Fieldwork Methodology

The two dominant methodologies of fieldwork practice, the traditional and the scientific, have
different aims implicit within them. The traditional approaches, sometimes termed 'fieldwork
excursions' have aims rooted in the development of content knowledge. The scientific approach
of data collection/hypothesis testing and field enquiry extend the learning opportunities available
and promote the application of learning objectives to the planning of fieldwork. Using the
scientific methodology, learning in the field becomes as rigorous as learning in the classroom
from a planning perspective.
These two approaches can be complimentary, with the scientific approach placing a high value
on the development of numeracy and analytical thinking skills and the more humanistic
fieldwork excursion approach emphasizing and fostering the development of oracy and literacy,
and a sense of place.
It can be concluded that fieldwork may be categorised according to its degree of studentcentredness. The more traditional, teacher-centred approaches to fieldwork, centre on
explanation/lecture, note-taking and directed observation. Under such conditions there is less
scope for active student involvement. At best they are required to observe, describe and explain
features of the environment using previously acquired knowledge. A more effective, but timeconsuming approach is one that incorporates the processes of field research. While still
incorporating the elements of observation, description and explanation it adopts a problemsolving focus. Students identify a geographical issue or problem as a result of their observations
or studies; they formulate a hypothesis; design a research methodology; collect and record data;
process and analyse the information and draw conclusions that result in the acceptance or
rejection of the original hypothesis. The type of fieldwork undertaken ultimately depends on the
purpose of the activity. Many activities will contain elements of both approaches. The field
research approach, where time is available, is our preferred methodology, enhancing the
students ability to apply inquiry-based skills in different geographical contexts.
We adopt one of three possible approaches to fieldwork, depending upon the curricular
requirements of the visiting staff.
A deductive approach, where students generate aims and hypotheses based upon prior
theoretical knowledge, select appropriate methods, collect data and carry out analysis.
An inductive or 'enquiry' approach, as generally understood in the context of 16-19 U.K.
geography. Issues are introduced, key questions raised, and students select methods to investigate
and develop possible solutions to these.

An 'Individual Inquiry' approach, whereby students have the opportunity to select their own
topic, adopt their own approach and complete an independent project or field investigation. Staff
act as supervisors and advisors, providing equipment, advice and ensuring safe working.
Most commonly, teachers select from our range of field studies that have been designed to meet
the requirements of the AS/A2 level U.K. and IB syllabuses. These field studies lend themselves
to both deductive and inductive or enquiry approaches.
The deductive method
The deductive method works from the more general to the more specific. For example, we might
begin with a theory about expected downstream changes in river channel characteristics. We then
narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further
when we collect data to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the
hypotheses with specific data - a confirmation (or not) of the original theory.

The deductive field study method

The inductive method
Inductive reasoning works the other way round, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. This approach works well with many issues-based studies, for
example, an investigation of the impact of urban renewal schemes in inner-city Barcelona. In
inductive reasoning, we begin with the exploration of an area, recording specific observations
and data. An analysis of the data enables the identification of patterns and the formulation of
some tentative hypotheses that we can explore. The inductive approach ends with the
development of some general conclusions or theories.

The inductive field study method

Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory. Deductive
reasoning is more narrow in nature and tends to be focused explicitly on testing or confirming
hypotheses. Many students enjoy a more exploratory approach, yet limited time and examination
board requirements often lead teachers to prefer the deductive route. The inductive method can
be more intellectually satisfying, lending itself to a wide range of student study topics and where
a field study has been piloted, risk assessed and has known outcomes, the approach can also be a
very effective use of the time available.
Even though a particular study may look purely deductive, most geographical research involves
both inductive and deductive reasoning at some point. Even in the most constrained studies,
students may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories.
The Usefulness of Fieldwork

Improving observation skills and a better understanding of the processes that contributed
to the development of environmental features.

Experiential learning: fieldwork provides opportunities to learn through direct, concrete

experiences, enhancing the understanding that comes from observing 'real world'
manifestations of abstract geographical concepts and processes.

Increasing geographical interest through interacting with the environment.

Directly involving students in responsibility for learning: fieldwork requires that students
plan and carry out learning in an independent manner.

Developing and applying analytical skills: fieldwork relies on a range of skills, many of
which are not used in the classroom.

Experiencing real-life research: developing investigative, communicative and

participatory skills.

Developing environmental ethics and increasing the appreciation of the aesthetic qualities
of the biophysical and built environments.

Teamwork: fieldwork experiences provide an important teamwork element, with social

benefits derived from working cooperatively with others in a setting outside the
classroom.

Skill development: observation, synthesis, evaluation, reasoning, instrumentation skills,

practical problem solving, adaptability to new demands that call upon creative solutions,
etc.

Uses of technology: applying technology to investigate problems and issues.

U.K. Key Skill development, namely communication, application of number, information

technology, working with others, improving own learning performance and problem
solving.

Effective Fieldwork
To be effective fieldwork should:

be well planned, interesting, cost effective and represent an effective use of the time
available

target specific syllabus and topic outcomes

provide opportunities for students to develop a range of cognitive and manipulative skills

be integrated with the subject matter to ensure that students take full advantage of
enhanced understanding that is achieved through direct observation, data
collection/recording and inquiry learning.

be supported by pre-and post-excursion classroom activities that establish the context for
learning and provide the necessary follow-up and reinforcement.

Inquiry Centred Learning

This approach has a number of stages, but should not be viewed as a rigid formula. The intent is
to enable students to become adept scientific investigators. The steps are as follows:

stating the problem;

formulating the hypotheses;

designing the experiment or fieldwork;

making observations;

interpreting the data;

proposing conclusions.

Bartlett and Cox (1982) applied the scientific inquiry process to field study and developed a
schema for field based inquiry. The strength of the schema is that it results in two forms of field
based analysis of spatial information. One is the enhanced knowledge and understanding of a
particular problem or issue, whilst the other is the enhanced knowledge and explanation of a
particular problem or issue leading to theory building or modeling with far greater reaching
explanatory powers.

10 Critical Issues Facing Education

During my leadership training at the College of Saint Rose I took a class with Jim Butterworth
(my mentor) called Critical Issues. Jim was a voracious reader, an assistant commissioner for the
New York State Education Department, former superintendent, and an amazing professor. All of
those combined with a 2 hour class led to some of the best educational discussions I've ever
had.
Every week we were required to read chapters from various books (i.e. Fullan, Senge,
Hargreaves, Reeves and Greenleaf), and numerous stories from Education Week's print copy. It
opened up our world from the classroom we were teaching in, or the school we were leading.
The class brought together building leaders, teachers, school psychologists and social workers
from urban, suburban and rural settings who were all trying to finish their degree in leadership.
I took the class 10 years ago, but never forgot about the importance of discussing issues, even if
they were difficult and the people in the room held differing opinions. As educators we should
always be able to debate our profession. The problem we have, as does anything that involves
politics, is that we cannot seem to move forward together. There are state and national leaders so
consumed with being right that they cannot, and will not, budge.

Hopefully, all of that will change this year. After the past few years of increased accountability,
budget cuts, arguments and infighting, 2014 will be a different year for all of us...and I hope for
the positive. In education there are some very large issues that we have to contend with, and they
are not all about accountability and mandates.
Top 10 Critical Issues
Critical issues are those issues that are important to education. They are the barriers that get in
the way, or the important elements that we need to focus on in order to move forward and offer
better opportunities to our students.
Common Core State Standards - 46 states may have adopted the standards but around a dozen
states are backing out or considering backing out of using them. Regardless of how people feel
about the Common Core they have led to many hot debates about education, and will continue to
do so in 2014.
Student Learning - Student learning is everything from different pathways to graduation,
encouraging student voice in student learning, and encouraging them have a place at the table for
larger conversations about their education (Lisa Nielsen's Innovative Educator blog that focuses
on student voice). So often we focus on teaching, but it's learning that matters most.
Technology - Even after all of these years technology is still a hot button issues. Some people
love it and use it flawlessly every day, while others hate it and don't see why they need to be
forced to use it at all. In addition what makes it complicated is that some schools seem to have
endless resources, while other schools have to use what wealthier schools disregarded as old.
Whether its MOOC's, iPads, gaming or BYOD, technology will still be a critical issue to discuss
in 2014.
Social Media - Twitter has exploded over the past few years. More and more educators are
joining and finding members to their Professional Learning Network (PLN). What's even better
is that they are sharing resources to use in their classrooms, buildings and districts, and they are
also using it to connect for professional development (i.e. Twitter chats, EdCamps, etc.). Social
media will be, and should be, part of a huge discussion in 2014.
Politics - Politicians have long mentioned education in their speeches but the past two years it
seemed to have happened more than ever. Many politicians seem to focus on how schools are
failing, and their only solution is standardization, accountability and high stakes testing. Many
governors, like Andrew Cuomo, are running for re-election this year and education will no doubt
make or break their campaigns. How many politicians, like Cuomo and Christie, have spoken
about teachers is deplorable and this is the year when teachers continue to take control over that
conversation.
High Stakes Testing - Not sure if you have heard of this before but schools across the country
have to give high stakes tests to students. Some start it in kindergarten, while others begin in 3rd
grade. In most states they are tied to teacher/administrator evaluation and that will no doubt

continue to be a big debate this year. There need to be different methods used to assess student
learning, and none of it should be "high stakes."
School Leadership - If you go on Twitter, you will find hundreds of school leaders who consider
themselves "Lead Learners." This is very important because they see the important part they play
in the lives of their students, teachers and staff. In addition, school leaders understand that they
can have a positive or negative impact on their school climate, and too many still have a negative
impact.
Pre-service Teaching Programs - How can we get the best teachers into our classrooms when
so many politicians and policymakers cry that schools are failing? Under those circumstances,
who would want to go into the profession? Additionally, pre-service programs need to improve
because many of the graduates do not seem prepared for the profession. The real question for
2014 is how can K-12 schools work with these programs to build a community of learners who
are prepared for the profession? A little less accountability tied to testing would go a long way to
improve this issue.
School Climate - A few days ago Secretary Duncan and Attorney General Eric Holder
announced new guidelines to stop the school to prison pipeline and improve school climate. This
critical issue is not just about bullying, but about creating an inclusive school climate where all
students can achieve their maximum potential.
Poverty - We know around 22% of our students are living in poverty. We also know that many
children who live in poverty come to kindergarten hearing 1/8th of the language (vocabulary) that
their wealthier peers experienced. Many of the schools that try to educate these students lack the
proper resources, and the communities where children in poverty live often lack the same
resources that wealthier towns have. Poverty is an issue that is one of the most critical issues of
our time, in and out of schools.
In the End
We have many critical issues facing education this year, and the larger question should be...How
are we going to work together to solve them? I stopped with ten but probably could have gone on
with a few more. What would you add to the list?