Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my physics teacher

Mrs. Rumna Majumdar for her constant
guidance, motivation, moral encouragement
and sympathetic attitude towards the
success of this project.
I also want to thank the principal and the
institution for providing the necessary
materials.
I would also like to extend my gratitude
towards the lab attendant, my parents and
everyone who has helped me in completing
the project successfully.
SUVROJYOTI MANDAL

Bonafide certificate
This is to certify that SUVROJYOTI MANDAL
of class XII has successfully completed the
investigatory
project
on
TO
STUDY
VARIATION OF CURRENT USING A LDR"
under the guidance of Mrs. Rumna
Majumder. This project is absolutely genuine
and doesn't not involve in any kind of
plagiarism.
This is in partial fulfillment of Physics
Practical
Examination AISSCE 2017.
Department of Physics
(Rumna Majumder)

INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

ii

INTRODUCTION

01

APPLICATIONS

02

AIM & APPARATUS

03

THEORY

04

PROCEDURE

09

OBSERVATIONS

10

RESULT & CONCLUSION

12

SOURCES OF ERROR

13

BIBLIOGRAPHY

14

INTRODUCTION
The general purpose photoconductive cell is
also known as LDR light dependent
resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and its
conductivity changes with proportional
change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials
used to
manufacture the photoconductive cells.
They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added,
which have a ground state energy closer to
the conduction band - since the electrons
don't have as far to jump, lower energy
photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the
device. Two of its earliest applications were
as part of smoke and fire detection systems
and camera light meters. The structure is
covered with glass sheet to protect it from
moisture and dust and allows only light to
fall on it.

Applications
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb)
LDRs are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. GeCu photoconductors are among
the best farinfrared detectors available, and
are used for infrared astronomy and infrared
spectroscopy.
Analog Applications
Camera Exposure Control
Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
Photocopy Machines - density of toner
Colorimetric Test Equipment
Densitometer
Electronic Scales - dual cell
Automatic Gain Control modulated light
source
Automated Rear View Mirror
Digital Applications
Automatic Headlight Dimmer
Night Light Control
Oil Burner Flame Out
Street Light Control
Position Sensor
*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes,
its resistance
changes drastically for a particular light intensity.
6

AIM & APPARATUS

AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in
a circuit containing a LDR, because of a
variation:(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp,
used to
illuminate the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps
at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp,
(of fixed power), used to illuminate the
LDR.
APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating (bulbs)
Bulb Holder
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery

THEORY
1.) LDR and its characteristics
When light is incident on it, a photon is
absorbed and thereby it excites an electron
from valence band into conduction band.
Due to such new electrons coming up in
conduction band area, the electrical
resistance of the device decreases. Thus the
LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the
resistance which is the inverse function of
radiation intensity.
0 = threshold wavelength, in meters
e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs
Ew = work function of the metal used, in Ev

Here we must note that any radiation with

wavelength greater than the value obtained
in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any
change in the resistance of this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is
2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV.
Due to such large energy gaps, both the
materials have extremely high resistivity at
room temperature.

10

Characteristics of photoconductive cells

Now when the device is kept in darkness, its
resistance is called as dark resistance. This
resistance is typically of the order of 1013
ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance
decreases up to several kilo ohms or even
hundreds of ohms, depending on the
intensity of light, falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two
commercial cells were compared in our
laboratory. And we found that there is
almost no response to the radiation of a
wavelength which was shorter than 300nm.
It was very interesting to note that the Cadmium
Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or
within the green color of the spectrum
within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be
used nearer to the infra-red region up to
750nm. It was found that the maximum
response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in
the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also
it can be used in the infra-red region up to
about 970nm.

11

Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the
relationship between the light falling on the
device and the resulting output signal. In the
case of a photocell, one is dealing with the
relationship between the incident light and
the corresponding resistance of the cell.

12

Spectral Response
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity
of a photoconductive cell is dependent on
the wavelength (color) of the incident light.
Each photoconductor material type has its
own unique spectral response curve or plot
of the relative response of the photocell
versus wavelength of light.

13

2.) Luminous flux variation:

Considering the source to be a point radiating in

all directions; consider a steradian (or even a
simple sphere), take a small element dA on the
steradian at a distance r from the source. It
comprises a small part of the energy radiated
(dEr).
Now, go further to a distance R (R>r) from the
source, consider the same area element dA, it
comprises a much smaller part of energy
radiated
(dER).
[dEr > dER].
It varies inversely as the square of the distance.

14

PROCEDURE
Choose a specific position for the source and
mount it using a holder, make sure it is stable.
Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and
connect it
to the holder as shown in the figure.
Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter
in series.
Set the multimeter to ohm section and select
suitable range and measure the resistance with a
bulb on.
Similarly switch to current section and move to
micro ampere in the multimeter. This gives the
value of the current.
Repeat these steps with different power sources at
different distances and note down observations.

15

OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by
using various sources with different power
ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6 V
1.) 15 watts
570nm)
Serial
No
1.
2.
3.
4.

(yellow)
DISTANCE
FROM
SOURCE
(cm)
50
40
30
20

(wavelength
RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro
ampere)

5
69
41
21

40
80
150
300

2.) 15
watts
(incandescent)
wavelength = 610nm
Serial
No
1.
2.
3.
4.

DISTANCE
FROM
SOURCE
(cm)
50
40
30
20

16

(mean

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro
ampere)

51
35
22
11

120
170
270
540

3.) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength

= 610nm)
Serial
No
1.
2.
3.
4.

DISTANCE
FROM
SOURCE
(cm)
50
40
30
20

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro
ampere)

20
13
8.5
4.5

300
460
700
1330

4.) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)

Serial
No
1.
2.
3.
4.

DISTANCE
FROM
SOURCE
(cm)
50
40
30
20

17

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro
ampere)

15.5
10
6
3

380
600
1000
2000

CONCLUSION & RESULT

The LDR resistance decreases with
increase in intensity of light and hence there
is an increase in the flow of current.
There is an increase in the current as the
distance from the source decreases.
The intensity decreases as the distance
from the source increases
The error lies within the experimental limit.

18

SOURCES OF ERROR
The LDR may not be perpendicular to the
source.
Connections may be faulty.
The experiment should be conducted in a
dark room.
Measurements should be taken accurately.

19

BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT physics class XII
Art of Electronics by paul worowitz
www.wikipedia.com/

www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education
hobby/
www.ecelab.com/

20