climate, its protective power de- teriorates rapidly and the protection indicated in the last paragraph cannot be expected of clothing worn for 1 week in hot weather. This deterioration is due to perspiration, sunlight, and mechanical removal of theimpregnite, Conditions will vary so much that it is not passible to make firm recommendations on the time for renewal, but the follow- ing notes may be used as a working guide. 8. Where possible, combat troops should he issued freshly improg- nated clothing at the commencement of ax operation. After 1 to 2 weeks wear under active conditions in the tropics, tho protective value of the clothing will have fallen to a point where renewal or reimpreg- nation is desirable if direct threat of gas still exists, ‘This is apart from whether the clothing itself is worn out or unserviceable through tears or holes. Impregnated clothing wom by troops not ac:ively engaged will lose its impregnite at a slower rate and reimpregnation or renewal may not be necessary until the clothing has been worn 3 to 4 weeks. ¢. Alll protective clothing exposed to licuid H, or to appreviable amounts of H vapor, should be replaced by freshly impregnated eloth- ing atthe earliest opportunity. 32Paragraph 53 4. Men wearing impregnated clothing should be given every op- portunity to bathe, and so wear ordinary clothing, in order to avoid tho irritation that results from long-continued wear of impregnated clothing. This is especially important under tropical conditions. e. In temperate weather, the cotton clothing could, if necessary, be worn in combat at least 1 month beforo it would be desirable to replace or reimpregnate it on the score of inadequacy of gas protec- tion. British impragnated serge battledress could be worn in combat in such circumstances for at least 2 months before it would be desirable to reimpregnate it. 54, Protection Afforded by Impregnated Clothing Against Liquid H @. Protection rose Liqum H ox Grouxp on Forracr, While not primarily intendeé for protection against liquid H, impregnated clothing does give a substantial measure of protection against chance smears such as might ocour through brushing against contaminated foliage, and agains: small drops. Tt will not protect the wearer if he kneels or lies on the ground so heavily contaminated that the clothing 48 wotted with liquid, and it must not be relied on for this purpose. Te will, however, protect: aguinst brief contact with lightly contami- nated ground. 2. Promovion Acarss> a stay, Impregnated clothing gives eon siderable protection against spray. A contamination density of greater than 20 g./s. m, is required in hot and humid weather to pro- ddueo easualties amoag men provided with Class I protection and a con- siderably greater dansity is needed in warm weather. Since the at- tainment of a density of 20 g./sq. m. is not ordinarily practicable over eny considerable part of an area under attack with spray, missions of this type against men known to be provided with this protection, or its equivalent, would not generally be considered economical. For men with one layer of impregnated clothing over the usper part of the body (Class II protection) casualties will be produced at densities of approximately 10 g./sq. m. (10 to 20 g./sq. m. in warm or cool weather). Impregnated clothing is probably less efficient against thickened Ht spray. 55, Wearability of Imprognated Clothing ‘Te must be recognized that impregnated clothing is of necessity less comfortable to wear then is ordinary clothing, especially in hot weather. ‘This applies rarticularly to Class I protection, but even ‘with Class II protection the need for keeping the wrists and neck of the garment tightly closed causes some discomfort. Extensive trials Lave shown, however, that the discomfort is not intolerable and does 331 Section 5 not lead to heat stroke unless the conditions are very severo. ‘Tho limitation on. the wearing of Class T protection is more likely to bo found ia the tolerability of the gas mask during prolonged wear, es- pecially in hot and humid conditions. Tt has been shown that, undor such conditions, men at rest or doing light work ean wear the gas mask for as long as 30 hours with occasional brief removals for food, whorens men exe-cising vigorously (for example, trail cutting in jungle) ean tolerate the mask for no more than 4 hours. ‘Tho time is influmeed. by train:ng ard good gas discipline, and under combat conditions, if it were really necessary, there is no doubt that longer times would be achieved, 56. Protective Ointment 2, Prolectivs ointment is intonded primarily for mitigating the effect of liquid H on the skin. IP used at once (within the first 2 or 8 minutes in hct weather and within about 5 minutes in cool weather), it will have beneficial effect, depending on the speed and efficieney with which itis applied. After these times it will have less value, but a8 Jong as liquid His present it is worth while to swab off the liquid and apply the ointment as promptly as possible. If ointment cannot be applied before the contamination has dried up, itis useless to apply it. Ointment will not harm small euts or abrasions of the skin, though ‘it may eanse smarting when first applied. A previous application of ointment will reduce, but will not eliminate, the risk of burns due to liquid cortamination. 2, Protective ointment affords some protection against Hi vapcr, ‘but its usefulnese for this purpose is limited by the fact that it is rakhed off the skin by the clothing, and by the normal use of the hands 20 that it must be reapplied frequently to be effective. If the skin is hot and sweaty, the ointment is washed off and loses its value in less than half an hour, and thus eannot be relied upon to give complete prote: tion to the exposed skin of active troops, though frequent applications Will greatly reduce the severity of the lesions. In cool conditions, howover, and wher the hazard from H vapor is known to bo only slight, protective ointment could be used as an expedient in liew of the impregnated hood and gloves. 57. Colledive Protection Collective pratectors may be used in gasprooted shelters to provide Fentilation and afford protection against persistent gases (paragraph 7). 34 58, Du force ‘vapor and J vapor possib achier. ceasualt Jong be such & either taminat with of required 59. Gos Both, detector cants. E presence States De ticability from Hy, 60. Ch types ace ers, The them ope ‘oped ané safely be restricted standard (there is not availtvery severe. The Fis more likely to be Bprolonged wear, es- shown that, under fn wear the gas mask Js for food, whereas iting in jungle) can time is influenced nbat conditions, if longer times would for mitigating the thin the first 2 or fs in cool weather), [and eficiency with fs less value, but as Bb off the liquid and pointment cannot be js useless to apply the skin, though ous application of of burns due to ‘guinst H vapor, that it is rubbed 2 of the hands s0 Te the skin is hot value in less than fre complete protec- quent applications n cool conditions, known to be only dent in lieu of the Paragraph 58 58. German ond Japanese Protection Against H During the war there was no evidence that German or Japanese forces had impregnated clothing available for protection against EZ vapor, and it is now known that none was issued. Both the German and Japanese gas masks givo the same order of protection against IZ vapor as do United States and British gas mesks, and there is no possibility of penetrating the canisters with eny dosage of H vapor achiovable in the field. In any case, the wearer would receive a casualty-producing dosage from penetration of :mpregnated clothing long before the canister could become exhaustel, For special tasks such as decontamination, both German and Japanese forces use either whole or part suits of impermeable material. For decon- tamination of the skin, German and Japanese forces are provided with ointment, tablets, or powder which is mixed with water a3 required. 59. Gas Detection Devices Both tho British and United States forees are provided with Aotector paints end papors for doteeting the presence of liquid vesi- cants. Both forces have a detector outit, with which to detect the presence o! the vapor of H, L, and nitrogen mustards, ‘The United States Detector Kit may also be used to detect CG and CK. ‘The prac- ticability of using these kits to determine the magnitude of the risk ‘from H vapor in the field has not been conclusively proved. Section 6 MUNITIONS 60. Chemical warfare munitions may be classified into two main types according to whether they are equipped with fuzes and burst- ers. Those witout bursters rely on the foree of impact to bres's them open and scatter the charging. Because of the pressure devel- oped and the corrosive nature of nonpersistent gases, they cannct safely be contained in thin sheet metal munitions; such munitions are restricted therefore to H charging. There is at present only one standardized bursterless munition—the British IL C. 65-pound bomb (there is « Canadian equivalent, the L. ©. 60-pound bomb, but it is not available in quantity outside Canada).Chapter 1 Section 6 61. Munitions Charged Nonpersistent Agents a, The munitions at present standardized and available for use are as follows: 2. Brevis (1) Air Munitions—L, ©, 250-pound and L. C. 500-pound bombs charged CG. (2) Ground Munitions—4.2-inch mortar bomb charged CG. 2 U.S. (1) Air Munitiors—M78_(500-pound) and M79 (1,000-pound) bombs, each chorged OG, AC, or CK. (2) Ground Munitions—42-inch mortar shell charged CG. Small supplies charged CNS are also available, but this gas is not considered in this documert, (62, Behavior of Nonpersistent Agents when Dispersed from Munitions a, When a munition charged nonpersistent agent bursts, tho agent is instantaneously vaporized and a cloud is formed which momen- tarily pillars into tho air owing to the effect of the burster. Since the agent is chilled by evaporation and sudden expansion and is thus very dense in relation to the air, it quickly sinks to the ground under the force of gravity and spreads out into an approximately circular cloud around the point of burst (paragraph 14). 3. The size of the cloud at this stage depends on the munition used. Asan example, the cloud from an M79 bomb fired in the open is about 70 yards in diameter and 10 yards in height when at its maximum initial volume, During this initial process the cloud is unaffectod by the meteorological conditions apart from being moved by the prevail- ing wind. The length of time for the cloud to move irom its point of origin and the time during which it retains its cirsular shape will depend on the strength of the wind and on the stability of tho air. In average concitions, that is, wind about 5 miles per hour and 2er0 temperature gradient, it may be as long as 10 seconds after the burst bofore the cloud is influenced significantly by the meteorological con- ditions, Within this initial cloud formed by the burst of the munition, the coneentratien of gas is very high and any perscnnel within the zone who are not already wearing gas masks, would stand s good chance of becoming severe casualties from tho gus inhaled before they could mask. ¢. Within a gas cloud, especially during the early stage, the con- centration is highest near the ground and diminishes up to the top of the cloud. Thus, men Iying on the ground would be exposed to higher dosage than would men standing up. ‘The ratio of the con- 36 centrations ‘the open are 10:1, Thu: any evasive which wil i danger exist: rreduved even itinthe usua 63. Munition a. The mu as detailed be 3.0.8. () Air Mk 22 (100 (2) Spry (8) Grou 195 mm, artill e. Berrie (Q) Air Mu (2) Spray? (8) Ground 85-inch airbur 64. General © a. Am Mow (1) Ground 2 moderately droplets than production of ican bomb is of a liquid oo to the use of against vory particularly t for the muni of splinters ds does not have terminal velo ‘from high alti n2se aeParagraph 62 centrations at ground level and at head level of a standing man in the open are commonly of the order of 5:1, and may be as much es 10:1, ‘Thus, the effects of nonpersistent gases may be minimized by any evasive action (suzh as climbing trees, climbing to higher ground) which will inereaso the height at which the gas is breathed. When danger exists that the canister will be penetrated, the risk may be reduced even by raising the canister above the head, instead of leaving itin the usual position at waist level, 63. Munitions Charged Persistent Agents a, The munitions at present standardized and available for use aro as dotailed below, All are charged with Hl: b. U.S. (2) Air Munitions—M47A2 (100 pound), M70 (195 pound), Navy ‘Mk 42 (100 pound) bombs. (2) Spray Tanks—M10 and Maa, (8) Ground Munitions—42-inch mortar shell; 75 mm., 105 mm,, 155 mm, artillery abel o. Berries (1) Air Municions—L.C. 65-pound, 1.0. 500-pouné bombs. (2) Spray Munitions—S.C.1, 250 pound, S.C.I. 500 pound. (3) Ground Munitions—42-inch mortar bomb; 25 pounder and d.bsinch airburst artillery shell. 64, General Characteristics of Munitions Charged Parsistent Agents a, Am Moxrmions (Q) Ground Barst Bombs, United States bombs are provided with 2 moderately large burster which shatters the charging into finer droplets than does the bursterless British 65-pound tomb. For the production of a vapor hazard within a short period of time the Amer- ican bomb is more effective than the British design but the persistance of a liquid contact hazard is greater with the latter, owing, in part, to the use of HT as tke normal charging. Neither type is effective against very soft ground when released from high altitude; this is particularly true of the 65-pound bomb. ‘The lowest height of release for the munitions with bursters is about 500 feet owing to the danger of splinters damaging the aircraft. ‘The British L.C. 65-pound bomb does not have a burster and there is no altitude limitation. Its low terminal velocity reduces the accuracy with which it can be aimed rom high altitude, e02364—40—pt. 14Chapter 1 Section 6 (2) Spray Munitions (a) The American spray tanks, the British 8, C, I. and the British 500-pound airburst bomb are designed to dischange their contents in the air above the target. ‘The United States spray tanks are filled with unthickered 11 which on discharge breaks up into fine droplets while the British 8. C. I. and 00-pound airburst: bomb contain thick- ened H which produces larger drops. ‘The resulting spray may be used for ground contamination with the object of setting up a vapor and liquid hazard cr may be used for ditect antipersonnel attack of exposed troops (paragraph 35). (5) ‘These weapons give a widespread and fairly even contamina- tion suited to the attack of larger areas but are in consequence com~ paratively uneconomical for the attack of small targets, Attack with spray tanks or 8. ©, I from high altitude is no longer considered to be effective owing to difficulties in aiming and to the sparse contam- ination produced, ‘These munitions are effective if used from altitudes of 50 to 150 fect. Airburst 00-pound bombs released from high alti- tude to burst at about 1,000 feet produce an effect similar to that of low spray. (0) A spray of liquid H falls to the ground much as rain does and any means which would protect against rain would also be effective against spray. Such protection is generally available in the form of capes, individual covers or overcoats, or may be improvised in sev- eral ways. Consequently, surprise must be achieved if antipersonnel spray is to be effective in eausing casualties. In any but the lightest ‘winds the angle of escent of the spray droplets is such that consider- able protection is afforded by slit trenches. B. Gnouxn Munerions (1) Ground Buret Mortar and Artillery Shell, ‘The 42-inch mor- tar and the ar-illery shell have a general performance somewhat sim- ilar to the aireraft bombs with bursters. ‘The accuracy of ground weapons makes them more suitable for the attack of small targets, such as the entrances to eave systems. The British 42-inch mortar round has a smaller H{ content than its American counterpart (2) Airburst Shell. ‘The British 25-pounder shell is designed to be burst by a time fuze about 150 feet above the target, giving a spray of liquid H droplets. ‘The munition is intended primarily for direct antipersonnel attack, and though in favorable circumstances it may hbo used for setting up a vapor and contact hazard, it will seldom be economical in this role, ‘The 5.5-inch airburst artillery shell is sim ilar in performance: to the 25-pounder but contains five times as much charging. 38 65, Bohavio, 1s. Grsmes influenced by (a) Siz (2) Nu (3) Me b, Sua or type muniti which rang droplets wh ssuch as the vwith the gre With munit average siat ‘unthickened produces v1 cause the ¢ original dre less persist evaporation ‘Thus, if the doubled, on size which} significant inch morta: ‘third the si off from the rate of: from conts bomb is lor ing is nots more persé into aecour ©. Nara falls is por trunks, the wet. The third or k lass, He much lo the dangerLand the British their contents in py tanks are filled into fine droplets tb contain thick- ng spray may be ftting up a vapor sonnel attack of fy even contarina- ‘consequence com- Brgets. Attack with r considered to Bite sparse contam- from altitudes d from high alti- similar to that of as rain does and also be effective in the form of mracy of ground of small targets, 42inch mortar terpart, fl is designed to giving a spray ily for direct ystances it, may will seldom be shell is sim- times as much Paragraph 65 65. Behavior of H When Dispersed From Munitions a, Genenat, ‘The behavior of H when dispersed from munitions is influenced by the following factors: (2) Size of drops in which the liquid is dispersed. (2) Nature and condition of the surface on which it falls. (3) Meteorological conditions, b. Suze or Dnors, When unthickened H is dispersed from bursier type municions and spray tanks the liquid is broken up into drops which range in size from about that of a match head down to fin Aroplets which drift away as a cloud. With bursterless munitions, such as the L. C. 65-pound bomb, the charging is broken up by impact with the ground into a mixture of small splashesand a range of drops. ‘With munitions discharging thickened H in the eir over the target, the average size of drop is about equal to the largest size obtained with unthickened H. The rate at which contamination evaporates and produces vapor is greatly influenced by the size of the drops which cause the contamination. In general, the smaller the size of the original drop, tke more quickly the contamination evaporates and che less persistent the contamination. As a working rule, the rate of evaporation may be taken as inversely proportional to the drop size, ‘Thus, if the diameter of the drop is halved, the rate of evaporation is doubled, and so on, For each munition, there is a predominant dro> size which is characteristic of the munition and is not influenced to significant extert by any external influence, ‘The United States <2- inch mortar shel, for instance, gives a predominant drop about one- third the size of that from the M47A2 bomb, and hence vapor is given off from contamination produced by the shell at about three times the rate of that from the bomb. Similarly the rate of vapor evolution from contaminazion caused by the bursteriess (British) L. ©. 6-pound bomb is lower than that from burster type munitions, since the charg ing is not s0 finely shattered on impact, amd hence the contamination is more persistent. ‘The munition expenditure tadles in chapter 3 tale into account the different drop sizes produced by the various munitions. ¢. Naroan ax Stare or Suneace. (1) If the surface on whick H falls is porous, for example, earth, sand, rough eonerete, brick, or tree ‘trunks, the liquid quickly soaks in and the surface no longer appears wet, The rate of evaporation from such surfaces is in general one~ third or less of that from nonahsorbent surfaces, such as metal and glass, “Hence, porous materials are potentially dangerous to touch for ‘a much longer time, but since there is no free liquid on the surface, the danger from: casual or brief contact is relatively small. The chief 39Chapter 1 Section 6 danger from liquid Hon absorbent materials arises trom not knowing that they are contarcinated, since there may be little or no visible sign of the liquid. (2) As by far the greater part of the H used in war would fall on the ground, the expenditure tables are related to the commonest types of ground, namely, grassland and sand. Different factors must be used for computing expenditures on these two types of ground, since sand is much more absorbent (table 10). (8) Ifa porous surface on which H falls is wet, as from rain, H will not readily sock in and the surface will initially be more dangerous to touch than it would be if the H soaked in, but the will evaporate mote quickly than is would if the surface were dry. When H falls onto a very wet surtace, it stays in globules and a thin, oily (some- times iridescert) film spreads over the surface. Contamination is easy to detect in these circumstances, 4d. Mereororoctoaz, Conprmions. The influence of meteorological conditions has been discussed in chapter 1, section 2. Of the various conditions only the following need be taken into account in computing munition expenditures: (1) Wind speed. (2) Atmospheric stability. (8) Temperature of surfuce contaminated. ‘The factors to allow for these variables are given in the expenditure tables. 66, The t matériel bat information havior of ag and the elie be considere task, 67, Tosks Su a Tn gent tions where within a fe occupy the protective ¢ sonnel note ®. (1) TV smnst. be be orkill, Th gas will dy cof gas mas to use the these varia gases are st the selectioChopter 2 CHOICE OF AGENTS AND MUNITIONS Section 1 INTRODUCTION 66. ‘The factors influencing the effectiveness of chemical warfare matériel have been discussed in the preceding chaster. The basic information presented therein on the characteristiss and field be- havior of agents and munitions, the effects of weather and terrain, and the eficiency of our own and enemy protective equipment must ‘be considered in the selection of an agent or munition for a given task, Section 2 NONPERSISTENT AGENTS 67. Tasks Suitable for Nonpersistent Agents a, In general, nonpersistent agents will be of grea‘est use in situa tions where (1) casualty effects are desired immediately, or at most within a few hours, (2) where friendly troops must attack and ‘occupy the position as soon as possible without the reed for wearing protective equipment, or (3) against concentrations of enemy per- sonnel not equipped with gas masks, 3B. (1) To be effective as casualty agents, the nonpersistent, gases must: be breathed into the body in amounts sufficien: to incapacitate or kill, ‘Thus the effectiveness of an attack with a given nonpersistent ¢gas will depend on tho concentration that ean be built up, on the type of gas mask available to the enemy, and his ability and opportunity to use the mask properly if he is so equipped. A consideration of these variables permits a division of the tas for which nonpersistent ‘gases are suitable into the general categories given below and permits the selection of the best agent for each task. a(2) Production of casualties through imperfect gas discipline among personnel equipped with gas masks. (8) Production of casualties through penetration of gas mask canisters. (4) Production of casualties among personnel not equipped with ‘ges masks, (5) Harassment: enforced wearing of the gas mask through threat cf injury. 68, Production of Casualties Through Imperfect Gas Discipline Among Personnel Equipped With Gas Masks a, Tae (1) Where enemy personnel are equipped with gas masks that offer adequate protection against the gas heing used, casualties can be expected only as a result of imperfect discipline. Theoretically, the attack would be totally ineffective if gas discipline were perfect ; however, especially under battle conditions, perfect gus discipline will rarely, if ever, be achieved. Lack of training in rapid and Proper adjustment of the mask and failure of the warning system will almost invariably Iead to a proportion of casualties. Additional casualties will be caused by inadequate maintenancs and improper fit of the mask. While it is impossible at the present time to estimate the extent of casualty production, it ean eafely be assumed that it would be greatest in the early stages of gas warfare and would diminish as gas warfare continued and gas discipline improved. (2) (a) Failure to adjust the mask, whether through lack of train- ing or :nadequate warning, before a casualty producing amount of agent is taken into the body, is influenced by the surprise which can bo attained in the attack, Final evaluation of this factor will not be possible until experience has been gained with modern nonper- sistent. gas munitions under battle conditions. However, as a basis for planning attacks and for estimating expenditures the nctes below should be taken as a guide. (®) ‘The gas must be delivered on the target within the shortest possible time, with 2 minutes as a maximum. Because of tke critical time limit, it will be necessary to place the munitions on the target itself and not to aim them upwind with the intent of covering the tar- get by downwind clond travel. (c) ‘The attack will be most effective if delivered when the enemy is least alert. a2gas discipline jn of gas mask Pet equipped with mask through ‘ipline Among masks that g, casualties can Theoretically, were perfect } ns discipline g in rapid and ig system will ing amount of ise which can in the enemy Paragraph 68 B. Cuore or Acesr (2) From the foregoing it becomes apparent that, when the time of incapacitation is not of primary importance, the agent of choice for this task will be the one possessing the greatest toxicity; that is, the one roquiring the least amount to be taken into the body for easualty pro- duction. Of the tree nonpersistent agents available CG is the most effective, espevially if exsualty-producing nonlethal dosagtes are taken into consideration, and on this basis is the agent of choice for this task. Generally the effects of CG are delayed. Although some im- mediate casuslty p-oduetion may occur, a delay of 12 hours must be taken as a general rule, (2) In situations where immediate casualty production is required in caves and other enclosed spaces, AC is the agent of choice. (3) OK also produces immediate casualties but is the least toxic of the three agents (3 to 4 as toxic as CG). Its Jow toxicity, which makes a high concentration necessary for effectiveness, and its tend- ency to cause a temporary involuntary stoppage of breathing make CK inferior to AC for this task. ¢, Cuoice or Muxrrion. (1) In this type of attack it is of pri- mary importance to get the required amount of agent on the target in the shortest possible time, (2) Of the air munitions available, that bomb should be used which permits the greatest weight of gas per plane load to be placed on the target in less than 2 minutes. ‘The final selection for a given mission can be made only after consideration of the chemical efficiency of the bomb, the type of aircraft being used, and the bomb densities that can be achievad. (3) At the present time the United States and British 42-inch mor- tars are the only ground weapons having rounds charged with a non- persistent gas, Of the two, only the United States mortar is suitable for this task. Even with this weapon, firing at tae most rapid rate and used under favorable conditions, the minimum number of mortars which should be used is 10 to 12 per 4 squares 100%100 yards or 4 per square for smaller targets, As the British 4.2-inch mortar bomb carries about half ar much agent as the United States 4.2-inch shell, a cor- respondingly larger number of mortars would be required. With unfavorable meteorological conditions, the United States mortar be- ‘comes unsuitable for the task. (4) From one standpoint, a ground weapon hasan advantage over air weapons for this task. To tho extent that it is possible to lay down adequa‘e densities of gas in short periods with ground weapons, the element of surprise will probably bo greater than in air attacks 43Chapter 2 Section 2 where warning systems are more likely to have the enemy on the alert, Tt will be more difficult, for tired troops to be on the alert against sud~ den attacks from ground weapons. (5) Tn comparison with that of troops in the field, gas discipline «will bo inferior among civilian groups even though they are equipped with efficent masks. In some eases general issue of masks to urban populations, or provision of collective protectors, will not be the rule and the persentage of easualties will accordingly be increased (see also paragraph 81). 69. Production of Casualties Through Penetration of Gas Mask Caniste 4a, Task, (1) Factors which must be considered in connection with this task are as follows: (2) Canister penetration should not be attempted unless meteoro- logical and terrain conditions are favorable: (a) A low wind speed. ‘This will generally occur in woods, jungle, or inclosed spaces. (b) Taversion or neutral atmospheric conditions. (ce). Troops on level terrain or in the bottoms of ravines, valleys, or depressions, (8) Under favorable meteorological conditions dosages that will penetrate even United States and British canisters may be achieved in valleys or ravines in wooded or jungle areas. This must be cor sidered in connection with protection of friendly troops. (4) The protection offered by a canister against CK decreases with ‘an increase in the amount of moisture on the charcoal. However, the expenditures given in chapter 8 are based on the least favorable con- ditions from the offensive standpoint, namely, the dosage required for the penctraticn of a canister containing chazeoal which has not absorbed much extra moisture, (5) High breathing rates through the canister increase the rate of penetration, ‘The expenditures given in chapter 8 assume a low breath- ing rate, as for men at rest. (6) After a Japanese canister has been used in a CK cloud, it will desorb the agent for some time afterwards if the mask is worn. AS CK in low concentrations is extremely irritating, this desorption may make wearing of tho mask intolerable, (7) Sufficient, penetration to cause casualties will not occur im- mediately, that is, within 1 or 2 minutes, Attacks for canister pen tration should be of sufficient duration to allow for desorption. Asa working rule, the heavy part of the attack should be delivered within 10 to 15 minutes, and if the meteorological conditions are such as to cance the @ vvith sufi another (8) Ths to prevent 2. Cua (1) AC sonnel init field condit Part of th Tiquid dens (@) Ex dosage of! tive again against th (3) All ‘This agent e. Cnox the task w United St rach ther ‘would bey 70. Produ Me a, Tass Q) b of deliver the mask, (2) Be expendite against p borne int evacuatio attack we minimum 100 yard: possible, . Ono considera of the th‘on the alert, against sud- discipline equipped sto urban be the rule jection with ps meteoro- in woods, ee, valleys, Be that will achieved required pi has not, he rate of breath- Paragraph 69 cause the clouds to drift off the target, the attack should be followed with sufficient muzitions to force the enemy to remain masked for smother 60 minutes (8) The size of any area target engaged must be sufficiently lange to prevent the enemy from evading the cloud. b, Cuorce or Aozxr (1) AC or OK may bo used for canister penetration against per- sonnel in inclosed spaces such as bunkers and caves. Under all other eld conditions only CK is suitable for the task of canister penetration. Part of the superiovity of OK in this instance arises from its greater liquid density which permits higher weights of filling per munition. (2) Expenditures in chapter 3 are based on the achievement of a dosage of 200,000 mg. min. /eu. 1, of CK, a dosage which will be effec tive against Japanese masks but will be considerably less effective against the modern German types. (3) All known enemy eanisters give good protection against CG. ‘This agent should not be used for the task. @. CHorce o Muxirioxs, ‘Tho standardized munitions suitable for the task are the Urited States M78 and M79 aircraft bembs and the United States 42 inch chemical mortar shell. ‘The aircraft bomb is much the more elective of the two, for the expenditure of mortar shell ‘would be prohibitive in al but the most favorable conditions. 70. Production of Casualties Among Personnel Not Equipped With Gas ‘Masks a, Tas (1) In the case cf personnel not equipped with gas masks, the rate of delivery of gus is not determined by the time required to adjust the mask. (2) Because more time can be allowed for casualty production, the expenditure of munitions for this task,is lower than that required against personnel equipped with gas masks. However, it must be ome in mind that a long time interval would also allow for possible evacuation by the enemy if the area attacked is small. This type of attack would usual'y be against industrial centers in rear areas. The sninimuin target size engaged should not be less than 50 squares 100 x 100 yards, and the agent should be delivered within the shortest time possible, preferably in less than 15 minutes. &. Cnotce or Acrxr. In the selection of the agent for this task, the considerations discussed in paragraph 683 above apply. In addition, of the three nonpersisten: agents only CQ will produce serious easual- 45Chapter 2 Section 2 ties in sublethal dosages. With CK or AC death occurs or recovery is rapid. o, Cntorce or Muxtrion (1) Since the time factor is not criticelly short in this :ype of attack, the sudden delivery of high concentrations becomes secondary to the even distribution of the agent over the area. (2) As concentrations of enemy personnel not equipped with gas masks will generally be found only in rear areas, gromnd weapons have not been considered for this task. 71. Horassment a, Tasx. ‘The objective of harassment is to lower morale and reduce fighting efficiency. ‘This ean be achieved with nonpersistent agonts by enforced and prolonged wearing cf the mask. While a rigid assecament of the amount of agent required for the task cannot be mado from data now on hand, definite risk of injury must be created or anirrita-ing effect obtained. CK in thisconnection is not likely to produce casualties but will be highly irritating, 3. Cnoror or Aarxr. Either CG or CK is suitable for the tesk. 0. Cnrotce or Muxrriow. (1) For even distribution of the agent, and for economy when it is desired to harass tho enemy over a period of soveral hours by repeated shellings or bombings, the smaller =nuni- tions sre the more economical. (2) Air Munitions. United States 5¢0-pound (M78), British 500-pound and 250-pound L. ©. bomb. (8) Ground Munitions, United States 4.2-inch mortar, British 4.2-ineh mortar. 3 PERSISTENT AGENTS 72. Tasks Suitable for Persistent Agents @ (1) In this discussion only H will be considered. ‘The tssks for which His suitable are as follows: (2) Production of casualties among personnel in spite of protection bby masks. Casualties may be eaused by vapor and contact hazards on contaminated areas, or by direct antipersonnel attack with spray munitions. (8) To render areas dangerous to cross 0° occupy. (4) Haressment, 46 ais lot ustthis type of es secondary ped with gas pons have morale and eaporsistent Paragraph 72 b. (1) The potentialities and limitations of HE rest on the factors discussed in chapter 1. (2) For vapor effects, the enemy must be in the conteminated zone Jong enough to receive a casualty producing dosage. ‘This period is usually a few hours, (3) Disablement by His not immediate and as a general rule a pe- riod of 2 to 4 days should be allowed after bombardment with H for casualties to develop. (4) If sullicient time for all tho H to evaporate cannot be allowed before our troops enter the area, suitable gas precautions must be taken, ‘The hazard from residual contamination is offset in large part by (a) the protective equipment available to British and United States forces and (b) ths fact that a period must be allowed for casualty production after a preliminary bombardment using munitions charged H. (5) Since disablement does not occur at once, itis clear that ground contaminated with H is >n no way an impassable barrier to determined troops willing to secept.a risk of development of casualties a day or two later, It will of course act as a strong deterrent, particularly if th enemy can be forced by fire into close contact with the contami- nation. (6) His the only agent likely to be effective in area attacks against ‘gas-protected field fortifications (paragraphs 76 to 79). (7) His an effective harassing agent. Very low concentrations of ‘vapor force the wearing of the mask by producing a risk of blindness. ‘There is also the karassing effect of tho liquid on ground or matériel, 73. Choice of Agent a. For vapor effects: All the standard Ht chargings are satisfac- tory. G, For liquid cantact hazard: HT is the most persistent charging. 74, Choice of Munition «a, For short period vapor effects: Munitions with bursters should. bbe used. Spray tanks with unthickened charging may also be used where a rapid vapor retum is desired. Spray would be of particular advantage on rugged terrain where steep cliffs or ridges make the satis- factory coverage cf the arca with bombs or shell difficult to achieve. . For liquid eflects: Munitions without bursters produce the more persistent contam:nations, Direct spraying of personnel is effective with both thickened and unthickened H. If spray is to be used for ‘contamination of ground or matériel, the thickened agent will give contact hazard of longer duration,Chapter 2 Section 4 Section 4 EFFECTIVENESS OF GAS AGAINST FIELD FORTIFICATIONS 75. As protection against H. E. attack when in defended positions, an enemy may be expected to take refuge in more or less elaborately prepared positions, Such defenses will vary ‘tom the hastily made trench or foxhole to carefully constructed pilibexes, bunkers, and com- mand posts. ‘The majority of these will be excavated and will have openings at or near ground level. In the absence of special protection such positions are vulnerable to chemical warfare attack. Experiment has shown that nonpersistent gases flow into the hollows produced by the excavation and very high dosages can be set up in the compara- tively stagnant air of the interior, ‘The dosages of persistent gases in the interior are very similar to those recorded outside. Even in deep cave systems there is normally sufficient air circulation for gas to be drawn inside at effective concentrations. ‘The openings of cave sys- tems, if sasceptible to accurate fire, ean be engaged individually and high dosages inside the system achieved with comparative econemy. Gas is thus potentially valuable against field fortifications owing to the facility with which it permeates the whole position, Against unproofed posi-ions the expenditures of persistent and nonpersistent ‘munitions set out in this publication should be used. 76. Gas proofing in the field is, however, comparatively simple. Gas curtains w:th air-locks and the blocking of crevices in the struc- ture are recommended by the Japanese, the detail of construction being similar to that set out in Allied mannals. ‘Transparent, removatle windows to bunkers will facilitate observation and must be antici- pated. Experiment has shown that it is not dificult by such mears to prevent the exchange of air between the outside and the inside of a Position and thus to defeat the immediate purpose of an attack with chemical warfare agents. Bleach or other decontaminant scattered on the walls or flocr of a position will mitigate theeffects of any H vepor ‘which may enter due to inadequate proofing or to damage sustained during bombardment. In a static position spare canisters for respira tors can bs provided and will reduce the vulnerability of the oecupans. 77. Such defense against chemical warfare attack, involving 4s it does the prevention of any air exchange with the outside atmosphere, ‘ean cause trouble to the occupants due to the accumulation of carbon dioxide, lack of oxygen, and rising temperature and humidity. In capacious positions it may be a matter of days before carbon dioxide 48 able tos intellige measure pose ims treme ct 79. A eral doy. devices ducing ¢ penditu planning bombarc same res 80, ¢ tion of with thy wise sir a1. Facfor gas to be of cave ays- dually and Paragraph 77 rise or oxygen lack cold become effective in enforcing evacuation. In tropical conditions, particularly when men are crowded, heat stroke ‘can result from rising body temperature in 12 hours or less, Circum- stances will vary so widely that such effects cannot be confidently anticipated but are an !mportant consideration for the defense. Ab- sorbents for carton dioxide and generators for oxygen have been referred to in Japanese publications, as have comparatively simple devices enabling the occupants to breathe filtered outside air. More claborate defenses may well be provided with collective protectors ‘enabling the position to be occupied indefinitely. 78. Although troops in prepared positions are potentially vulner- able to gas attack, it is clear that there are many ways in which an intelligent enemy can defend himself against it. All such defensive measures, however, demand additional equipment and labor: they im- pose immobility and restrictions on observation and fire, and in ex- treme circumstances they may cause physical exhaustion. 79. Attack by munitions charged H, prolonged if necessary for sev- eral days, and possibly combined with’H. E. to damage the protective devices in use, may prove to be the most economical method of re- ducing such proafed positions by chemical warfare attack. ‘The ex- penditures set out in this publication are recommended as a guide in planning the separate phases of such prolonged attacks but no single bombardment against proofed positions can be expected to give the same results as one against troops in the open. Section 5 TOWNS AND CITIES 80. Certain features of large built-up areas will favor the produe- tion of casualties while others will tond to reduce thera when compared swith those to be expected among combat troops in open areas in other- wise similar cireamstances. 81, Factors Favoring the Production of Casualties a. High population density. d. Lower standard of training and defensive equipment, ¢. Lower wind speed. d. The practical difficulties of evacuation, with the result that the inhabitants will be exzosed to a higher percentage of the total dosage from a persisten> agent, “9Chapter 2 Section 5 ¢. Very high local dosages in buildings receiving direct hits. 82, Factors Tending to Reduce Casualties 4a. Loss of bombs in buildings which will retain the gas and prevent its contributing to the general hazard. , Most of the inhabitants will be indoors and will be protected to a ce-tain extent even by ungasproofed buildings, except in the case of a direct bit, 6. Collective protection is more readily provided than in the field. d, Greater mechanical turbulence due to the buildings will reduce the dosages obtained. 83. Consequently, it is not possible to mako estimates cf the ex- penditure for casualty production with tho same confiden as they can be maule for open targets. Itis recommended that the expenditures for open country should be adopted in the atinck of towns and cities. 84, A rrevious or concurrent bombardment with H. E. will have the effect of increasing the extent to which gas will penetrate buildings. ‘Thoupdraught caused by large fires within the area attacked, however, will reduce the effectiveness of any chemical warfare agent.Chapter 3 MUNITION EXPENDITURES Section 1 INTRODUCTION 85. In chapter 1, the technical factors which influence che effective- xress of gas in the field, end tho extent of their influence, have been Cescribed. From the data given in the following pages, the munition expenditures needed for she tasks described in chapter 2 under com- ‘mon conditions of weather and terrain, can be obtained. ‘The data ane presented in a form suitable for ready reference in relation to the meteorological end terrain conditions. 86. The expenditures given in this chapter represent the number of munitions which must actually fall in the target area, No allow- ence has been made for any excess which, owing to errors of aiming, sro needed to ensure that the required number reach the target. Any margin needed for this perpose is the responsibility of the officer plan- xing the attack and does not come within the scope of this document. 87. It has often been the practice with gas munition expenditures {o give the minimum expenditures which will achieve effects of mi tary value and to leave the officer in the field to decide by what factor the minimum should be multiplied in order to achieve results in a given situation. While, in general, greater expenditures of any muni- tions will give more reliable results, a point is reached whore the law of diminishing returns ‘secomes significant and further increase is incommensurate with the extra result. ‘The expenditures recom- mended in this document. are for use in the attack of troaps protected by no more than the gas mask, ‘They include a reasonable margin of safety and represent the optimum on the basis of present knowledge. No specific recommendations can be made for the attack of personnel in gasproofed structures as discussed in chapter 2, section 4. 88. In computing the expenditures, the munitions have been assumed to fall in random pattern, This leads to somewhat higher expenditures than would be required if uniform distribution were assumed, but rendom distribution is moro representative of that which would occur in practics, 89. In each case, the expenditure given is based upon covering an average of 80 percent of the target with the required dosage or more. 51Chapter 3 Section 1 ‘Tre figure of 80 percent is used because higher coverage begins to demand greatly increased expenditures which are out of proportion with the result. In covering 80 percent of the target with the given dosage, significant proportions will of course be covered with higher dosages. As a rough guide, 40 percent of the target would be covered with at Teast twice the given dosage. 90. It is appreciated that tho adoption in the expenditure tables of only two types of terrain, open and heavily wooded, represents a simplification of the problem. ‘The information will, however, form a basis on which to build operational experience. Section 2 MUNITIONS CHARGED NONPERSISTENT AGENTS Use Against Personnel Provided With Gas Masks 91. To Cause Casualties Through Imperfect Gas Discipline Expenditures for aircraft bombs are given in table 8. Expenditures for United States 42-inch chemical mortar shell are given in table 6. Because of the smaller weight of charging per round, the British 4.2.inch mortar is not recommended for this task, TABLE 5. AIRCRAFT BOMBS CHARGED NONPERSISTENT GAS EXPEHIDITURES TO CAUSE CASUALTIES THROUGH IMPERFECT GAS DISCIPLINE Ai tram Hurl Condon ener oping a ao "sed by Gestee” | eed by dosage sgxmpacnd (0.8). Loosoond M8 (0.89. gymand tg. Bey. Sun: Ba Ag mimes uatiorm ude emanate adie mraee = meeguececitaac tase teense actif teem dale Baca eli ace bw ntl atin ior eho Shes Shee ae 52erage begins to at of proportion with the given red with higher mrould be covered ependiture tables a, represents a bowerer, form, DISCIPLINE Fay 10 seiner Paragraph 91 TAME 6. UNITED STATES 4.2-INCH CHEMICAL MORTAR SHEL CHARGED CO, [EXPENDITURES TO CA¥SE CASUALTIES THROUGH IMPERFECT CAS. DISCIPLINE Inversion ‘meine if oma. | { Ret win fo peo oto 2b enseitrs yeni toon are hat «gute (minum at cues 0x0 betas See ascend see ae ease be smal gus od HE EE umsena th tat pa sn noe nd a emt 92. To Cause Cosvalties by Penetration of Jopanese Canisters Expenditures for United States aireraft bombs charged CK are given intable7. Expenditures for the United States 42-inch chemical mortar shell charged CK are not given as they are too high to be practicable. The dosage of 200,000 mg. min./en. m, is based on the performance of Japarese gas masks: it cannot be relied upon to cause lethal penetration of canisters impregnated against CK. Open a bata. cisco Par we ‘jes, bee the Ems Would ora or alenetmes peta naege oe ce oer em arte sires ee, CREE iS y hartlo isk rs ol one basor ore pane to ie on cuss fo sos ‘pesneeibe ra 93. For Horassment ‘The object of harassing with nonpersistent gs is to force the enemy to wear gas masks and thus to lower morale and physical efficiency. 0nse4—40—2t.1 5 33‘This effect can best be achioved by slow sustained bombardment on an irregular schedule over many hours, preferably at night so thet sleep is disturbed, The expenditure used depends on tho situatior, ut the ‘aim should be to place on the tanget sufficient gus to causo « definite risk of casualties. For harassment the United States M79 and M78 aircraft bombs, British 500-pound and 20-pound L. C. bombs, United States and British 42-inch mortars are suitable weapons, when charged CG or CK, 94, Use Against Unprotected Personnel ‘The expenditues for aircraft bombs to cause casualties among unprotected personnel (lethal dosages covering 80 percent of the target area) are given in table 8, and for the 4.2-inch mortar in table 9. TABLE 9, 4.2-INCH MORTAR CHARGED C6 EXPENDITURES TO CAUSE CASUALTIES AMONG UNPHOTECTED PERSONNEL [poi State ep 4 niin en poan eigenen paronnel "For opin eet, tb aisee tani bo dices in a period cf ve maes. ee TABLE 9. 4.2-INCH MORTAR CHARGED €O. EXPENDITURES TO CAUSE CASUALTIES. AMONG UNPROTECTED PERSONNEL Inversion of Nevtal Condiiont Boge fda Wanner as sana as 54ediment on an Aight so that sleep situation, but the Jo cause a definite Mi9 and M78 C.boinbs, United ns, when charged gesualties among of the target, Paragraph 95 Section 3 GROUND BURST MUNITIONS CHARGED H FOR VAPOR EFFECT 95. Introduction From the tables in this section, munition expenditures for H vapor effect can be obtained as bombs or shell per square 1€0X 100 yards for tasks defined in terms of: a, Terrain, 2, Wind speed. Ground surfaco temperature. d. Temperature gradient. ¢. Vapor dosige required. 7. Time in which dasage is to be obtained. For each of these variables, numerical factors are given which ean be applied in computing the expenditure, ‘The tables have been made sufficiently complete so that any approximation involved in taking the nearest figure is well within the error of the method and no interpolation is necessary. 96. Terrain and Meteorological Conditions a, Tho aceuriey with which the meteorological factors are listed is recognized to te considerably greater than that with which they can currently be predicted in the field. The user will be in a position to round off the expenditures in line with the accuracy of the information available to him. 2. The most practical correlation for expenditures in heavily wooded or jungle terra:n is with conditions which would be registered in the ‘open nearby. ‘The tables for such terrain are therefore based on the estimated wind speed and temperature gradient in the open. It is thus not necestary to obtain forecasts for meteorological conditions inside woods or jungle, other than the ground temperature which is essentially the same es the air temperature. Sparsely wooded terrain should be considered under the category of open grassland. o.In the attack on built-up areas such as cities and towns (paragraph 83), the expenditure should be based on the meteorological conditions forecast for op2n country nearby. ‘The terrain rate factor for sand should be used. 97. Dosage and Tima of Achievement 4, The expenditure will be determined by the desage which it is desired to set up on the target area, and the time available for the 55Chapter 3 Section 3 dispersed agent to evaporate and produce this dosage. ‘The dosage and time will themselves be determined by the tactical situation. For the production of casualties among troops without protectiva cloth- ing the minimum expenditure should bo based on the dosages and times given in the following subparagraphs. ®. Inhot and humid weather a dosage of 1000 mg. min./en. m. should be achioved in 4 hours. ‘This dosage is eapable of producing total disability anong sweating troops. ¢. In warm weather a dosage of 2,000 mg. min./eu. m. shotld be achieved im 4 hours, 'This dosage is capable of producing sovere partial disability. In coo! weather, Tho information available on the effet of H ‘vapor at these temperatures is not enough t enable any recommenda- tions to be made with confidence. The results of any given expendi- tture will be less in cool than in warm weather (paragraph 43). ¢. For harassment the achievement of a dosage of 500 mg. min./eu. m. should prove adequate. 98. Pioportion of Target Covered Exyenditates derived from the tables in this section will cover about 80 percent of the target with the dosago given. At the same time, about 40 percent of the target will be covared with twice the given dosage. 99. Method of Using the Expenditure Tables for Ground Burst Munitions 4. Tho expenditure tables are designed to allow for all the factors referred to in paragraph 95, Several steps are required : 2. Tho determination of a factor (rate fictor product) which will allow for the rate at which H will evaporete in tho forecast mateor- ological conditions and on the terrain of the target. The required factor is obtained as the product of the fonr separate rate factors in table 20, appropriate to the terrain, wind speed, ground surface tom- perature, and temperature gradient. These rate factors are common to all weapans. ¢. The determination of the fraction of the total dosage which will be evclved :n the period available, ‘This is referred to as the total dosage fraction. Separate tables appropriate to the principal types of munitions are provided and the fraction of the total dosage evolved in poriods of from 1 to 6 hours is tabulated in terms of the rate factor product. 4. The total dosage fraction must be multiplied by four further factors which make allowance for muniticn, wind speed, charging, and terrain, ‘The result of this multiplication is the final product,‘The dosage situation. For Protective cloth- woducing total m. should be ducing severe effect of H recommenda- ven expendi- ph 43), min. /eu. m. cover about be sume time, Paragraph 99 e. The expenditure in munitions per square 100 x 100 yards to achieve the required dosage in the forecast conditions of atmospheric stability is determined from tables which have been compiled in terms of the final produet, Separate tables are given for each typo of munition. 7. The number of munitions which must fall on the area to be attacked is determined by multiplying the number of squares 100 x 100 ards in the atea by the expenditure per square. 100. Utilization of Total Dosage a. The total dosage that will bo attained over » period of many hours, or days, from a contamination which yields one of the given dosages in a short time, ean be estimated roughly rom the tables by dividing the given dosage for 1, 2, 4, or 6 hours by the fraction of the total dosage achieved in that time. ‘Thus, to find the total dosage available frem an expenditure which ‘will give a dosage of 2,000 mg. min./ou. m. in 4 hours, divide 2,000 by the 4-hour total dosage fraction derived from the appropriate tables (tables 11, 18, 9° 26). 3. Conversdly, if the expenditure to give a certain total dosage (without a time limit) is required, substitute the value 1 for the total dosage fraction. ¢. Jn attacks making use of the total dosage, a long time will be required for the evolution of all the vapor and the meteorological conditions will not remain constant throughout ths period. In such instances, © rougt approximation of the averago meteorological conditions shculd be mado. 101. Example of the Use of the Expenditure Tables a. (1) Requirement, Expenditure of MA7A2 bombs charged Levinstein H. (2) OBject To disable troops who will be on an area 200x400 ‘yards for 2hoars. (8) Terrain. Open grassland, (4) Forecast meteorological conditions. Wind speed at 6 feet, 6 m. p. h.; ground surface temperature, 100° F.; temperature gradient; strong lapse (T e~T c= ~4° F.) ; air temperature, 00° F,; relative humidity, 76 percent. (8) Dosage required. At 90° F. and 75 percent relative humidity the troops will be wat with sweat.and a dosage of 1,000 mg, min./eu.m, iseapable of causing total disability. 73B, Stops én calculation of expenditure: (1) Rate factors from table 10: Terrain, open grassland, 1 speed, 6 miles per hour, 0.72; ground surface temperature, 100° F.,0.43; temperature gradient, strong lapse, 0.40. ‘Rata factor product=1.0% 0.72 0.43X040=0.12, (2) From table 11 (for ground burst aircraft bombs) the total dosage fraction corresponding to a rate fastor product of 0.12 for a total period of 2hoursis 0.84. (8) The final product is derived by multiplying the total dosage fraction by the following factors from table 12. Munition, M47A2 bomb, 1.0; charging, Levinstein H, 1.0; terrain, open grasslaac, 1.03 wind «peed, 6 miles per hour, 0.72, Final product 0.84 1.0% 1.0 1.0X072=0.60. (4) From table 13 the expenditure appropriate to a dosage of 1,000 mg. min./ec, m. and to a final product of 00 is 7.5 bombs per square 100 100 yards. . (5) The target area is 8 squares 100X100 yards, so the requirement: is sixty M47A2 bombs falling on the area, ‘This figure does net allow for errors in aiming, TABLE 10, RATE FACTORS [AI Muritions Chorged H Tempered pacer Neutral 9, Meda nea ‘ BaseTap tbe emperstc at et above he ound zante mpertag at ht, Tite Ure of strpos bitty ensued tote olorne saat of 2s tea are ‘ire pee. APPLY THE PRODUCT OF THESE FOUR RATE FACTORS AND THE THICKENING ACTOR IF APPLICABLE (PARAGHAPH 1/7) TO THE APPROPRIATE “TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION" TABLE 38 ecx | | SSEE FES FEB B85 |Ground Burst Aircraft Bombs ‘Vapor Effect EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR GROUND BURST AIRCRAFT BOMBS For Vepor Ect U.S. MATAg U.S. M70 U.S. Navy Mk 42 102. Instructions for Using the Tables a. These tables are for use with the U. S. MA7A2, M70, and U. 8. Navy Mk 42 bombs. Insufficient data exist to enable similar tables to be given for the British L. C. 65-pound or the Canadian L, C, 50-pound bombs. ®. See paragreph 96 for general explanation. ¢. (1) Using tablo 10, obtain rate factor product. (2) Using table 11, obtain total dosage fraction from the rate factor product. (3) Using table 12, obtain the final product from the total dosage fraction, (4) Using tables 13 to 16, obtain the expenditure in rounds per square 100 100 yards from the final product. (5) Calculate the expenditure for the target area, TABLE 11, TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION FOR GIVEN TIMES aH Bate tor | ‘ota dete tnton bie) aes, ae |F Wit ne Esse ] aa | 558 sess eee eee eee 3858. Ba 85: S28 Eee BBs E888 Ske bee Bubs Ges S22 Bes LEB 888 55 5s S52 S68 hae Sea S88 RELEVANT PACTONS IN TABLH 12 T0 GIVE THE FINAL PRODUCT.Chapter 3 Section 3 TAME 12. FACTORS TO CONVERT “TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION” TO FINAL PRODUCT round Burst Arerott Bombe Cherged H ewstion —|suctel)—coaraion | Mestie cartasan | Hearily wooded. | 1.2 " Uer ere snd lp use utr 4m. ‘THE PLODUCT OF THE POUR APPLICABLE PACTORS FROM [HIS TABLE ANDTHE. ‘TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION 18 TOBE APPLIED AT COLUMN 1 OF THE RELEVANT. EXPENDITURE TABLE (TABLE 1, 16,15, 08 10) TABLE 13. EXPENDITURES FoR VAPOR EFFECT Ground Burst Alvraft Bombe Charged H STRONG LAPSE ‘Bomb pe sme 10 arr as (0.8) ° S88 EG GFE EsGround Burst raft Bombs [EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT TAME 14, Ground Burt Alicrof Bombs Charged H MODERATE LAPSE [ bombs persqsar 100x100 yas for dosages atin fu.) ad gee cso EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT round Burt Alratt Bombs Charged H TAME 15. NEUTRAL CONDITIONS ‘Bout rer pase 0x0 7 for domes asus asp run 'OP THe RHLRVANTasa sex Ede 833 383 335 8 a g : 3 ‘Ground Burst Aieratt Bombs Charséd H TARE 16. EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT aes sug Chapter 3 Section 3Ground Burst Aircraft Bombs 103, Examples of Aircrat Bomb Expenditures Examples of expend:tures of United States Mé7A2 and United States M70 aircraft bombs for vapor effect under typical meteoro- Togical conditions are given in table 17. TABLE 17, EXCAMPLIS OF EXPENDITURES OF M47A2 AND M70 BOMBS CHARGED WW d2ViNSTEIN] FOR VAPOR EFFECT lett tam ube 1010101 Boved on Defitions of Recommended Minimom Expenditures in Bombs per Square 003100 verde A. HOT AND HUMAD WEATHER Const: Osa te god sce nara of WF, Deen of 00 mg mo, 0 8 gs Gat MA" Sali a ove nat pref Ee eet) pen rman Heariiy weeded Daren sl rn ‘Wind ape ate open at] Wi pod at ft ‘rempwatare | Wand opac erect ‘pa ‘aki | eed pr oan | nie er hue CCoutne: Caesar epsand mio tempscetare of 0". Doty o 2080 me min se; on UE PMSA Bia te nla ove oat ao ft rp ‘Open grea eal wooded ‘temperature | Winggpend a fet | Wind seed te open at ‘Tella Yao pr hor) ‘oot (niles po boat) Tas spears a per hws ont surg cena, son STAGE AROS Sov nto bou™ "x Dee sameChoptor 3 Section 3 EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR GROUND BURST MORTAR AND ARTILLERY SHELL For Vepor Each U. 8.42 inch Chemical Mortar British 42 inch SBML Mortar U.S. 75 mm. Artillery Shell U.S. 105 mm. Artillery Shell U.S. 155 mm, Artillery Shell 104, Notes on Using the Tables (See paragraph 99 for general explanation.) 4, Use table 10 to obtain rate factor product. 3. Use table 18 to obtain total dosage fraction from the mate factor product. 0. Use table 19 to obtain the final product from the total dosage fraction. @, Use tables 20 to 28 to obtain the expenditure in rounds per square 100100 yards from final produet. @. Calculate expenditure for zone of attack, which in this ease is the target ares plus a 50-yard frame, For example, with a target of 100 yards by 150 yards expenditure should be ealculatec for zone of attack of 200 yards by 250 yards. Nor, British Aérburst B. H. Chemioal Shell are treated sepa- rately in paragraph 118 and tables 34 to #6. TABLE 18, TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION FOR GIVEN TIMES Ground Burt Mertar ond Artillry Shall Chorged H Raetater| Total dane ection or Rater | __ Total dame nia ‘Hata oa on ea bh. [boar | 2ncur| tou | shows ‘anwar | eden | enous Bea Bee ee ne BER She ane 288 “LSE EEE Bas EEE Suu es 202 ese eee BY MY) 88 3f5 558 bes i £82 £55 ba S22 Ses see ses "THR TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION FROM THIS TABLE 18 MULTIPLIED BY THE RELE VANT FACTORS IN TABLE 19 TO GIVE THE FINAL FRODUCT. oaGround Burst Mostar and Artillery Shell TABLE 19. FACTORS TO CONVERT “TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION” TO FINAL PRODUCT Ground Bure! Mortar and Astiley Shell Chrged H U,g,¢2 i mata) cof Hievineei 8 as Sas the rate factor | meet | 86] oneaann|gg| ntr ott | 20 Bthe total dosage rr a in rounds per — t 7 Unde rogers ae eth tr repr bse. Bin this case is {TOTAL Dosacy FRACTION 18 "HIE “FINAL PRODUCE” 70. E APPLIED Ax COLUMN p with a target ‘{1OF THE RELEVANT EXPENDITURE TABLE (TABLE 20, 21,28, 0 28). . ted for zone TARE 20, EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR ErFECT round Borst Mostar and Artillery Shall Charged [ sta xi yu a wma, pe (= [oer] gee BES Ese S88 25: EER Gas E88 aS GES 388 8 355 3 : fChapter 3 Section 3 vase 21. [EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT ‘Ground Burst Mortar and Arillory Shell Cherged H Bun NBs eae see see FEE MODERATE LAPSE sey ues ess say ge8 BRE US EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT ‘Mortar ond Arillery Shell Charged H [NEUTRAL CONDITIONS ‘Rows jr quae OXON yar or dona mg. ma ay n syy sus ese aes SBE <0 | 190 a) OS S| Be 105, Exer Examp| inch chen are givenGround Burst Mortar and Artillery Shell TABLE 23, EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT Cound Burst Mortar and Arilery shell Chorged M INVERSION 3 ves FAG SEM BEE f | 105. Examples of United States 4.2-inch Chemical Mortar Expenditures Examples of expenditures for vapor effect of United States 4.2- inch chemical mor-ar shell under typical meteorological conditions are given in table 24.Chapter 3 Section 3 ‘TABLE 24, EXAMPLES OF EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT OF UNITEO STATES 4.2-INCH (MORTAR SHELL, CHARGED M (LEVINSTEIND {Osis ers abies 10 and 18102) ated or Defintons of Recommended Minimum Expendivres. Expenditure in Shall per ‘Squore 100X100 Ye A. HOT AND HUMID WEATHER (ett: Cuenta er rena sac perature of °F, Dosage 00mg ise. 00 60 parent oftarget in how.” CDormge of 2000 mg" in Jos: mover woot 66 perent i the art) ‘pe aan | evap word Barren oll oan ‘Tenpgatere | Winders a0 eae rise | Wits in to open at | Wind eee eet estat pe ieay "| ateag es 1B. WARM WEATHER, \ceaatens Caented or round savin amperage of ¥. Dasa of 2009 mln e009 ethane Sint ora pate a a Open rant avy woe Barren tora Tempers | Windspm wee | Wind readin tmopen at] Wlokyped stant een ‘Gat perean* | Melee? set Saas\ "| ep ach spree é M3 |) eat] Br 1 Restalergea tres re rcoroneaded for Cat Hise a Sor fons parodies a apprclble snp Bly fo plo a iad pede aoe Ss pe Er Section 4 AIRCRAFT SPRAY MUNITIONS CHARGED H United States M10 and M33 Spray Tanks—British 250-pound and 00: pound §.C. 1. 106. Expenditures for Vapor Effect Expenditures of low altitude aircraft spray (50 to 150 feet) for the attainment of vapor dosages are governed by considerations similar to those outlined for ground burst mtinitions in paragraph 95 to 97. Expenditures for direct antipersonnel attack are given in paragraph 121 to 126. 6 107. priat this) fact itareSTATES 4.2:1NCH iter Bou ‘Weed ts et is pr to 150 feet) for the Berations similar graph 96 to 97. ‘in paragraphs Spray Munitions . Vapor Effect 107, Procedure for Estimation of Expenditure Expressed as Weight of H a, Multiply together the four rate factors (table 10) and the appro- priate thickening factor (table 25) to obtain the rate factor product 8. Use table 26 to obtain the total dosage fraction corresponding to this rate factor product. ¢. Use table 27 to obtain the final product from the total dosage fraction. d. Use table 28 (expenditure constant) fo get the necessary expend- ture in pourd Ht per square 100% 100 yards from the expression: Dosage desired ‘Final Product x Expenditure Constant: ¢. Caleulate the expenditure for the zone of attack, which in this case is tho terget area plus a 100 yard frame, For example, with a target 600 yards%200 yards, caleulate the expenditure for a zone of attack of 800 yards%400 yards. ‘Norm. Spray weapons are not efficient against personnel afforded shelter by a chick forest or jungle canopy. For scrub or thin woods, tho expenditares for open terrain apply. Exptnditure=. 108. Example of the Use of the Expenditure Tables a (1) Requirement, Expenditure of unthickened H (Levinstein). (2) Object. To disable troops who will be on an area 800 yards 1300 yards for 2 hours, (8) Terrain. Open grassland (4) Forecast Meteorological Conditions: Wind speed at 6 fect, 6 miles per hour; ground surface temperature, 100° F.; temperatur> gradient, strong lepse (Tsu —Tya,=—4° F.); air temperature, 90° F.; relative humidity, 85 percent. (5) Dosage Required. At 90° F. and 85 percent relative humidity the troops will be wet with sweat and a dosage of 1,000 mg. min,/eu. m. is capable of causing total disability. B. Steps tx. Caloulation of Expenditure (2) Rate Factors from table 10: Terrain factor, Grassland, 1.03 wind speed factor, 6 miles per hour, 0.72; ground surface temperature, 100° F., 0.43; temperature gradient, strong lapse, 0.403 thiekening factor (table 25), xnthickened H, 0.5. Rate factor product=1.0% 0.72048 0.40 X0.5=0.06. (2) From table 26, the total dosage fraction corresponding to a rate factor product of 0.06 for a period of 2 hours is 0.90. (8) From table 27, the relevant factors by which to multiply the total dosage fraction to obtain the final product are: Factor for cn2se4—se— pt 1s ”Chapter 3 Section 4 unthickened H, 0.6; wind speed factor, 6 miles per hour, 0.725 charg- ing factor, H (Levinstein), 1.0. Final product=0.90% 0.6% 0.72% 1.0=0.39, (4) Expenditure constant Strong lapse 60 (table 28) Final produet, From (8) above, 0.39 Dosage desired. (mg.min./ewm.) 1,000 Expenditure in Ib, Hpersq. __1,000_ 498 Ib. 100 x 190 yd. (paragraph 030 x 6.0 107 a) Zone of attack (target plus 1,000 x 500 yd 50 9q, ft. x 100 yd. 100-yd. frame) ‘Total Expenditure 498 x 50 21,400 Ib. EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR AIRCRAFT SPRAY TANKS AND 5. C. 1. For Vopor tect U.S.M10 Spray Tank U.S. M32 Spray Tanke British 250 Ib. 8. C.1. British 500 Ib. S.C.1. 109, Notes on Using the Tables 4. Multiply together the four rate factors from table 1¢ and the thickening factor from table 25 to give the rate factor product. B. Obtain total dosage fraction from table 26, e, Obtain final product from table 27. d, Obtain expediture constant from (atle 28. e. Caleulate expenditure in pounds H per square 100X100 yards from the expression: Pxpenditure= pay Product X Expenditure Constant f. Determine expenditure for zone of attack (target plus 10-yard frame). g. Find the number of spray tanks required using table 29 and any special limitations for the particular mission concerned. TABLE 25. THICKENING FACTORS Airco Spray oe ‘his tas ena donisast op sisawa of, 70 KE BER REE I.»ur, 0725 charg Spray Munitions ‘Vapor Effect THE FOUR RATE FACTORS FROM TABLE 10 MULTIPLIED BY THE THICKENING FACTOR IS THE HATE PACTOR PRODUCT 10 BE APPLIED AT COLUMN 1 OF ‘TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTICN TABLE (TABLE 20). TABLE 26. TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION FOR GIVEN TIMES ate ot ae factor | __ ‘Tota dae faction fo isdee? she | aie) | nour | ghours | «boars |e oases y ss S BE BSP REY BSR FRE 6 SSE REE CEE Beg ees fae 388 8 G52 258 abe Ba Pe Ree 252 R22 28 coe cee coe WY YY 55 588 ‘THE TOTAL DOSAGE FEACTION FROM TABLE 2 15 MULTIPLIED BY THE TABLE 27, FACTORS [0 CONVERT TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION TO FINAL PRODUCT H Spray Munitions (Corsten, np. . ar. "Under tuo or eoerte apChapter 3 Section 4 TABLE 28. EXPENDITURE CONSTANT tee Pte | sm rere | ‘temperate elt, gens | Morn 10 OBTAIN EXPENDITURE IN LB. H PER SQUARE 100% 100 YARDS USE THIS CON. STANT WITH THE FINAL PRODUCT AND THE DOSAGE DESIRED IN THE EXPRESSION, xpenditare (be HE peo 100510 98 = Bisa io ne casa 110. Procedure for Estimeting the Number of Spray Tanks end Spacing of Aircraft a. The average weight of charging per tank is listed in table 29, ‘The actual loadings are a function of the density of the charging. ‘The dersity of HD is 10.7 pounds per U. 8. gallon, H (Levinstein) 118, HSC 10. and HT 10.4. Some aircraft have weight restrictions and can carry only partially filled tanks TABLE 29, CAPACITIES OF AIRCRAFT SPRAY TANKS ‘Briuh ompfeund & 0.1 5. The lengths of tho effective contamination pattern from. the sev- eral types of tanks are given in table 30, TABLE 20, LENGTHS OF CONTAMINATION PATTERN FROM SPRAY TANKS Be Mas, Ste spac ss fr ea ‘Bah Frat speed es pr bout)the charging. Hi (Levinstein) ‘Spray Munitions Vapor Effect ¢. The expenditure should be calculated for the zone of attack. ‘The number of tanks required is equal to the total weight of charging divided by the weight carried per tank. ‘The number of planes re- quired is determined by their type and carrying eapazity. ‘The desired spacing of the planes, fuselage to fuselage, is equa! to the width of the area at rigat angles to the line of flight divided by the number of planes. ‘The minimem practical spacing of planes will be determined Uy tactical factors. Spacings wider than 100 yards do not yield ade- quately uniform coverage of the target. If calculated spacing comes ‘out 150 yards for planes carrying four M10’s, the desired vapor cover- age can be obtained by planes funetioning only two M0's and flying ata spacing of 75 yards. 111, Example of Calculation of the Number of Spray Tanks and Spacing of Aircatt a. Target area. 600X950 yards. 2. Detaile of airoraft. Speed of flight, 300 miles per hours carry- ing capacity, two M3 tanks each. @. The target plus a one hundred yard wide frame gives a zone of attack of 800% 450 yards. d. The lengch of the effective pattern from the M33 tank at 300 miles per hour is 900 yards. This is longer than the ‘ongest dimension of tho zone of attack so that the expenditure must be based on an emission of Hover a zone 900 by 450 yards or 40.5 squares 100% 100 yards. . Assuming an expenditure of 428 pounds per square, as in para- ‘graph 108, the total expenditure will be 428%40.5=17,884 pounds of 1H (Levinstein). 7. The number of M38 tanks required is 17,834/760=22.8 tanks. ‘This correspords to 12 aireraft each carrying two MB3 tanks. g. Tho distance between aircraft to give uniform coverage is 450/12=88 yards, fuselage to fuselage, 112. Examples of H Spray Expenditures for Vapor Effect, ‘Examples of expenditures of unthickoned and thickened H spray for vapor effect under typical meteorological condi:ions are given in tables 31 and 22, respectively.Chapter 3 Section 4 TABLE 91, UNTHICKENED H SPRAY, EXAMPLES OF EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT FROM LOW ALTITUDE AIRCRAFT {ealoulted ty th proce of pang 17} Bowed on Defritions of Recommended Minimum Expendiures. Expendivres In Pounds Unihickoned HM (evinsain) por Square 100100 Yards Senaiogs: Coed for gouod auras vampeatare O80" F._ Rage of 1000 me. 00 90 pec ge hous EDacage of nena. ove aoa poet we) ‘pe essen Barrens ottnd ‘inl et Boa "i pr eat Some 2) 8 ee BE Sentea conte antago 2, Ragnar mon renperture patient Wind pad gt gat ‘Wea od Iivislig cco vat a Riga cpa ree Bg oS ol Dor Bear Eb erpeeble shar bt ey posta fabs Oi per atSpray Munitions Vapor Effect For avon errect TABLE 92, THICKENED H SPRAY. EXAMPLES OF EXPENDITURES FOR VAPOR EFFECT FROM LOW ALNTTUDE AIRCRAFT [esata by th ronda of eae 0] Bored on Definitons oF Recommended Minimum Expendivres. Expenditures in Pounds 'HSE/MIM per Squore 100% 100 Ye A. Ho? AND HUMID WEATHER ae tee ts as (Borage 20 sa enone beat yore tage Opearaind — | __Barreasolloraana eropertn rn ‘Wind peda at Wistar tt Condon: Qaenaea fr Round curs tempers oF. Desaes 2000, info ma. 08 8) pai an a Sues Sl elf cre Bout pera he) Wind ape 2 fat ‘Temperate eradnt (tr boat Eee. TiC apeein 2 RisateSteuadhuts areca ars leek ar Wo nia a hour os ah apEmCie snrenias ba) te eta st iba sponds above sie for ht.‘Chapter 3 Section 4 Section 5 AIRBURST AIRCRAFT BOMBS AND AIRBURST SHELL CHARGED H British 500-pound Airburst Bomb—British 25 Pounder Airburst B. E. ‘Chemical Shel Expenditures for Vapor Effect 113, Introduction ‘Tho general factors involved in the attainment of vapor dosages are discussed in paragraphs 95 to 98. Airburst aireraft bombs and shell are munitions designed to function by time fuze a predetermined distance above the surface of the ground and to disperse their charging as droplets which fall to the ground in a manner similar to spray. 114, British 5.5-inch Airburet BE, Artilory Shell Data on the British 5.5-inch airburst shell are insuficient for ox- pend:ture tables to be included similar to those for Britisk 25 pounder airburst B. E, chemical shell. EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR BRITISH 500-POUND AIRBURST AIRCRAFT BOMBS CHARGED H For Vapor Effect 115. Procedure for Estimation of 500-pound Airburst Bomb Expenditures 4. The procedure is similar to that used in the caso of spray tanks (paragraph 107). %. (1) Multiply together the four rate factors from Table 10 and the thicliening factor 8 (for thickened H) to give the rate factor product. (2) Use table 26 to obtain the total dosage fraction, (8) Use table 27 to obtain the final product. (4) Uso table 28 (expenditure constant) to obtain the expenditure in pound H per square 100 x 100 yards, ¢. Divide by the weight of charging per bomb, 175 pound. 4. Calculate total expenditure for the zone of attack, which in this ‘case is the target area plus a frame 100 yards wide. ¢. The expenditures apply to bombs airburst at a height wind speed Product of from 5,000 feet miles per hour to about 20,000 feet miles Per hour, where the expected height of burst is given in deet and the predicted mean wind speed td height of burst is given in miles per hour. At low heights of burst, that is, 100 to 200 feet, ard low wind speeds the distribution of charging is not wide enough to give adequate coverage. 1Airburst Bombs Vapor Effect Nore. Airburst bombs and spray weapons are not efficient against personnel siforded shelter by thick forest or jungle canopy. For serub or thin woods, tho expenditures for open terrain apply. 116. Downwind Dit of Spray In aiming for the target the downwind drift of the spray can be estimated Srom the following formula: one ne ge) MU wn oe pd (ph) 117, Examples of S00-pound Aivbrst Bomb Expendlives for Vapor tect ‘Examples of expenditures of 500-pound airburst bombs for vapor effect under typical meteorological conditions are given in table 33. Te ye ote ac ve epitope Sear ctuntr pment yet agi = — od Wingapend at St ‘Wied apr a 6st ace Dor ou) "ahs pat boar) Cenattonss Cuenta te ce tempertuy of 0" F, Dowson. 2 cute sa nfo ora prewar) itp oat 20,000 feet miles wn in feet and the phtogive adequateChapter 3 Section 5 EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR BRITISH 25-POUNDER AIRBURST B. E. CHEMICAL SHELL CHARGED H Fer Voperefect 118, Although the 25-pounder 3. E. chemical shell was designed primarily a3 a spray munition for the contaminaticn of personnel, the attainment of effective vapor dosages may be practicable in some cases, with shell air burst at approx:mately 150 feet, 118, Procedure for the Estimation of Expenditure in Rounds of 25 ounder Airburst B. E. Shell a Multiply together the four rate factors from table 10 and the thickening factor 3 (for thickened H) to give the rate factor product. &, From table 96 obtain the appropriate total dosage fraction. ¢. Use table 3¢ to obtain the final product from the total dosage fraction. . Using the appropriate expenditure constant from table 35, obtain the expenditure in rounds per square 100 x 100 yacds from the expression: Dosage desired over 80% of the target nal Produet x Expenditure Constant ¢. Calculate the total expenditure for the zone of sttack, which in this case is the target plus a frame 100 yards wide, Nore, Airburst bombs and spray weapons are not eficient against personnel afforded shelter by thick forest or jungle canogy. For scrub ‘or thin woods, the expenditures for open terrain apply. Expenditure= TABLE 34, FACTORS TO CONVERT THE TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION TO THE FINAL PRODUCT Brith 25-poun seat fracter|Tmiceenine mex vitterxr.....] 20 Metin] 1H | nov "ine rong or moderate pv wo the ctor fr Cae por Bow. ‘TEE PRODUCT OF THE TOTAL DOSAGE FRACTION AND THR FOUR APPLICABLE ‘FACTORS FROM THIS TABLE Is THE FINAL PRODUCT TO BE APPLIED WITH TO EXPENDITURE CONSTANT IN THE EXPRESSION: eyeliner raat Bipalan COTT 78B shell was designed Ration of personnel, ‘ricticable in some In Rounds of 25 j table 10 and the te factor product. fraction the total dosage m table 35, obtain Bo yards from the Constant of attack, which in ot eficient against nopy. For scrub Alcburst Shell Vapor Effect ‘TABLE 35. EXPENDITURE CONSTANT anata sa. | se [Maka | noma [rw senator cosa... 120, Examples of Expenditures of 25-pound Airburst B. E. Shell for Vapor Effect Examples of expenditures of 25-pounder Airburst B. 1. chemical shell for vapor o-fect are given in table 36. TABLE 34, EXAMPLES OF EXPENDITURES OF BRITISH 25-POUNDER AIRBURST BE. CHEMICAL SHELL CHARGED HSC/MM FOR VAPOR HFFECT eats by tbe prostate paragraph 1 Boned on Defatons cf Recommended Minimum Expenditures. Expenditure In Rounds por Square 100%100 Yords ‘A.MOT AND HUMID WEATEER onaiiom: Clan oe une extn toate oS" Fave af 1400 me, mine. a sora aac a” Daa kaw ae winic'S, oer etl lsat oe [opm ens ‘Basra stor saad ‘Tepertare erat ‘Wing apna gt ct "espe hows Condens: Caeaes for round sore tmperatue of oF. a rent ote io oursCSesge of Se win. ver : a resenmmen | Eade eerste erent tar oar 1p forme pe hows unde Ing rere we ras expend 1 Netra expenures are eromuneedd fr a cent night st 8 or 10 tales per bots aise ao apprecabie snr uty fo Sete at Wind ponds aoe ¢ me Po hoa 9Chopter 3 Section 6 Sedion 6 H SPRAY MUNITIONS FOR DIRECT ANTIPERSONNEL ATTACK 121, The tables of this sectior. give munition expenditures for the production of prescribed densities for the direct droplet contamination cf exposed personnel, All standard bombs and shell charged H give zones in which casualty producing densities of H drep'ets are obtained, Munitions which function above the ground level are the most effcient. in this respect, and yield a shower of droplets settling over a wide area. ‘These munitions are aireraft spray tanks, airburst bombs, and airburst shell. 122, Casvalty Producing Densities a, (1) The tables are based cn the following densities of ground contamination for the severe disablement of exposed troops without protective clothing. (2) In Hot and Humid Weather (above 80° F.) coverage of more than 80 percent of the target with 1 g./sq. m. ‘This density applies to sweating troops in tropical clothing. (3) In Warm Weather (60° to 80° F.) coverage of more than 80 percent of the target with 2 g-/s.m. This density epplies to troops rot wet with sweat even if the temperature is over 89° F. (4) In Coot Weather (40° to 60° F.) coverage of more than 80° pereent of the target with 4 g./sq.m. b. In the density range of 1 to 4 g./sq. m. there is no difference between expenditures for thickened and unthickenel chargings in the case of munitions functioning below 150 feot. Far munitions func- tioning above this height the loss from unthickened charging becomes an important factor. 123. Target Coverage Since aircraft spray gives a contamination pattern with a range of densities from above 20 g./sq. m. down to 1 g./sq. m. or less, an expendi- ture to cover more than 80 percent of the target with a low density necessarily moans that much of the target is eovered by considerably higher densities. ‘This fact is ovidenced in the expenditure tables. ‘The aircraft spray expenditure to cover 80 petcent of the target with 4 g./sq. m. for example, is only one-third more than that necessary to give more than 80 percent, coverage with ¥ g/sq. m. ‘The same con- siderations do not apply to the expenditures of baw ejection airburst hell where the charging is dispersed over a wide zone with little area covered by densities above 2 g,/sq. m. Since the sbsence of gaps in 82 or 4 g./sq. m. pattern is of major importance to the efficiency of @ 80\e most offoient. a wide area, and airburst prage of more ity applios to ging becomes jth a range of jan expendi- a low density considerably Peicioncy of a Spray Munitions "Anfi-Personnel sudden low spray attack, tho use of the prescribed expenditures rather than lower intensities of attack is recommended. EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR AIRCRAFT SPRAY TANKS AND S.C. I. CHARGED H 1 Direct Antipersonnel Attack 124, Expenditures in Pounds per Square 100X100 Yards Table 87 giving expenditures in pounds of charging per square 100100 yards applies in general to the several standard types of spray tanks on different types of aireraft, providel the spray is released from an altitude of 150 feet or less. Meteorological eondi- tions have no major effects on the results except that, other factors being equal, it isprefe-able to fly crosswind. TABLE 37. AIRCRAFT SPRAY EXPENDITURES IN POUNDS H PER SQUAHE 100%100 YARDS Poses tr coner we tg 0 prea ot ‘Trp ot aig —e 125. Expenditure in Terms of Tanks ond Aircraft ‘The length of the contamination pattern from a given tank is a function of the aircraft speed (table 30). For a targot of given di- ‘mensions the number cf tanks required is equal to the total expenditure in pounds divided by the weight of charging carried per tank (para- graph 110). ‘The number of aircraft required is determined by thei type and carrying capacity. The desired spacing of the aircraft, fuselage to fuselage, is equal to the cross flight width of the area di- vided by the number of aircraft, ‘The expenditure covers an area of the given size te the stated density, and no calculation for a frame is needed. 126, Example of Calculation of Expenditure @ (1) Requirement, Expenditure of M10 spray tanks charged thickened Lovinstoin Ht (2) Partioulars of Atreraft Available. Flying speed 260 miles per hour. Each wi'l eary four M10 tanks. (3) Odject. To d'sable unprotected personnel in the open on a target area 625200 yards. (4) Forecast Metévrological Conditions. Air temperature 70° F. arChapter 3 Section 6 (5) Contamination Density Required. 2 g,/sq. m. (paragraph 122 3 Catouation of Eapenditres (i) Length of spray pattern (table 80),2.5%250—625 yards. (2) Area of target: 625X200 yards=13.5 sq. 100%200 yards. (3) From Table 87, expenditure per square 100100 yards to cover 80 percent of the target with 2 g./sq. m.=300 pounds. (4) Total expenditure=12.5%300 Ib.=3,760 pounds, «+» (5) From table 29, 10 tank holds 325 pounds HL. (6) Number of tanks required = 5720 (7) Nuraber of aircraft required (8} Spacing of aircraft over target 200 yards wide="02-—approxt- mately 67 yards, EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR BRITISH L. C. 500-LB. AIRBURST AIRCRAFT BOMB CHARGED H For Direc AntiperonaelAitock 127, Procedure for Estimating the Expenditure of Airburst Bombs a, The expenditures for British 500-pound airburst bombs depend upon the height of burst and the predicted mean wind speed up to the height of burst, ‘The values in table 38 are given in terms of the height wind speed product, At higher altitudes (500 to 1,000 feet) and higher wind speeds more uniform distribution is obtained and lower exponditures are necessary for given results. 6. Expenditures should be calculated for the target plus a 10-yard fram: ¢. The allowance for the downwind drift of the contaminaticn pat- tern ean be made by the equation of paragraph 116. ‘TABLE 98, EXPENDITURES OF BRITISH 1. €. SOO-PCUND AIRBURST AIRCRAFT BOMBS CHARGED THICKENED H Produet 2 belght of burst and wid speed det, ‘ree it th abwring oatameacin ee pe) asthe Team | Fhe00 _ 00 approx URST AIRCRAFT 3 Bombs ‘bombs depend peed up to the ps of the height fi00 feet) and Airburst Bombs ‘Anti-Personnel 128. Example of Celculation of Expenditure a. (1) Requirements, Expenditure of British L. C, 500-pound airburst aireraft bombs. (2) Object. To contaminate an aren 700%900 yards at a density of 2 g./sq. m, with bombs airburst at a height of 500 feet. (3) Forecast Meteorological Conditions, Mean wind speod to 500 feet, 20 miles per hour, B. Calculation of Fapenditure: (1) The zone of attack is (700+200) x (900+200) 900% 1,100 yards=99 squares 100%100 yards, (2) The height wind speed produet is 500X20=10,000 feet miles per hour. (3) From table 88, expenditure at this height wind speed product is 1.2 bombs per square 100x100 yards, (4) Total Expenditure=12%99~119 bombs. e. Allowance for Downswind Drift. Downwind drift (paragraph 116) =2°000 EXPENDITURE TABLES FOR BRITISH 25-POUNDER AIRBURST B. E. CHEMICAL SHELL CHARGED H Fer Dire Antiperonnel Alteck 129, Procedure for Estir re of British 25-Pounder ‘Airburst B. E. Chemical Shell Airburst shells are efficient in the production of contamination densities in tho rargo of 1, 2, and 4 g./sq. m. ‘The target should be smrounded by a frame 100 yards wide and allowance made for down- wind drift. For shell airburst at approximately 150 feet. the expenditures are given in table 89. TABLE 39, EXPENDITURES OF BRITISH 25-PR B. E. CHEMICAL SHELL H/MM THICKENED For Direct Antipertonne Alta Temi | Pea ‘ong, Egptet ve ff Mi VIT el, Craton tor ote Mae SED ue Vin -uaay by 07‘Chapter 4 Section 7 Section 7 PRODUCTION OF LIQUID CONTACT HAZARD ON GROUND AND VEGETATION 130, Expenditure for the Production of Liquid Contact Haxord a. For the production of a liquid contact hazard 400 to 800 pounds of HI chazging should be used for each square 100%100 yards. d, Charging weights for the various munitions are given :n table 40. TABLE 40, WEIGHTS OF H CHARGING IN AIRCRAFT BOMBS, ARTILERY AND MORTAR SHELL ‘AND SPRAY MUNITIONS Munition ‘welch ot ‘Munition ‘rowne Bar Manient Spray Manitone 8 Navy Maa baa & | Baten ate or sen ne 31, Duretion of Hazard with Munitions with Bursters ond Spray Munitions 4. The time in which about 60 percent of the charging will evapo- rate can ‘be estimated by multiplying the times in table 41 by the rate factor product from table 10, 8, To maintain the contamination it stould be refreshed with one- half tho origial amount at intervals based upon the time at which about 50 percent of the original H contamination will have evapo- ratel, TABLE 41, LIQUID CONTACT HAZARD DURATION FACTOR nd Spray Munitions Chorged H f Motion Beg, WE HATE FACTOR PRODUCT MULTIPLIED HY THE FACTOR FROM THiS TABLE (Gives THE TIME AT WHICH so PERCENT OF THE CONTAMINATION VILL HAVE EVAPORATED. 84GROUND Hozard to 800 pounds 10) yards. given in table AND MORTAR SHELL ging will evapo- will have evapo- Factor Paragraph 132 132, Duration of Hozerd With Munitions Without Bursters 4, Tho British L. C. 65-pound bomb and the Canadian L. C. 80- pound bomb which have no burster give © more persistent ground contamination than those from which the His scattered by an ex- plosive charge 3. The refreshment time can be estimated by multiplying the time given in table 42 by the rate factor product from table 10, TABLE 42. LIQUID CONTACT HAZARD DURATION FACTOR ‘Munitions Withoot Busters Charged H ‘When maximum persistence of a liquid contact hszand in the target, area is the objective, HTT changings give a much Ionger duration of hazard than the H chargings discussed above. The relatively non- volatile agent T remains active in the target area for periods several times as long as H does (paragraph 45 ¢ (2)). 134. Comporison With Safe Times It will be noted that for meximum effectiveness for offensive pur- poses the times given above are extremely short. in comparison with the times in table 1 for the performance of different tasks on con- taminated terrain with relative safety. ‘The times in paragraphs 191 and 182 are estimates of the times at which there is a probability of total disablement or sovero partial disablement of troops coming in contact with the contaminated ground or vegetation. ‘This first period is of relatively short duration followed by an extended period during which moderate degrees of disablement are likely to result from traversal or advance under fire. For our own troops the safe times have been set conservatively at the end of the estimated second period. ‘There is nc doubt that, due to vapor hazard and liquid hazard, the presence of H in a target area will serve as ¢ strong deterrent throughout the second period for troops whose only protective equip- ‘ment is the ges mask.Chapter 4 HAZARD TO FRIENDLY TROOPS FROM DOWNWIND TRAVEL OF GAS Section 1 INTRODUCTION 195, When gas is used on an area target on level terrain, either open or wooded, the downwind distance at which gas precautions may bbe necessary by friendly troops can be estimated roughly from the following tables. It is emphasized that the values given are only approximate; the actual need for precautions must be determined in the field by measurements of gas concentrations with the appropriate detector kats. 136. ‘The table for the travel of H vaporallows for a normal smount of veriaticn in the mean wind direction over the period of evaporation. If the wind were absolutely constant in direction, the travel of HL ‘vaper would approximate that given for the nonpersistent gases. ‘The tables give the fraction of the target area dosage which would be ob- tained at various distances downwind; the total dosage on the target area must be estimated by suitable means from the expenditure. Section 2 NONPERSISTENT AGENTS 137, Maximum Safe Dosage ‘A dosage of 100 mg. min,/cu, m. of OG, OK and AC is recommended ‘as the maximum to which unprotected personnel should be exposed, and safe downwind distances are based on this figure. 138. Estimation of Safe Downwind Distance 4. The safe downwind distance is influenced by the total dosage sot up on the area attacked. ‘The expenditures recommended in tables 8 and 9 can be taken to give a total dosage on the target of 3,200 mg. min./eu. m. of CG. 5,000 mg. min./eu. m. of AC. 11,000 mg. min./cu. m. of CK.Chapter 4 Section 2 For other expenditures the total dosage will be proportional to the number cf munitions used. 4, The-distances downwind of a target, at which the dosage will have fallon to a stated fraction of that on tho target, are given in table 43, This distance varies with the target size, TABLE 42. DOWNWIND TRAVEL OF NONPERSISTANT GAS ‘Digyooedoenrnd ofthe are a, ‘af target aren in the wind dedien Grad ‘Propet of args ara oon st downwind poston @ Requimzaewr. The distance downwind of an open target 1,0(0 1,000 yards at which unprotected personnel will normally be safe, 3, Exrexorrvre on Tanarr. Four M79 bombs charged CG per ‘square 100X100 yards. ¢. Forecast Mrrmororoatcat, Connrriens: ‘Temperature gradient, Neutral. Wind speed, 8 miles per hour. 4 Casonarox: (2) Under the above conditions the recommended expenditure from table 8 is 2.1 bombs per square 100X100 yards, ‘The expenditure to bbe used is 4 bombs per square 100X100 yard (@) Total dosage on the target will ke 4; X8200=6100mg. min./ cu. m. (3) Reduction of this dosage to the safe maximum dosage of 100 mg min,/ew. m. isa reduction to 1/60. (4) From table 43 the safe downwind distance for a reduction of 1/60 for » target length of 1,000 yards is approximately 15,000 yards. 140. Tt is emphasized that the calculations in this Chapter apply only to level terrain. In the case of nonpersistent agents especially, travel in valleys and along stream beds may cause a hazard at a much greater distance than is indicated by the calculations.ional to the ¢ dosage will B, ere given in tape gen nditure from 00 mg. min./ pista much Paragraph 141 Section 3 PERSISTENT AGENTS 141, Maximum Safe Dosage of H Vapor ‘A dosage of 50 mg. min./cu. m. of H vapor is recommended as the maximum to which unprotected personnel should be exposed. ‘The safe downwind distances are based on this figure and are estimated in a manner similar to that described in paragrapis 138 and 189 for nonpersistent agents, 142, Estimation of Safe Dewnwind Distance ‘a The totel dosage on the target area is determined by methods already described in paragraphs 99 and 100, b. The distances downwind of a target, at which the dosage will have fallen to a stated fraction of that on the target, are given in table 44. This distance varies with th target size, TARE 44, DOWNWIND TRAVEL OF H VAPOR EERSTE ae? ‘Proportion of tres rua dosage ai downwind peaiton |_Y 143. Example of Estimation of Safe Downwind Distance for H Vapor a, Requimmcexr, To find the distance downwind of a target at which unprotected personnel will normally be safe, ’. Sux or Trae axp Exrexorrure. Target is 500X500 yards and is contaminated with H to give a total domge of 2,500 mg. min,/eu. m. over 8C percent of the area, ¢. CALCULATION = (2) Reduction of the dosage 2,500 mg. min./eu. m. to the safe value of 50 mg. min./eu. m. is a reduction to 1/50. (2) From table 44 the safe distance downwind of a target 800 yards long in the wind direction for a reduction ratio of 1/50 is 2,500 yards,TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD PART 2 DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA PROJECT COORDINATION STAFF APRIL 1946TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD THIS DOCUMENT CONTAINS INFORMATION AFFECT- ING THE NATIONAL DEFENSE OF THE UNITED STATES WITHIN THE MEANING OF THE ESPIONAGE ACT, 50 U.S.C., 31 AND 32, AS AMENDED. ITS TRANSMISSION OR THE REVELATION OF ‘ITS CONTENTS IN ANY MANNER TO AN UNAUTHORIZED PERSON IS PRO- HIBITED BY LAW. Classified SECRET by authority of The Chief, Chemical Warfare Service. Initials LES 10 May 1946Orricz or THE CutEF, Cunmicat Wanrann Senvicn, Washington 20, D. C., 5 July 1946. Technical aspects of chemical warfare has been prepared under the supervision of Chief, Chemical Warfare Service, United States Army, and is published for the information and guidance of all concerned. [SPCWE 461 (10 May 46)] By Orver or tHe Carer, Caemicat Warrare Sxrvice: ERIC LEE Colonel, CWS Executive OfficerPREFACE THE PROJECT COORDINATION STAFF The Project Coordination Staff to the Advisory Committee on the Effectiveness of Gas Warfare Matériel is an international group formed at a mesting held 4 March 1944 at which the U. S. Chemical Warfare Service and British Commonwealth Chemical Warfare organizations were represented by their chief executives. The staff was charged with the review of the data accumulating at the several testing stations in the cooperating countries, in order that a common basis for doctrine could be achieved. To this end, appropriate Ameri- can and British Commonwealth organizations have been represented on the staff since its inception. The following have been assigned to the staff during the periods indicated : Barrett, H. M., Suffield Experimental Station, Canada, Apr. 1944-Publication date. Clartdge, P. R. P,, Major, R. E,, British Army, Sept. 1945-Mar. 1948, Day, R. A., Major, OWS, U. 8. Army, Oct. 1944-Jan. 1945. _ Doheny, J. J., 1st Lt., CWS, U. 8. Army, Apr. 1944-Apr. 1945, Fishback, Joe, Major, CWS, U.S. Army, Mar. 1945-Publication date. Goddard, R, F., Major, CWS, U. S. Army, Sept, 1945-Dec, 1945. Green, J. W., Captain, OWS, U. 8. Army, Oct. 1944 Feb. 1946, ‘Hadow, H. J., Cem. Def, Res. Dept, U. K., Oct. 1945-Publication date, Hall, ©, A., Captain, WS, U. 8, Army, Apr. 1944-Feb, 1948. Hillman, J. H., TI, Captain, CWS, U. 8. Army, Apr. 1944-Apr. 1945, “ Hinyard, J. N., Colonel, CWS, U.S. Army, Apr, 1944-Apr, 1045. Hutchens, J. 0., Captain, OWS, U. S. Army, Apr. 1944-July 1944, Irish, R. B., Captain, AC, U. 8, Army, May 1044-Oct. 1945, Tones, F. W., 1st Lt., CWS, U. 8. Army, Apr. 1944-Feb, 1946, Lowe, F. F., Sada. Lar., RCAF, Apr. 1944-Nov. 1945, MeLean, F. 0, Lt. Colonel, MC, U.8. Army, June 1944-Sept. 1945. Moore, Stanford, Division 9, NDRO, U. S., Apr. 1944-Oct. 1945, Noyes, W. A., Jr, Division 10, NDRG, U. 8. Apr. 1944-Publication date, Parker, P,P, 1st Lt., OWS, U. 8. Army, Apr. 1944-Nov, 1945. Ritter J. H., Captain, CWS, U. 8. Army, Apr, 1944—Jan, 1945, Roof, J. G., Division 10, NDRG, U. S., Oct. 1944-Sept. 1945, ‘Trotman, C. G., Chem, Def. Res. Dept, U. K., May 1944-Nov. 1945. Winsche, W. B., Division 10, NDRG, U. 8,, Sept. 1944-July 1945. Zercher, J. A., Captain, OWS, U. 8. Arms, Nov, 1944-Apr. 1945,gettin ‘The foliowing have been attached to the staff, or have directly con tributed to this report: Arthur, W. L,, Captain, AC, U, 8. Army. Beckwich, J. B., Captain, MC, U. 8. Army. Birnie, A. W., Major, Suffield B. S., Canada, Cidorowski, 8. R., Captain, CWS, U. 8. Army. Cullumbine, H., Lt, Col., RAMC, Chem, Def. Res, Dept, U.K. Fish, HL J., Suffield Experimental Station, Canada, Graef, I. P., Lt. Colonel, MO, U. 8. Army. Griffith, B, A. Suffield Experimentel Station, Canada, Hormats, Saul, Technical Division, CWS, U, 8. Army, Jobnston, Harold, Division 9, NDRO,U. S. Kernofsky, D. A., Captain, M. C., U.S. Army. Merrill, R. D., Division 9, NDRO, U.8. Pillsbury, P, L., Captain, MO, U.S, Army. Renshaw, Birdsey, Division 9, NDRO, U. 8. Show, W.4.,Lt. (J.g-) USNR. Somerville, Walter, Lt. Col., RAMG, Suffield BW, 8. Canada, ‘Tait, G. W. C., Suffield Experimental Station, Canada, ‘Talbot, T. R., Jr., Lt. Comdr., U. 8. Navy. Secrerarran Srarr Becker, Marguerite H., Technical Division, CWS, U. 8. Army. Brown, Alberta, WAC, U. 8. Army. Keller, LaVeda,.Division 10, NDRO, U. 8. Longley, Helen M., Technical Division, CWS, U.;8. Army. Cooperation and valuable assistance have been zeceived from mili- tary and civilian personnel at the ‘various headquarters, proving grounds, arsenals, and testing stations throughout the British Com- monwealth and the United States. Individual acknowledgment of these many contributions is impossible because of their number. The present report is based on an earlier draft which was circulated for comment in May 1945 as Project Coordination Staff Report No. 9. 25 April 1946. Awen H. Warr, Major Generel, USA, Chairman, Advisory Committee onthe Effectiveness of Gas Warfare Matériel.irectly con- from mili- rs,. proving ritish Com- edgment of amber. s circulated eport No. 9. the Matériel. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD Part 2 DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOREWORD Part 1 is written in summary form and for brevity has been left undocumented. Part 2 is a discussion of the principal experimental evidence on which Part 1 is based. It includes explanations of the method adopted in determining the expenditures recommended in Part 1. It has not been possible to deal with all the relevant information or with all aspects of the subject. Furthermore, it has been necessary to neglect a number of valuable reports received shortly before pub- lication of this document. Certain material included in Part 2 has not been referred to in Part 1.TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD Part 2 DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Forewonp.. va ‘Tasue or ConTents. 1x Last oF Tapuas_ xt Laer oF Frevzzs. xv 1 Inrnopucri0n.. Avpenprx 1. Errsct or Waaraar ano or Trrnain on Taz BERAVIOR or Cuemical WARFARE AGENTS Paragraph Section 1. Introduction. 3 Section 2. Atmospheric Turbulence. 3 Section 3. Effects of Uneven Terrain on Non-Persistent Gases. 29 Absorption Effect of Foliage.. 34 40 Page 15 Summary. 49 Effective Dosages of H Vapor. 52 Section 3. Illustrative Case Histories. 57 Section 4. Effect of H Vapor on Observers and Unimpregnated Clothing... 58 Section 5. Effect of H Vapor on Human Eyes.. 60 Section 6. Discussion. 65 Seetion 7. Corclusions. 67 Bibliography. Page 56 Appenpix 3. Munrrion ExPENpIruRes Section 1. Caleulation of Munition Expenditures Based on Random Distribution -- 69 Section 2. Non-Persistent Agents for Production of Casualties among Unprotected Personnel and by Canister Penetration 1 A. Comparison of Observed Results with Theory. 113, B. Canister Penetration in the Open with Aircraft Bom! 130 ©. Attack of Unprotected Personnel in the Open by Aircraft Bombs... 134 D. Canister Penetration in the Open with U. 8.4.2Inch Mortar... 138 E, Attack of Unprotected Personnel in the Open with U. 8. 4. Inch Mortars 142, F. Canister Penetration on Wooded Terzain with Aircraft Bombs. 146 G. Attack of Unprotected Personnel in Wooded Terrain with Aircraft Bombs... 187 J. U8, 4.2 Inch Mortar in Wooded Terrain.. 162 XK, Harassment 164 L. British 4.2 Inch Mortar. 165Appnpix 3. Munrrion Exrenprrures—Continued Poragraph Section 8. Non-Persistent Agents: Production of Casualties through Imperfect Gas Discipline 169 A. U.S. and British Aircraft Bombs - 169 B. U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar. - 191 ©. 7.2 Inch Chemical Rocket. - 198 Section 4. Munitions Charged H: Casualties from Vapor Effects... 204 A. U.S. M47A2 and M70 Bombs on Open Terrain. - 208 B. U.S. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell on Open Terrain... ~ 232 ©. U.S. M47A2 and M70 Bombs on Wooded Terrain - 243 D. U.S, £.2 Inch Mortar Shell on Wooded Terrain. - 263 E. Supplementary Data on M47A2 and M70 Bombs ~ 267 F. U.S. Artillery Shell... - 271 G. British 4.2 Inch Mortar Bomb - 273 J Aircraft Spray Tanks... - 277 XK. British 500 Ib. Airburst Bomb. ~ 291 L. British 25 pounder Base Ejection Chemical Shell. - 296 M. British L. ©. 65 and Canadian L. ©. 50 1b. Bombs - 301 N. Towns and Cities. 312 Section 6. Direct Anti-Personnel Attack with H Spray- - 316 A. Aireraft Spray Tanks. - 323 B. British 500 Ib. Airburst Bomb. ~ 334 G, British 25 pounder Base Ejection Chemical Shell. 345 Bibiiograpep. - Page 178 Aprenvix 4. Prorgction Arrorpep 3x Canisters AcaiNsr Non- Prrsisrent AGENTS Arranpix 5. Prorzction Acainsr H Varor, Section 1. Summary of Protection Afforded by Impregnated Cloth- ing_.- 394 Seotion 2. Effects of H Vapor on Observers Provided with Class I and Class II Protection. 404 Seotion 8. Rate of Decrease in CC-2 Content of impregnated Cloth- . __ ing when Worn. Bibliography. Apranp=x 6. Prorection AGarns? Frmtp Fortiricarions Seerion 1. Introduction_.--.. 428 Section 2, Conditions in Occupied Gasproofed Fortification. ~ 433 Secrion 3, Penetration of Gas into Open Defenses and Caves... 436 Secrion 4. Penetration of Gas into Bunkers: Non-Persistent Gas... 440 Penetration of Gas into Bunkers: H Vapcr. ~ 451 Conclusions. - 456 Page 218 Aprenpix 7. Waananiuity or Prorsotive Equipment Section 1. Wearability of Permeable Clothing (CC-2 Impregnated) in Hot, Humid Climates. Section 2, Wearability of the Gas Mas _ Conditions. Avpenpix 8. Duration or Hazanp From H ContaMinarion. Bittiography>.Paragraph ough ~ Page 267 Paragreph Arpexprx 9. _Hazanp Fro Downwip Taaves o” Gas - 560 _ Bibliography... .. a wee Page 272 Gloseary Page 273 Index. Page 279 , LIST OF TABLES e Avpenprx 1. Errzcr or Wearsen anp or Teanary oN THE Brnavion or Cremica, Warraxn AGENTS Table 1. Reaction of Non-Persistent Agents with Foliage. 2 Table 2, Forecast Scores on Micro-Meteorological Predictions by ‘the 4-Week Combined U. 8. Army-Navy Air Forces Chemical Training Classes, Dugway 1B Table 8. Break-down of Scores for One Class of Dugway ‘Trained Micro-Meteorologists- - 2B Aveexprx 2. Errncrivz Dosacs or H Varor Table 4. Recommended H Dosages. 17 Table 5. Dosages for Production of Injuries by H Vapor in Hot and Humid Weather. 19 Table 6, Dosages for Produetion of Injuries by H Vapor in Warm Weather (60°-80° F.).. 19 ©: Table 7. Effeota of H Vapor on Observers, Clase III Pretection. Category 1: Hot and Humid Weather 25 Table 8. Effects of H Vapor on Observers, Class III Pretection. Category 2: Warm Weather. 38 Table 9. Kffects of H Vapor on Observers, Class III Pretection. : Category 3: Cool Weather. 42 Table 10. Effects of H Vapor on Observers, Selected Observations from Secondary Sources. 46 ‘. Table 11. Eye Reactions to H Vapor 48 Table 12. Eye Reactions to H Vapor. 49 Table 13. Eye Reactions to H Vapor. 50 Table 14. Recommended H Dosages. nr) ‘ApreNprx 8. Munroron Exrenpirunes { Table 15. Experimental Data and Ey Values for Trial No. M70-24. 68 Table 16. Summary of Integrated Values of AdD for 400 Pounds of Agent, -- 72 Table 17, Comparison of Eas, for M79 Bombs Obtained at Dugway Proving Ground with Values Caleulated from the British Slide Rule. 73 Table 18. Values of Ey for Estimation of Expenditures for Dosages above 30,000 mg. min./eu. m_. 74 2.) Table 19. Expenditure Table for M79 Borabs Charged OK, Open Terrain (Canister Penetration). 75 Table 20. Comparison of Calculated and Observed Areas for Various Total Dosages. M79 Bomb in Open. - 76 - Table 21. Expenditure Table for M79 Bombs Charged CG, Open ‘Terrain (Unprotected Personnel) . 76 es! Table 22, Expenditure Table for M79 Bombs Charged CK o: AC, Tet Open Terrain (Unprotected Personnel). 76 Table 23. Expenditure Table for 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell Charged CK, eat Open Terrain (Canister Penetration) . 17Avpanprx 3. Munrrion Exenorrorss—Continued Pago ‘Table 24. Expenditure Table for 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell Charged CG, Open Terrain (Unprotected Personnel) 78 Table 25. Summary of Total Dosage Data from M79 Non-Persistent Bomb Tests in Woods at Bushnell... 80 ‘Table 26. Summary of Total Dosage Data from Tests at San Jose on Single M79 Bombs Charged Non-Persistent Gas..... 81 ‘Table 27. Expenditure Table for M79 Bombs Charged CK, Wooded ‘Terrain (Canister Penetration) -- 82 Table 26. Lethal Areas from Single M79 Bomb Tests, San Jose Jungle. - --- 88 Table 2¢. Lethal Areas from M79 Kombs, Wooded Terrain, Bushnell (Unprotected Personnel) _- 84 Table 30. Expenditure Table for M79 Bombs Charged CG or CK, Wooded Terrain (Unprotected Personnel’ _ 84 Table 31. Munition Expenditures for Bombs on Open ‘Terrain to Cause Casualties through Imperfect Gas Discipline... 89 Table 32. Munition Expenditures for M79 Bombs on Wooded Ter- rain to Cause Casualties through Imperfect Gas Dis- cipline. 90 Table 39, Trials with Single 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell Charged CG. Summary of 30 Second and 2 Minute Data. 92 Table 34. Munition Expenditures for U. S. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell Charged CG on Open and Wooded Terrain to Cause Casualties through Imperfect Gas Diseipiine__ 92 Table 35. U.S. 7.2 Inch Rockets Charged CG. Area Covered in 2 Minutes with Casualty Producing Dosage. 4 Table 36. Data from Single M472, M70, and Mk 42 Bombs Charged H (Levinstein) Functioned Statically at Bush- nell. Open Terrain. 97 Table 37. Factors Used to Calculate the Rate Factor Product for Conditions other than Standard. 99 Table 3% Rate Data. U. S. M4742 and M70 Bombs at Bushnell. Open Terrain. _ 10 Table 39. Values of By and Ens “for a Final Product of 1.0. 108 Table 40, Rate Data. U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell at Bushnell. Open Terrain __. u0 Table 41, Data from U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Multishell Trials on Open Terrain at Bushnell... .......... 13 Table 42, Data from U.S. 4.2 Inch Mortar, Single Shell Trials Bushnell 16 Table 43, Data from M47A2 and M70 Single Bomb Trials on Wooded Terrain. 119 Tatle 44. Data from U. 8. M47A2 and M70 Multibomb Trials on Wooded Terrain... 120 Tatle 45, Comparison of the Results of M70 and M47A2 Multibomb Trials with Estimate. Wooded Terrain. 121 Table 46, Rate Data. U. 8. M4742 and M70 Bombs, Wooded Terrain _ 128 Table 47, Ratio of Eq Values for Wooded and Open Terrain-_.... 127 Table 48, Rate Data, U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell. Wooded Ter- rain. 129 Table 49, Data from U.S. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell Trisis on Wooded Terrain. - 13hPage 78 80 81 82 83 84 & 90 92 92 o4 97 104 108 110 3 116 119 120 121 123 127 129 131 Avpanpix 3, Monrrion Exrenprronss—Contiaued ‘Table 50. Comparison of the Results of Multishell Mortar Trials with Estimate.-_ ‘Table 51. Comparison of Predicted and Experimental Result Single Bomb Trials of M47A2 and M70 Bombs. Open Terrain at Bushnell Table 52. Comparison of Predicted and xperimental Results. Single Bomb Trials of M47A2 and M70 Bombs. Wooded Terrain at Bushnell. ‘Table 53. Conversion Factors for Artillery Shell ‘Table 54. Data from Trials with the British 4.2 Inch Mortar Bomb. ‘Table 55. Rate Data, H Spray from U. 8. Aireraft Spray Tanks. Table 56. Drop Size Observed in Spray Trials... Table 57. Data from Trials with U. S. Spray Tanks Charged H on Open Terrain at Dugway. ‘Table 58. Comparison of the Results of Spray Trials with Estimate, Open Terrain ‘Table 59. Rate Data, L. C. 65 and L. C. 50 Ib. Bombs. ‘Table 60. Data from Trials with the L. C. 5) and 65 lb. Bombs. Table 61. Summary of Liquid Contamination Results. Aircraft Spray Trials at Dugway. ‘Table 62, Contamination Widths. Single Aircraft Spray ‘Ti Dugway... ‘Table 63. Contamination Densiti way. Table 64, Comparison of Thiekened and Unthiekened Aireraft Spray ‘Trials (Twelve M10 Tanks) Table 65, Data from Trials with the Britist L, C. 500 Ib. Airburst Bomb Charged Thickened H_. ‘Table 66, Height Wind Speed Products and Areas Contaminated by British L. C. 500 Ib. Airbursi Bomb Charged Thick- ened H. Table 67. British L. C. 500 Ib. Airburst Bomb Charged Thickened H. Mean Areas Contaminated at Different Height Wind Speed Products... ‘Table 68. Expenditure Table for Liquid Contamination. British L. ©, 500 Ib, Airburst Bomb Charged Thickened 1. Table 69. Predieted and Experimental Values for a Multibomb Trial (L. C. 500 Ib., Airburst) Table 70, British 25 Pr. B. E. Chemical Shell Charged H7/MM. Data from Single Round Trials - Table 71, Mean Areas and Densities of Contamination. British 25 Pr, B. E. Chemical Shell Charged HT/MM.. Table 72. Expenditure Table for Liquid Contamination. Pr. B. E. Chemical Shell Charged HT/MM_. Table 73. Comparison of Predicted Areas with those Obtained in Multishell Trials. British 25 Pr. B. E, Chemieal Shell. (Tables 74 to 79 deleted.) ‘Apvenpix 4, Paorzerion Arronpep By Cantstsns Acatnst Noy-PER- SISTENT AGENTS Table 80. Approximate Dosages Required to Penetrate Various Miltary and Civilian Canisters... Aircraft Spray Trials at Dug- Bri 134 136 137 139 141 142 145. us 152 154 159 163 164 168 170 i 172 172 173 175 177 177 177 186 xiikArrpxoix 5. Protsetton Aaarnsr H Yaror Page Table 81. Dosages Required to Disable Men in CC-2 Clothing... 194 Table 82. Penetration of Clothing, Class IT Protection (New Cloth- ing), Single Exposures to H Vapor. 195 ‘Table 83. Penetration of Clothing. Modified Single Exposures to It Vapor. 196 ‘Table 84. Penetration of Clothing. Class I and II Protection (New Clothing), Repeated Exposures to H Vapor. 197 Table 85. Penetration of Clothing, Class II Protection (New anc Worn Clothing). Repeated Exposures to H Vapor... 198 ‘Table 86. Penetration of Clothing. One Layer Protection (New and Worn Clothing). Single Exposure to H Vapor. 199 Table 87. Penetration of Clothing, Class II Protection (New an Worn Clothing). Repeated Exposures to H Vapor... 201 Table 88, Penetration of Clothing. Class II Proteosion (New and Worn Clothing). Repeated Exposures to H Vapor.... 202 Table 80. Rate of Decrease in CC-2 Content of Impregnated Clothing... 203 Avpenpix 6. Prorzction Against Gas Arronpen ny Japanese TrPE Fieup Fonrrrrcations Table 90. Penetration of Non-Persistent Agents into Bunkers Fitted with Gas Curtains 211 Table 91. Penetration of Non-Persistent Agents into Bunkers Fitted with Airlooks 212 Table 92. Penetration of Non-Persistent Agents into Bunkers Equipped with Curtains and Collective Protoctors..... 212 Table 92. H Vapor Penetration of Fortifications... - 215 Avrnypix 7. Wearastuitr or Prorzcrive EqurrMenz ‘Table 94. Irritaney of 2-Layer (U. 8. Army) CC-2 Impregnated Clothing. - 222 Table 95. Irritancy of Clothing. 224 Table 96. Irritancy of Clothing 226 Table 97, Irritaney of U. 8. Army CC-2 Imprognatec Clothing... 228, Table 98. Irritancy of U.S. Army CC-2 Impregnated Clothing... 228, Table 92. Irritancy of 2-Layer (U. 8. Army) CC-2 Impregnated Clothing 230 Table 10, Number of Men Discontinuing Test Due to Irritation... 231 ‘Table 101. Irritaney of 14-Layer CC-2 Impregnated Clothing... 282 Table 102. Tests of Gas Mask Wearability: Men at Rest. = 239 Table 103. ‘Tests of Gas Mask Wearability: Men at Work. = 240 Table 104. Symptoms Produced by Wearing British Masks . 248 Table 105, Trials with British Masks. 245 Appenpix 8, Dvrarion or Hazan From H ConramiNation ‘Table 106, Duration of Hazard from H Contamination 250 Table 107, Data from Traversal Trials. _ 253 Table 18. Residual H Dosages on Areas Attacked with M47A2 Bombs. 54 Table 109, Residual H Dosages on Bombs.. 255 Table 110, Residual H Dosages on Areas Attacked with U.S. 4.2 Ineh Mortar Bombs. - 255 xivPage Page Agrenprx 8, Duration or Hazanp From H Coraumvatrox—Continued 194 Table 111, Residual I Dosages on Areas Attacked with U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Bombs... 256 195 ‘Table 112. Residual H Dosages on Areas 256 Table 113. Residual H Dosages on Areas Attacked with M70 Bombs. 257 196 | Table 114. Casualties Produced by Advaneing Under Fire Across an Area Contaminated with H__..... 258 197 ‘Table 115. Casualties Produced by Occupying an Area ed with H (Men not Under Fire)... 262, 198 ‘Table 116, Data from Exercise Sandfly at San Jose.. 263 Table 117. Casualties Caused by Traversing an Area Contaminated 199 with HT at San Jose. 264 Table 118, Casualties Caused by Advancing Under Fire on an Area 201 Contaminated with HT at San Jose. 265 Table 119. Casualties Caused in Occupying an Area Contaminated 202 with HT at San Jose. -- 268 Arranprx 9, Hazanp From Downwinp TRaveL ov Gas 208 Table 120. Relation between Downwind Dosage and Distance from Target. 269 Table 121, Deta on Downwind Dosages with 4.2 Inch Moztar Charged H_ 270 21 Table 122, Data on Downwind Dosages with Airerafi Bombs ‘Charged H. 270 212 Table 123. Data on Downwind Dosages with Low Altitude Spray-. 270 Table 124. Data on Downwind Dosages with Non-Persistent Agents. 212 Open Terrain. 271 215 Table 125, Relation between Dowawind Dosages and Distance from ‘Target for H and for Non-Persistent Agents 271 Table 126, Downwind Travel of H Vapor 272 292 Table 127. Downwind Travel of Non-Persistent Gas. 272 2k 2 LIST OF FIGURES 226 Avpenprx 1 28 Figure 1. Limits of R-Values Plotted Against Wind Speed in the es Open over 2 Heights of Gras: 5 Figure 2. Limits of Temperature Gradiont Plotted Against Wind 230 Speed. Measurements made in the Open. 6 231 Figure 8. Temperature Gradient in Woods or Jungle Plotted Against oe ‘Time of Day, on Days with Less than 0.5 Cloud Cover.. 7 oe Figure 4. Variation of Dosage with Blevatio: 9 oo Figure 5. Variation of Dosage with Elevation... 10 aa Appanprx 3 oA Figure 6, Plot of Dosage Versus Area for Single Gas Munitions where Dros. exceeds Dy. ween 60 250 Figure 7. Plot of Dosage Versus Area for Single Gas Munitions 333 where Dyes. is less than Dy 62 wee Figure 8. Dosage Contour Map of Represontative Tria: in the s 254 Open at Bushnell. 95 Figure 9. Plot of Wind Speed Versus Wind Speed Rate Factor. 100 255 Figure 10. Plot of Ground Surface Temperature Versus Rate Factor. 101 Figure 11, Rate of Vapor Recovery from M472 and M70 Bombs on 255 Open Terrain. - -- 102 xvAppzorx 3—Continued Figure 12. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18. Figure 19. Figure 20, Figure 21. Figure 22, Figure 23. Figure 24. Figure 25. Figure 26. Figure 27. Figure 28. Figure 29. Figure 30. Figure 31. Figure 32. Plot of Total Dosage Versus Area for Trials Under High ‘Lapse Adjusted to 4 Miles per Hour Plot of Dosage Versus Area for Bombs on Open Terrain Plot of Munition Expenditure Versus Final Product Rate of Vapor Recovery from U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell on Open Terrain. Comparison of Rate of Vapor Recovery from Bom (MA47A2 and M70) and U. §. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell_. Plot of Dosage Versus Area for a 4.2 Inch Mortar Trial (CM-8)..-.--- oo - Variation of Ense. (4 tiles per hour) with Temperature Gradient for Bombs and Mortar Shell. Open and Wooded Terrai Plots of Dosage Versus Area for U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell. Rate of Vapor Recovery at Bu: Hours (M70-47) Rate of Vapor Recovery from M47A2 and M70 Bombs on Wooded Terrain. Rate of Vapor Recovery from M47A2 and M70 Bombs on, Wooded Terrain. Rate of Vapor Recovery from U. 8. 4.2 Inch Mortar Shell ‘on Wooded Terrain. Rate of Vapor Recovery from British Mcrtar Bombs on Open Terrain. Rate of Vapor Recovery ftom Aireraft Sp: Rate of Vapor Recovery from L. C. 50 Bombs on Open ‘Terrain. Average Contamination Density on Individual Panels from Aircraft Spray Trial P-20-7R.. Plot of Contamination Density Versus Distance from Upwind Edge of Pattern in Trial No. P-20-15_- A Comparison of the Contamination Density from a Multiaireraft Operational Trial with that Predicted from a Single Aircraf; Trial Multiaireraft Contamination Pattern Predicted from Densities Obtained from @ Single Aircraft Trial (P-20-39)_ Plot of Area Contaminsted Versus Height Wind Product for 500 Ib. Air Burst Bomb. Plot of Mean Area Contaminated in Excess of a Given Density Versus Contamination Density for Single 25 Pr. B. E. Chemical Shell__ Page 105 106 109 ut wu 112 uz 122 124 125 129 138 143 158 162 165 166 166 171 176105 106 109 ut ut uz 115, 7 122 124 125 129 138, 143 153 162 165 166 166 a7. 176 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE FIELD Part 2 DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA INTRODUCTION ‘The eight appendices comprising Part 2 each deal with separate subjects and have separate bibliographies. The references in the text are inserted thus: (15), the numbering starting at (1) in each bibliography. The paragraph numbering is consecutive throughout Pert 2. An index is included to supplement the table of contents. ‘The glossary from Part 1 is reprinted for ready reference. 010030 —2 =, 1Appendix 1 EFFECT OF WEATHER AND OF TERRAIN ON THE BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS Section 1 INTRODUCTION 1. It is not intended to present a general treatise on meteorology and its effect on the behavior of chemical warfare agents. That subject has been covered adequately in various manuals. It is intended rather to present certain special phenomena which have Deen observed during the past few years. 2. Weather affects the ability of the armed forces to deliver the munitions on the target, the human susceptibility to certain agents, particularly H, and the behavior of these agents afte: they are de- livered on the target. Accurate meteorological and micro-meteoro- logical forecasts are not only desirable but essential for the planning of a successful gas attack. The effects of many of thesa factors can be appreciated by reference to the munitions expenditures tables in Part 1, Chapter 3. Section 2 * ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE :=.8. Turbulence exerts a major influence on gas cloud behavior. Under stable atmospheric conditions, the agent is diffused upward only slowly, whereas turbulence of either thermal or mechanical -prigin is responsible for mixing of lower and higher levels with con- sequent dilution of the agent. 1 4. On level open terrain the temperature gradient and the wind Speed ratio have both been. used to measure atmospheric stability. {The temperature gradient (dT/dh, the rate of change of temperature vith height) often varies so greatly with height that it has become ssustomary to use the temperature difference between two fixed heights above the ground. —W.. 3Appendix 1-Section 2 5. Unfortunately these heights have not been standardized so that it is difficult to correlate data from one station with that from another. The difference in air temperature between a height of 2 meters above the ground and some lower level has often been employed. ‘The lower height varies from 0.1 to 1 meter, but quite often in recent measurements a height of 0.3 meter has been chosen... In some tables in this report the temperature gradient is expressed as AT tt.—1te. which is essentially the same as ATs m. -.3m,as recorded at some field stations. 6. The wind speed ratio is usually taken as the ratio of wind speeds measured simultaneously at 2 meters and at 1 meter above ground level, respectively. These measured values of wind speed ratio must often be corrected to take account of factors such as surface roughness before they can be used as the R parameter on the British Gas Con- centratior. Slide Rule. 7. The temperature gradient on open terrain frequently undergoes changes, sometimes with exceeding rapidity. Ordinary glass ther- mometers respond too slowly, in many cases, to show these changes. Precautions must be taken in reading these thermometers because the temperature difference is usually small and the effect of body heat may invalidate the measurements. Resistance thermometers or thermocouples with automatic recording devices are most; suitable, but they too must be shielded from direct: sunlight and properly aspirated. In speaking of temperature gradient during a field experi- ment, it is necessary to deal with average values since the value at any one instant may be quite different from the average. 8. The wind speed ratio may change quite rapidly from instant to instant, and moreover, it is affected by the roughness of the surface. Over a surface covered with tall grass, or bushes, the ratio must be corrected for roughness (Figure 1). On a smooth surface this ratio is about 1.14 for neutral conditions, greater than this for stable o1 inversion conditions, and less than this for unstable or lapse conditions 9. At some installations measurements of temperature gradient have now been made either for a larger number of field experiments 01 continuously over long periods of time. Unfortunately not all o! these measurements have been published, and are not available for consideration. 10, In Figure 2 the limits of temperature gradients from specia studies on the desert at Dugway Proving Ground and for observation: made over a period of 15 months at Bushnell, Fla., have been plottec against the wind velocities measured 2 meters above the grounc surface. In all of these experiments the difference in temperatur between 2 meters and 0.25 or 0.30 meter above ground level has beer used as a measure of temperature gradient. 4ed so that n another. lers above zed. The in recent ome tables Tote.-18. some field ind speeds ve ground ratio must roughness Gas Con- undergoes lass ther- e changes. ecause the body heat meters or t suitable, i properly eld experi- ve value at instant to he surface. io must be » this ratio r stable or conditions. ‘e gradient eriments or not all of vailable for ‘om special bservations een plotted the ground emperature “el has been Paragraph 11 GRASS HEIGHTS 1,7 -2.6 cM. (322 OBSERVATIONS) GRASS HEIGHTe 4.0 4.7 0M. (598 OBSERVATIONS. WiND SPEED, Un PH. Figure 1. Limits of R-Values Plotted Against Wind Speed in the Open over 2 Heights of Grass. 11, It may be noted from the data presented in Figures 1 and 2 that the temperature gradient reaches extremely large positive or extremely large negative values only in the low wind speed range. The turbulence always present when the wind speed is high tends to diminish the terperature gradient, inversions decreasing to very small values above 6 or 8 miles per hour. Moderate and marked Tapses have been observed, however, even in the higher wind speed ranges. 12, Figure 1 shows a plot of averaged wind speed ratios (R) against wind speed for saveral hundred observations over grassy terrain in England (12). Due to the insensitivity of most anemometers at very low wind speeds, no values are included below about 2.5 miles per hour. It may be noticed that the wind speed ratio fells between narrower limits at high wind speeds than at low. 13. In making a micro-meteorological forecast from a standard weather forecast, data such as those presented in Figures 1 and 2 might be useful in indicating the extremes which are obtained with a given wind velocity. More extended studies are necessary before definite conclusions would be warranted, and the data in the figures are shown merely as a rough guide based on our present state of knowledge.