Fitness Components

https://www.brianmac.co.uk/conditon.
htm
Components of Fitness
Tancred (1995)[1] believes that: "One of the misconceptions in the sports world is that a
sports person gets in shape by just playing or taking part in his/her chosen sport. If a
stationary level of performance, consistent ability in executing a few limited skills is your
goal, then engaging only in your sport will keep you there. However, if you want the utmost
efficiency, consistent improvement, and balanced abilities sportsmen and women must
participate in year round conditioning programs. The bottom line in sports conditioning and
fitness training is stress, not mental stress, but adaptive body stress. Sportsmen and
women must put their bodies under a certain amount of stress (overload) to increase
physical capabilities."
Health & Fitness

The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its constitution of 1948 as "a state
of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity".
Fitness is the ability to meet the demands of a physical task.
The Components of Fitness

Basic fitness can be classified in four main components: strength, speed, stamina
and flexibility. However, exercise scientists have identified nine components that comprise
the definition of fitness (Tancred 1995)[1]:
Strength - the extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against
resistance (e.g. holding or restraining an object or person)
Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive

burst of movements. The two components of power are strength and speed. (e.g.
jumping or a sprint start)
Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid

succession in opposing directions (e.g. ZigZag running or cutting movements)
Balance - the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (e.g. a
handstand) or while moving (e.g. a gymnastics stunt)
Flexibility - the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being

impeded by excess tissue, i.e. fat or muscle (e.g. executing a leg split)
Local Muscle Endurance - a single muscle's ability to perform sustained work (e.g.
rowing or cycling)
Cardiovascular Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles

and their ability to use it (e.g. running long distances)
Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contraction time

after time (e.g. continuous explosive rebounding through an entire basketball game)
Co-ordination- the ability to integrate the above listed components so that effective
movements are achieved.
Of all the nine elements of fitness cardiac respiratory qualities are the most important to
develop as they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation.
Physical Fitness
Physical fitness refers to the capacity of an athlete to meet the varied physical demands of
their sport without reducing the athlete to a fatigued state. The components of physical
fitness are (Davis 2000)[2]:
Body Composition
Endurance
Flexibility
Strength
Speed
Motor Fitness
Motor Fitness refers to the ability of an athlete to perform successfully at their sport. The
components of motor fitness are (Davis 2000)[2]:
Agility
Balance
Co-ordination
Power (speed & strength)
Reaction Time
Improving your condition

Identify the most important fitness components for success in your sport or event and then
design sport/event specific conditioning and training programs that will enhance these
fitness components and energy systems.
Conditioning Exercises
The following are examples of general conditioning exercises:
General core stability exercises
General all round body conditioning exercises using dumbbells
General conditioning exercises for the upper body
General and specific leg conditioning exercises
Specific exercises to develop lower leg strength and foot speed
Why should I exercise on a regular basis?

Not convinced on the benefits of a regular training regime then have a read of the the
benefits of exercising page.
I am new to training so what should I do?

Visit the general fitness training program page to get an insight into a simple weekly
training program that will help develop your general level of fitness.
Tests for fitness components

Fitness Component
Recognised Test
Agility
Illinois Agility Test
Balance
Standing Stork Test
Body Composition
Skinfold measures
Cardiovascular Endurance
Multistage Fitness Test
Flexibility
Sit & Reach test
Muscular Endurance
NCF Abdominal Conditioning Test
Power
Standing Long Jump or Vertical Jump
Speed
30 metre Sprint
Strength
Handgrip Dynamometer
In their research Suni et al. (1996)[3] found that the following tests appeared to provide
acceptable reliability as methods for field assessment of health related fitness for adults:
Standing on one leg with eyes open for balance
Side-bending of the trunk for spinal flexibility
Modified push-ups for upper body muscular function
Jump and reach and one leg squat for leg muscular function
Strength
The common definition is "the ability to exert a force against a resistance". The strength
needed for a sprinter to explode from the blocks is different to the strength needed by a
weight lifter to lift a 200kg barbell. This therefore implies that there are different types of
strength.
What are the classifications of strength?

The classifications of strength are:
Maximum strength - the greatest force that is possible in a single maximum

contraction
Elastic strength - the ability to overcome a resistance with a fast contraction
Strength endurance - the ability to express force many times over
Absolute and Relative strength
Absolute strength - The maximum force an athlete can exert with his or her whole
body, or part of the body, irrespective of body size or muscle size
Relative strength - The maximum force exerted in relation to body weight or

muscle size.
How do we get strong?

A muscle will only strengthen when it is worked beyond its normal operation - it is
overloaded. Overload can be progressed by increasing the:
number of repetitions of an exercise
number of sets of the exercise
intensity by reduced recover time
How do we develop strength?
Maximum strength can be developed with :

o
weight training
Elastic strength can be developed with :

o
conditioning exercises
complex training sessions
medicine ball exercises
plyometric exercises
weight training
Strength endurance can be developed with :

o
circuit training
dumbbell exercises
weight training
hill and harness running
The effects of strength training

Strength training programs cause biomechanical changes that occur within muscle and
serve to increase the oxidative capacity of the muscle. The affects of strength training are:
an increase in ATP, CP and glycogen concentration
a decrease in oxidative enzyme activity
a decrease in mitocarbohydratendrial density
These changes vary slightly according to the training intensity.

Changes that occur within the muscle because of strength training are classified as:
Myogenic - changes within the muscle structure
Neuogenic - changes to the connection between muscle and nerve
Myogenic changes
Strength training results in muscle hypertrophy, an increase in the cross-sectional size of
existing fibres. This is achieved by increasing:
number of myofibrils
sarcoplasmic volume
protein
supporting connective tissue (ligaments and tendons)
Strength training programs increase the intramuscular stores such as adenosine

triphosphate (ATP), creatine phosphate (CP) and glycogen.
In women, the potential for hypertrophy is not as great as men due mainly to the lower
levels of testosterone in women.
Neurogenic changes
By repeatedly stimulating muscle, you increase the rate of response of the central nervous
system. The recruitment patterns become more refined and as a result and gross movement
patterns become more efficient and effective.
Related References
The following references provide additional information on this topic:
RAMSAY, J. A. et al. (1990) Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Medicine

and science in sports and exercise, 22 (5), p. 605-614
BEATTIE, K. et al. (2014) The Effect of Strength Training on Performance in

Endurance Athletes. Sports Medicine, 44 (6), p. 845-865
MARCINIK, E. J.et al. (1991) Effects of strength training on lactate threshold and
endurance performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 23 (6), p. 739743
FAIGENBAUM, A. D. et al. (1996) The effects of strength training and detraining on

children. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 10 (2), p. 109-114
Page Reference
If you quote information from this page in your work then the reference for this page is:
MACKENZIE, B. (1997) Strength [WWW] Available from:

https://www.brianmac.co.uk/strength.htm [Accessed 12/1/2017]
Related Pages
The following Sports Coach pages provide additional information on this topic:
Articles on Strength Training
Books on Strength Training
Circuit Training
Weight Training
Power
Power is rate of performing work. It is a measure of how much energy is created in each
second that passes, the size of the force applied and the velocity at which it is applied.
Power {(Force Distance) Time} represents the product of strength and speed of
movement expressed in Watts. Where Force is measured in Newtons (1kg=10N), the
Distance in metres and Time in seconds.
1 Watt = 0.73756 ft/lb/sec = 6.12 kg/m/min
1 Watt = 0.01433 kcal/min = 0.05 ml/kg/min
1 kcal/min = 3.5 ml/kg/min
1 kcal = 4.186 kjoules
1 kjoule = 0.23889 kcal
Example
An 80 kg athlete can run up a set of stairs, vertical height 3 metres, in 1.5 seconds
Force = 800 N (80 x 10), Distance = 3 metres, Time = 1.5 seconds
Energy = 800 x 3 = 2400 joules
Power = Energy (joules) Time (seconds)
Power = 2400 1.5 = 1600 watts
Power calculator
For a calculation of power enter the distance, weight and time and then select the 'Calculate'
button.
Distance
Time
Weight
Kg
s
Metres
hrs
secs
min
Energy
jo
Power
watts
ules
Anaerobic Power
Anaerobic power is the ability to produce energy by the ATP-PC energy system and can be
assessed with the Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST). Fry (2014)[1] found that the
Kansas squat test provides a reliable indicator of short term anaerobic power.
Aerobic Power
Aerobic power is dependent on the chemical ability of the muscular tissues to use oxygen in
breaking down fuels and the combined ability of the cardiovascular and pulmonary system
to transport oxygen to the muscular tissues.
Agility
Agility is the ability to change the direction of the body in an efficient and effective manner
and to achieve this you require a combination of:
Balance
o
The ability to maintain equilibrium when stationary or moving (i.e. not to fall
over) through the coordinated actions of our sensory functions (eyes, ears
and the proprioceptive organs in our joints)
Static Balance - ability to retain the centre of mass above the base of support
in a stationary position
Dynamic Balance - ability to maintain balance with body movement
Speed
o
Strength
o
the ability to move all or part of the body quickly
the ability of a muscle or muscle group to overcome a resistance
Co-ordination
the ability to control the movement of the body in co-operation with the
body's sensory functions e.g. catching a ball (ball, hand and eye coordination)
How do we improve agility?

We can improve our agility by improving the component parts of agility (listed above) and
practicing them in training.
Agility Ladder
The main objective of agility ladder programs is to promote a wide range of different foot
and movement patterns. Through practice these movements will become second nature and
the body will be able to respond quickly to various sport specific movement patterns.
With the use of an agility ladder we can improve our agility by practicing movement
patterns in training. The standard ladder is 10 yards long with 18 inch squares but you can
construct your own ladder using sticks, lino strips or tape.
When beginning an agility ladder program start with 2 to 4 drills and once
you master these then introduce new drills.
Ladder Assessment
Speed through a ladder can indicate much about an athlete's quickness. A time of less than
2.8 seconds for males and 3.4 seconds for females for running the length of a 20 rung
ladder, one foot in each rung at a time, is considered as excellent for senior athletes.
Exercises
Detailed below are some ladder drills you could use.
Exercise 1
Run through the ladder placing one

foot in the middle of
each square
Emphasize arm swing,

powerful high knee drive
with the toes dorsiflexed
and quick ground
contact
Exercise 2
Run through the ladder touching both

feet in each square.
Emphasize arm swing,

powerful high knee
drive with the toes
dorsiflexed and quick
ground contact.
Exercise 3
Fig 3a
Fig 3b
Fig 3c
Fig 3d
Fig 3e
1. Begin by standing sideways to the ladder (Fig 3a)

2. Moving in a lateral fashion to your right, step into the first square with the right foot
(Fig 3b)
3. Step in with the left foot (Fig 3c)
4. Step back out with the right foot (Fig 3d)
5. Step back out with the left foot (Fig 3e)
6. Repeat the sequence from 2 to 5 all the way along the ladder
Exercise 4
Fig 4a
Fig 4b
Fig 4c
Fig 4d
1. Perform the drill in a sideways position to the ladder (Fig 4a)

2. Moving to the right, place the right foot into the first square (Fig 4b)
3. Next, step across the ladder with the left foot (Fig 4c)
4. Remove the right foot from the ladder placing it next to your left foot (Fig 4d)
5. Now, step forward into the second square with the left foot
6. Next, step across the ladder with the right foot
7. Remove the left foot from the ladder placing it next to your right foot
Exercise 5
Fig 5a
Fig 5b
Fig 5c
Fig 5d
Fig 5e
1. Start straddling one side of the ladder - right foot in the first square and your left
foot outside of the ladder (Fig 5a)
2. Do a jump to your right so your right foot stays in the ladder square and your left
foot lands in the next ladder square (Fig 5b)
3. Do a jump to your left so your left foot stays in the ladder square and your right foot
lands outside the ladder (Fig 5c)
4. Do a jump to your left so your left foot stays in the ladder square and your right foot
lands in the next ladder square (Fig 5d)
5. Do a jump to your right so your right foot stays in the ladder square and your left
foot lands outside the ladder (Fig 5e)
Exercise 6
Fig 6a
Fig 6b
Fig 6c
Fig 6d
Fig 6e
Fig 6f
1. Begin standing sideways to the ladder (Fig 6a)

2. Step into the first square with the right foot (Fig 6b)
3. Next, step over the ladder to the other side with the left foot (Fig 6c)
4. Step with the right foot laterally to the next square (Fig 6d)
5. Next, step over the ladder to the other side with the left foot (Fig 6e)
6. Step with the right foot laterally to the next square (Fig 6f)
Exercise 7
As Exercise 6 but moving laterally with the left foot.
How do we measure agility?

There are a number of tests to measure an athlete's agility. They include:
Hexagonal Obstacle Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
Illinois agility run test - - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
Lateral Change of Direction test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
Quick Feet test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
'T' Drill test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement
Stork Stand Test (balance test)
Coordination
Coordination is the ability to repeatedly execute a sequence of movements smoothly and

accurately. This may involve the senses, muscular contractions and joint movements.
Everything that we participate in requires the ability to coordinate our limbs to achieve a
successful outcome - from walking to the more complex movements of athletic events like
the pole vault.
Coordination skills in sport

All sports require the coordination of eyes, hands and/or feet and maybe an implement and
a ball. Racket sports (e.g. tennis and squash) require the coordination of hand, eyes and
racket to connect the racket with the incoming ball as well as position our body in an
appropriate position to return the ball in an efficient and effective manner.
Hockey requires the coordination of hands, eyes and hockey stick to connect with the ball,
Football primarily requires the coordination of feet, eyes and ball and Rugby the
coordination of hands, eyes and ball.
When did you last have your eyes tested?
Children
Children have a better sense of of balance and coordination due to their body size and lower
centre of gravity and have the ability to learn complicated movements/skills like those
required by a gymnast.
As they experience growth spurts muscle development may take 12 to 18 months to adjust
to the new bone growth and during this time they may find the following are negatively
effected:
Coordination skills
Athletic performances
Mobility/Flexibility
It is important that coaches educate their athletes as to why they are experiencing these
problems. Now is an appropriate time to focus on developing their flexibility to help muscles
adjust to the growing bones.
Testing
The hexagon test is a coordination test for the lower limbs and catching a ball is a
simple hand-eye coordination test.
Related References
WINTER, D. A. (2009) Biomechanics and motor control of human movement. John

Wiley & Sons
KASIMATIS, M. et al. (1996) The effects of implicit theories on exercise

motivation. Journal of Research in Personality, 30 (4), p. 510-516
DAVIDS, K. et al. (2003) Acquiring skill in sport: a constraints led

perspective. International Journal of Computer Science in Sport, 2 (2), p. 31-39
Endurance Training
What is the objective of endurance training?
The objective of endurance training is to develop the energy production systems to meet the
demands of the event.
What are the energy production systems?

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a chemical compound that supplies energy for muscular
contraction. Actively contracting muscles obtain ATP from glucose stored in the blood stream
and the breakdown of glycogen stored in the muscles. Exercising for long periods of time
will require the complete oxidation of carbohydrates or free fatty acids in the mitochondria.
What types of endurance are there?

The types of endurance are aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance, speed endurance and
strength endurance. A sound basis of aerobic endurance is fundamental for all events.
Work conducted by Gastin (2001)[1] provides estimates of anaerobic and aerobic energy
contribution during selected periods of maximal exercise (95% effort).
Reaction
Time
Reaction time is the interval time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation
of the muscular response to that stimulus. A primary factor affecting a response is the
number of possible stimuli, each requiring their own response, that are presented.
If there is only one possible response (simple reaction time) it will only take a short time to
react. If there are several possible responses (choice reaction time) then it will take longer
to determine which response to carry out.
Hick (1952)[2] discovered that the reaction time increases proportionally to the number of
possible responses until a point at which the response time remains constant despite the
increases in possible responses (Hick's Law).
Improving Reaction Speed

Reaction Time
Reaction time itself is an inherent ability, but overall response time can be improved by
practice. Coach and athletes need to analyse the type of skill and the requirements of their
sport and decide where overall response gains can be made. Consider the following:
Detecting the cue - in a sprint start, focusing on the starter's voice and the sound
of the gun and separating this from background crowd noise and negative thoughts
Detecting relevant cues - a goalkeeper learning to analyse body language at

penalties
Decision making - working on set pieces and game situations
Change in attention focus - being able to switch quickly from concentration on the
opponent to concentration on the field of play in invasion games
Controlling anxiety - which slows reaction times by adding conflicting information
Creating optimum levels of motivation - 'psyching up'
Warm up - to ensure the sense organs and nervous system are ready to transmit
information and the muscles to act upon it
Anticipation
Anticipation is a strategy used by athletes to reduce the time they take to respond to a
stimulus e.g. the tennis player who anticipates the type of serve the opponent will use
(spatial or event anticipation). In this case, the player has learnt to detect certain cues early
in the serving sequence that predicts the potential type of serve. This means the player can
start to position himself or herself for the return earlier in the sequence than usual and thus
give themselves more time to play the shot when the ball arrives. Obviously, there are
dangers for the tennis player in anticipating in this way but the advantages of getting it right
are great.
Factors influencing response time

Response time is the sum of reaction time plus movement time. Factors that may influence
the performer's response are:
Gender and age (see diagram - Davis (2000)[1])
Stage of learning
Psychological state
Level of fitness
Number of possible responses
Time available
Intensity of the stimuli
Anticipation
Experience
Health
Body Temperature - colder the slower
Personality - extroverts react quicker
State of alertness
Length of neural pathways
Reaction Speed Drills

The objective of reaction speed drills is to improve your reaction time to a stimulus. The
drills can include the control of an object (e.g. football or hockey puck). The cue for the
reaction to take place can be visual (movement of an object) or a specific command (voice)
or sound (starter's gun). The cue should be appropriate to your event or sport - starter's
gun for a sprinter. The following are examples of reaction speed drills to an external
stimulus.
Applicable to any event or sport where pure speed over the ground is important
Starting
position
Lying on the ground on their back or front
Command
Voice or sound
Action
To get up and sprint 20 metre to 30 metre to a designated point
Notes
The designated point could be the coach who moves from point to
point so that the athlete only has the sound of the command to
initially determine where the coach is positioned
For sports where a ball is to be controlled by the athlete
Starting
position
Easy running controlling the ball
Command
Voice command of left, right, back or forward
Action
To sprint in the direction of the command for a designated

distance, whilst controlling the ball, and then return to easy
running
Notes
Drill can be repeated 3 or 4 times bringing the athlete back to the

starting point to pass the ball to the next athlete.
For sprinters to improve their reaction to the starting gun
Starting
position
Standing tall and relaxed
Command
Blow on a whistle or clap of the hands - given from behind the
athlete
The following should all happen together:
Action
1. The right knee is brought sharply up to a position where the

thigh is parallel with the ground, the lower leg is vertical to
the ground and the foot is dorsi flexed
2. The arms are brought to the sprint position
3. The athlete rises up onto the toes of the left foot
Notes
It is assumed that the right foot is placed in the rear block of the
starting blocks on a sprint start - if it is the left foot then change
the leg action above
For sports where a ball is involved
Starting
position
Use any static position - standing, sitting or lying down
Command
Coach standing in front drops a ball from shoulder height
Action
To sprint and catch the ball before its second bounce
Notes
Need to adjust where the coach stands to make the exercise

most effective
References
1. DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the study of sport. 4th ed. London:
Harcourt Publishers. p. 312
2. HICK, W.E. (1952) On the rate of gain of information. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 4, p. 11-26
Related References
PAIN, M. T. and HIBBS, A. (2007) Sprint starts and the minimum auditory reaction
time. Journal of sports sciences, 25 (1), p. 79-86
ECKNER, J. T. et al. (2010) Pilot evaluation of a novel clinical test of reaction time in
National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players. Journal of athletic
training, 45 (4), p. 327
ASHTON-MILLER, J. A. et al. (2014) U.S. Patent No. 8,657,295. Washington, DC:

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
DEL ROSSI, G. et al. (2014) Practice Effects Associated With Repeated Assessment of
a Clinical Test of Reaction Time. Journal of athletic training.
Page Reference
MACKENZIE, B. (1998) Reaction Time [WWW] Available from:

https://www.brianmac.co.uk/reaction.htm [Accessed 12/1/2017]
Related Pages
Articles on Speed Training
Books on Speed Training
Fartlek Training
Speed Training
Additional Sources of Information

For further information on this topic see the following:
BEASHEL, P. and TAYLOR, J. (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and

Sport. UK: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
BEASHEL, P. and TAYLOR, J. (1997) The World of Sport Examined. UK: Thomas
Nelson and Sons Ltd.
BIZLEY, K. (1994) Examining Physical Education. Oxford; Heinemann Educational

Publishers
DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the Study of Sport. UK: Harcourt
Publishers Ltd.
GALLIGAN, F. et al. (2000) Advanced PE for Edexcel. Oxford; Heinemann Educational

Publishers
McARDLE, W. et al. (2000) Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:

Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
Advertising
Duration
% Aerobic
% Anaerobic
0-10 seconds
94
0-15 seconds
12
88
0-20 seconds
18
82
0-30 seconds
27
73
0-45 seconds
37
63
0-60 seconds
45
55
0-75 seconds
51
48
0-90 seconds
56
44
0-120 seconds
63
37
0-180 seconds
73
27
0-240 seconds
79
21
Aerobic Endurance
During aerobic (with oxygen) work, the body is working at a level that the demands for
oxygen and fuel can be meet by the body's intake. The only waste products formed are
carbon dioxide and water which are removed by sweating and breathing.
Aerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
Short aerobic - 2 minutes to 8 minutes (lactic/aerobic)
Medium aerobic - 8 minutes to 30 minutes (mainly aerobic)
Long aerobic - 30 minutes + (aerobic)
Aerobic endurance is developed using continuous and interval running.
Continuous duration runs to improve maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
Interval training to improve the heart as a muscular pump
Aerobic threshold
The aerobic threshold, point at which anaerobic energy pathways start to operate, is around
65% of maximum heart rate. This is approximately 40 beats lower than the anaerobic
threshold. The aerobic thresholds of untrained males range from 35 to 65% VO2max[2].
Anaerobic endurance
During anaerobic (without oxygen) work, involving maximum effort, the body is working so
hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have
to rely on the stored reserves of fuel. The muscles, being starved of oxygen, take the body
into a state known as oxygen debt and lactic starts to accumulate in the muscles. This point
is known as the lactic threshold or anaerobic threshold or onset of blood lactate
accumulation (OBLA). Activity will not be resumed until the lactic acid is removed and the
oxygen debt repaid.
The body can resume limited activity after a small proportion of the oxygen debt has been
repaid. Since lactic acid is produced, the correct term for this pathway is lactic anaerobic
energy pathway.
The alactic anaerobic pathway is when the body is working anaerobically but without the
production of lactic acid. This pathway depends on the fuel stored in the muscle which lasts
for approximately 4 seconds at maximum effort.
Anaerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
Short anaerobic - less than 25 seconds (mainly alactic)
Medium anaerobic - 25 seconds to 60 seconds (mainly lactic)
Long anaerobic - 60 seconds to 120 seconds (lactic +aerobic)
Anaerobic endurance can be developed by using repetition methods of high intensity work
with limited recovery.
Anaerobic threshold
The anaerobic threshold, the point at which lactic acid starts to accumulates in the muscles,
is considered to be somewhere between 80% and 90% of your maximum heart rate and is
approximately 40 beats higher than the aerobic threshold. Your anaerobic threshold can be
determined with anaerobic threshold testing.
Speed endurance
Speed endurance is used to develop the co-ordination of muscle contraction. Repetition
methods are used with a high number of sets, low number of repetitions per set and
intensity greater than 85% with distances covered from 60% to 120% of racing distance.
Competition and time trials can be used in the development of speed endurance.
Example sessions
The following are the different types of speed endurance sessions with examples for a 800m
athlete targeting a sub two minute 800m.
Pyramids - 200m, 300m, 400m, 300m, 200m (frp) [3', 4', 5', 4']
Up the clock - 600m, 700m, 800m (frp) [8']
Down the clock - 800m, 700m, 600m (frp) [8']
Differentials - 4 x 400m (1st 200m 32", 2nd 200m 28") [8']
Over distance - 4 x 1200m (srp) [8']
Under distance - 2 x (3 x 400m) (frp) [3', 8']
Quality - 3 x 600m (rp) [8']

' = minute, " = seconds, frp = faster than target race pace,
srp = slower than target race pace, rp = target race pace
Strength endurance
Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete's capacity to maintain the quality of their
muscles' contractile force. All athletes need to develop a basic level of strength endurance.
Examples of activities to develop strength endurance are - circuit training, weight
training, hill running, harness running, Fartlek etc.
Effect on the heart

As an endurance athlete, you will develop an athlete's heart which is very different to the
non athlete's heart. You will have:
Bradycardia - Low resting pulse rate of under 50 bpm
ECG shows ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the heart muscle wall)
X-ray reveals an enlarged heart
Blood tests shows raised muscle enzymes
The above for the average person (non athlete) indicate a probable heart block,
hypertension, heart failure, a recent myocardial infarct or cardiomyopathy. Should you need
to go into hospital or see your doctor, you should inform them that you are an endurance
athlete.
References
1. GASTIN, P.B. (2001) Energy system interaction and relative contribution during
maximal exercise. Sports Med, 31 (10), p. 725-741
2. McLELLAN, T. M. and SKINNER, J.S. (1981) The use of the aerobic threshold as a
basis for training. Can J Appl Sport Sci. 6 (4), p. 197-201.
Related References
DAVIS, J. A. et al. (1979) Anaerobic threshold alterations caused by endurance

training in middle-aged men. Journal of applied physiology: respiratory,
environmental and exercise physiology, 46 (6), p. 1039-1046
HELGGERUD, J. et al. (2001) Aerobic endurance training improves soccer

performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (11), p. 1925-1931
TABATA, I. et al. (1996) Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity

intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2max. Medicine and science in
sports and exercise, 28 (10), p. 1327-1330
Speed Training
What is speed?
Speed is the quickness of movement of a limb, whether this is the legs of a runner or the
arm of the shot putter. Speed is an integral part of every sport and can be expressed as any
one of, or combination of, the following: maximum speed, elastic strength (power) and
speed endurance.
How is speed influenced?

Speed is influenced by the athlete's mobility, special strength,
strength endurance and technique.
Energy system for speed

Energy for absolute speed is supplied by the anaerobic alactic pathway. The anaerobic
(without oxygen) alactic (without lactate) energy system is best challenged as an athlete
approaches top speed between 30 and 60 metres while running at 95% to 100% of
maximum. This speed component of anaerobic metabolism lasts for approximately eight
seconds and should be trained when no muscle fatigue is present (usually after 24 to 36
hours of rest)
How do we develop Speed?

The technique of sprinting must be rehearsed at slow speeds and then transferred to runs at
maximum speed. The stimulation, excitation and correct firing order of the motor units,
composed of a motor nerve (Neuron) and the group of muscles that it supplies, makes it
possible for high frequency movements to occur. The whole process is not very clear but the
complex coordination and timing of the motor units and muscles most certainly must be
rehearsed at high speeds to implant the correct patterns.
Flexibility and a correct warm up will affect stride length and frequency (strike rate). Stride
length can be improved by developing muscular strength, power, strength endurance and
running technique. The development of speed is highly specific and to achieve it we should
ensure that:
Flexibility is developed and maintained all year round
Strength and speed are developed in parallel
Skill development (technique) is pre-learned, rehearsed and perfected before it is

done at high speed levels
Speed training is performed by using high velocity for brief intervals. This will
ultimately bring into play the correct neuromuscular pathways and energy sources
used
When should speed work be conducted?

It is important to remember that the improvement of running speed is a complex process
that is controlled by the brain and nervous system. In order for a runner to move more
quickly, the leg muscles of course have to contract more quickly, but the brain and nervous
systems have to learn to control these faster movements efficiently. If you maintain some
form of speed training throughout the year, your muscles and nervous system do not lose
the feel of moving fast and the brain will not have to re-learn the proper control patterns at
a later date.
In the training week, speed work should be carried out after a period of rest or light
training. In a training session, speed work should be conducted after the warm up and any
other training should be of a low intensity.
Speed Workouts
Event
Speed Session
100 metres
a) 10 30 metres at race pace from blocks with full recovery

b) 3 to 4 80 metres at race pace with full recovery
800 metres
a) 5 200 metres at goal race pace with 10 seconds recovery

b) 4 400 metres at 2 to 3 seconds faster than current race pace
with 2 minutes recovery
1.5 km
5 km
a) 4 400 metres at goal race pace with 15 to 10 sec recovery

b) 4 to 5 800 metres at 5 to 6 seconds per 800 metres faster
than goal race pace with 6 minutes recovery
a) 4 to 5 800 metres at 4 seconds per 800 metres faster than
goal race pace with 60 seconds recovery
b) 3 1 mile at 6 seconds per mile faster than goal race pace with
2 minutes recovery
10 km
a) 3 2000 metres at 3 seconds per 200 metres faster than goal

race pace with 2 minutes recovery
b) 5 x 5 min intervals at current 5km race pace with 3 minutes
recovery
Marathon
a) 6 x 1 mile repeats at 15 seconds per mile faster that goal race

pace with 1 minute recovery
b) 3 3000 metres at 10km race pace with 6 minutes recovery
The following are sample speed workouts for competitive runners (Dr Karp 2012)[3]
Event
Session
1 Mile
a) 8 x 400m - mile pace - recovery 2 mins

b) 2 x 6 x 200m - mile pace - recovery 30 secs/rep 2 mins/set
5 km
a) 5 x 800m - 3-5k pace - recovery 2 mins

b) 3 x 1 mile - 5k pace - recovery 3 mins
Marathon
a) 4 x 2k - 10k pace - recovery 3 mins

b) 5 miles tempo pace
All speed workouts should include an appropriate warm up and cool down.
Reaction Speed Drill

The athletes start in a variety of different positions - lying face down, lying on their backs,
in a push up or sit up position, kneeling or seated. The coach standing some 30 metres from
the group then gives a signal for everyone to jump up and run towards him/her at slightly
faster than race pace. Repeat using various starting positions and with the coach standing in
different places so that the athletes have to change directions quickly once they begin to
run. Speed reaction drills can also be conducted whilst controlling an item (e.g. football,
basketball, hockey ball) with an implement (e.g. feet, hands, hockey stick).
Acceleration Training
Murray (2005)[1] looked at weighted sledge training and their effect on sprint acceleration
and they concluded that training with a weighted sledge will help improve the athlete's
acceleration phase. The session used in the research was 4 x 20m and 4 x 50m maximal
effort runs.
Lockie et al. (2003)[2] investigated the effects of various loadings and concluded that when
using a sledge a light weight of approx. 10-15% of body weight should be used so that the
dynamics of the acceleration technique are not negatively effected.
Starts over 10-20 metres performed on a slight incline of around five degrees have an
important conditioning effect on the calf, thigh and hip muscles (they have to work harder
because of the incline to produce movement) that will improve sprint acceleration.
Sprinting Speed
Downhill sprinting is a method of developing sprinting speed following the acceleration
phase. A hill with a maximum of a 15 decline is most suitable. Use 40 metres to 60 metres
to build up to full speed and then maintain the speed for a further 30 metres. A session
could comprise of 2 to 3 sets of 3 to 6 repetitions. The difficulty with this method is to find a
suitable hill with a safe surface.
Over speed work could be carried out when there are prevailing strong winds - run with the
wind behind you.
Speed Principles
The general principles for improved speed are as follows:
Choose a reasonable goal for your event, and then work on running at velocities
which are actually faster than your goal over short work intervals
Train at goal pace in order to enhance your neuromuscular

coordination, confidence and stamina at your desired speed
At first, utilise long recoveries, but as you get fitter and faster shorten the recovery
periods between work intervals to make your training more specific and realistic to
racing. Also move on to longer work intervals, as you are able
Work on your aerobic capacity and lactate threshold, conduct some easy pace runs to
burn calories and permit recovery from the speed sessions
Work on your mobility to develop a range of movement (range of motion at your hips
will effect speed) and assist in the prevention of injury
Seven Step Model

The following is seven step model for developing playing speed.
1. Basic training to develop all qualities of movement to a level that will provide a solid
base on which to build each successive step. This includes programs to increase body
control, strength, muscle endurance, and sustained effort (muscular and
cardiovascular, anaerobic and aerobic)
2. Functional strength and explosive movements against medium to heavy resistance.
Maximum power is trained by working in an intensity range of 55 to 85% of your
maximum intensity (1 RM)
3. Ballistics to develop high-speed sending and receiving movements
4. Plyometrics to develop explosive hopping, jumping, bounding, hitting, and kicking
5. Sprinting form and speed endurance to develop sprinting technique and improving
the length of time you are able to maintain your speed
6. Sport loading to develop specific speed. The intensity is 85 to 100% of maximum
speed
7. Over speed training. This involves systematic application of sporting speed that
exceeds maximum speed by 5 to 10% through the use of various over speed training
techniques
Speed Program
For a number of sports acceleration and speed over a short distance (10 to 50 metres) is
very important e.g. American Football, Basket Ball, Baseball, Cricket, Field
Hockey, Rugby, Soccer etc. An explanation on how to develop a program to meet this need
can be found on the 40 yard Dash page.
Reaction Time
Reaction time is the interval time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation
of the muscular response to that stimulus. A primary factor affecting a response is the
number of possible stimuli, each requiring their own response, that are presented.
If there is only one possible response (simple reaction time) it will only take a short time to
react. If there are several possible responses (choice reaction time) then it will take longer
to determine which response to carry out.
Hick (1952)[2] discovered that the reaction time increases proportionally to the number of
possible responses until a point at which the response time remains constant despite the
increases in possible responses (Hick's Law).
Improving Reaction Speed

Reaction Time
Reaction time itself is an inherent ability, but overall response time can be improved by
practice. Coach and athletes need to analyse the type of skill and the requirements of their
sport and decide where overall response gains can be made. Consider the following:
Detecting the cue - in a sprint start, focusing on the starter's voice and the sound
of the gun and separating this from background crowd noise and negative thoughts
Detecting relevant cues - a goalkeeper learning to analyse body language at

penalties
Decision making - working on set pieces and game situations
Change in attention focus - being able to switch quickly from concentration on the
opponent to concentration on the field of play in invasion games
Controlling anxiety - which slows reaction times by adding conflicting information
Creating optimum levels of motivation - 'psyching up'
Warm up - to ensure the sense organs and nervous system are ready to transmit
information and the muscles to act upon it
Anticipation
Anticipation is a strategy used by athletes to reduce the time they take to respond to a
stimulus e.g. the tennis player who anticipates the type of serve the opponent will use
(spatial or event anticipation). In this case, the player has learnt to detect certain cues early
in the serving sequence that predicts the potential type of serve. This means the player can
start to position himself or herself for the return earlier in the sequence than usual and thus
give themselves more time to play the shot when the ball arrives. Obviously, there are
dangers for the tennis player in anticipating in this way but the advantages of getting it right
are great.
Factors influencing response time

Response time is the sum of reaction time plus movement time. Factors that may influence
the performer's response are:
Gender and age (see diagram - Davis (2000)[1])
Stage of learning
Psychological state
Level of fitness
Number of possible responses
Time available
Intensity of the stimuli
Anticipation
Experience
Health
Body Temperature - colder the slower
Personality - extroverts react quicker
State of alertness
Length of neural pathways
Reaction Speed Drills

The objective of reaction speed drills is to improve your reaction time to a stimulus. The
drills can include the control of an object (e.g. football or hockey puck). The cue for the
reaction to take place can be visual (movement of an object) or a specific command (voice)
or sound (starter's gun). The cue should be appropriate to your event or sport - starter's
gun for a sprinter. The following are examples of reaction speed drills to an external
stimulus.
Applicable to any event or sport where pure speed over the ground is important
Starting
position
Lying on the ground on their back or front
Command
Voice or sound
Action
To get up and sprint 20 metre to 30 metre to a designated point
Notes
The designated point could be the coach who moves from point to
point so that the athlete only has the sound of the command to
initially determine where the coach is positioned
For sports where a ball is to be controlled by the athlete
Starting
position
Easy running controlling the ball
Command
Voice command of left, right, back or forward
Action
To sprint in the direction of the command for a designated

distance, whilst controlling the ball, and then return to easy
running
Notes
Drill can be repeated 3 or 4 times bringing the athlete back to the

starting point to pass the ball to the next athlete.
For sprinters to improve their reaction to the starting gun
Starting
position
Standing tall and relaxed
Command
Blow on a whistle or clap of the hands - given from behind the

athlete
The following should all happen together:
Action
1. The right knee is brought sharply up to a position where the

thigh is parallel with the ground, the lower leg is vertical to
the ground and the foot is dorsi flexed
2. The arms are brought to the sprint position
3. The athlete rises up onto the toes of the left foot
Notes
It is assumed that the right foot is placed in the rear block of the
starting blocks on a sprint start - if it is the left foot then change
the leg action above
For sports where a ball is involved
Starting
position
Use any static position - standing, sitting or lying down
Command
Coach standing in front drops a ball from shoulder height
Action
To sprint and catch the ball before its second bounce
Notes
Need to adjust where the coach stands to make the exercise

most effective
References
1. DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the study of sport. 4th ed. London:
Harcourt Publishers. p. 312
2. HICK, W.E. (1952) On the rate of gain of information. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 4, p. 11-26
Related References
PAIN, M. T. and HIBBS, A. (2007) Sprint starts and the minimum auditory reaction
time. Journal of sports sciences, 25 (1), p. 79-86
ECKNER, J. T. et al. (2010) Pilot evaluation of a novel clinical test of reaction time in
National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players. Journal of athletic
training, 45 (4), p. 327
ASHTON-MILLER, J. A. et al. (2014) U.S. Patent No. 8,657,295. Washington, DC:

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
DEL ROSSI, G. et al. (2014) Practice Effects Associated With Repeated Assessment of
a Clinical Test of Reaction Time. Journal of athletic training.
Page Reference
MACKENZIE, B. (1998) Reaction Time [WWW] Available from:

https://www.brianmac.co.uk/reaction.htm [Accessed 12/1/2017]
Related Pages
Articles on Speed Training
Books on Speed Training
Fartlek Training
Speed Training
Additional Sources of Information

For further information on this topic see the following:
BEASHEL, P. and TAYLOR, J. (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and

Sport. UK: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
BEASHEL, P. and TAYLOR, J. (1997) The World of Sport Examined. UK: Thomas
Nelson and Sons Ltd.
BIZLEY, K. (1994) Examining Physical Education. Oxford; Heinemann Educational

Publishers
DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the Study of Sport. UK: Harcourt
Publishers Ltd.
GALLIGAN, F. et al. (2000) Advanced PE for Edexcel. Oxford; Heinemann Educational

Publishers
McARDLE, W. et al. (2000) Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:

Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
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Core Stability Exercises

Static Floor Exercises
Plank
Hold a straight body position, supported on elbows and
toes.
Brace the abdominals and maintain a straight body line
through feet, hips and head.
Side plank
Lie on one side, ensuring the top hip is above the
bottom hip.
Push up until there is a straight body line through feet,
hips and head.
Keep the elbow under the shoulder. Lower under control
and repeat on opposite side.
Bridge
Lie on the floor with your knees bent and feet flat on
the floor.
Squeeze your gluteals and then push your hips up until
there is a straight line through knee and hip to upper
body and shoulders remain on the floor.
Superman
Kneel on the floor and place your hands below your
shoulders and knees below your hips.
Extend right leg back and the left arm forward.
Maintain a straight body line through extended leg, body
and extended arm. Repeat with opposite limbs
Dynamic Floor Exercises

Side lying hip abduction
Lie on your side with your top hip above the lower hip.
Brace the abdominals and lift the top leg slowly up and
down.
Oblique crunch
Lie on your back with your right ankle resting on your
left knee.
Right arm is placed on the floor out to the side.
Keeping the right shoulder down, curl the left shoulder
up to the right knee. Repeat with opposite limbs.
Straight leg raise

Lie on your back with knees bent. Brace your
abdominals and lift your legs up straight in the air to an
angle of 45 degrees keeping you back on the ground.
Keeping one leg in the air, slowly lower the other down
to the floor. Only go as far as you can until you feel the
lumbar spine start to move.
Keep bracing the abdominals and then lift the leg slowly
back up. Repeat with the other leg.
Lying windscreen wipers

Lie on your back with arms out to the sides. Lift your legs straight up in the air until the hips
are at 90 degrees. Keeping your legs straight and maintaining the hip angle, rotate the legs
to one side. Go as far as you can keeping your upper back and shoulders on the floor. Bring
the legs to a halt, pull them back up to the start position and then over to the other side.
Medicine Ball Exercises

Sit-up and throw
You either need a partner to receive and pass the ball, or perform the exercise in front of a
wall and use a medicine ball that will bounce back. Start in the sit-up position (knees bent)
with hands up ready to receive the ball. Catch the ball and begin to lower back down.
Control the movement with the abdominals and keep your hands above your head as you
lower down. Once the shoulders are touching the floor sit back up and throw the ball
forward at the same time.
(1)
(3)
(2)
(4)
Sit and twist pass

Start in the sit-up position, knees bent feet flat on the floor. Your feet, knees and hips
should remain reasonably still throughout this exercise, the rotation coming from your waist
and not your hips. Hold your hands to one side ready to receive the ball. Catch the ball to
that side and absorb the catch by turning your shoulders further to that side. Reverse the
rotation turning back to the middle and release the ball. Continue rotating to the other side;
receive the ball on the other side and continue.
45-degree sit, catch and pass

Start in the sit up position with knees bent and lean back at 45 degrees. Raise your hands in
front of your face and receive a pass from a partner, around face height. As you catch the
ball you must maintain your body position and gently throw the ball back.
One leg catch and pass

Stand on one leg with your hips square to the front. Hold your hands up ready to catch the
ball which should be varied in their placement. Catch the ball and throw it back. Aim to
move arms and/or turn your shoulders only.
One leg twist pass

Stand on one leg with hips facing square to the front. Hold the medicine
ball slightly out in front and slowly twist from side to side.
The rotation comes from the waist only (not the hips), head turning with
the shoulders.
Side touch downs

Start by sitting on the ground with knees bent, feet flat on the floor and holding the ball in
both hands. Raise your feet off the ground and balance on your bottom. Rotate at the waist
to your right and touch the ground by your right hip with the ball, lift the ball up, rotate to
the left side and touch the ground by your left hip with the ball, lift the ball up and continue
keeping your feet up off the ground.
Kneeling twist pass

Kneel upright with good posture. Twist the shoulders, arms and head round as far as you
can to the right (start position). Partner passes you the ball. Twist round to the left side as
far as possible and hand the ball to a partner. Turn back to the start position, receive the
ball and continue.
Core Stability Workouts

The following are additional examples of core stability workouts:
The "Alfa Romeo" workout
The "Aston Martin" workout
The "Audi" workout
The "Bentley" workout
The "BMW" workout
The "Buick" workout
The "Lotus" workout
The "Mercedes Benz" workout
The "McLaren" workout
The "Morgan" workout
Dumbbell Exercises
The following are details of various exercises that can be performed using dumbbells.
Exercises
Decline dumbbell bench press
Muscles - Pectoralis Major (lower chest), Anterior Deltoids
Hold a dumbbell in each hand using an overhand grip while sitting at the high end of
a decline bench
Rest the dumbbells in an upright position on the knees
Lie on the flat bench, simultaneously bringing the dumbbells to a position where they
are held at the sides of the torso at chest level
Raise the dumbbells to a position of straight arm's length (elbows not locked)
At this point, the dumbbells are held directly over the chest area, in contact with
each other, with palms facing forward
Slowly bend the arms and lower the dumbbells until they are at either side of the
chest
Dumbbells are lowered to a position where a comfortable but maximum stretch is

achieved
Raise the dumbbells from the sides of the chest to the starting position
Incline dumbbell bench press

Muscles - Pectoralis Minor (upper chest), Anterior Deltoids
Hold a dumbbell in each hand using an overhand grip while sitting at the edge of the
incline bench
Rest the dumbbells in an upright position on the knees
Lie on the incline bench, simultaneously bringing the dumbbells to a position where
they are held at the sides of the torso at chest level
Raise the dumbbells to a position of straight arms length (elbows not locked)
At this point, the dumbbells are held directly over the upper chest, in contact with
each other, while the palms are facing forward
Slowly bend the arms and lower the dumbbells until they are at either side of the
chest
Dumbbells are lowered to a position where a comfortable stretch is achieved
Raise the dumbbells from the sides of the chest to the starting position
Standing dumbbell side laterals

Muscles - Medial Deltoids
Stand with back straight, knees slightly bent, and feet slightly less than shoulderwidth apart
Keep back erect and elbows slightly flexed throughout the entire movement
Hold a dumbbell in each hand using an overhand grip, with palms facing each other
Press dumbbells together approximately 4 to 6 inches in front of the hips
Keeping elbows slightly bent, raise the dumbbells laterally, in an arc toward the
ceiling until arms are parallel to the floor, and hold briefly
Slowly lower the dumbbells to the starting position
Standing dumbbell bent laterals

Muscles - Posterior Deltoids, Medial Deltoids, upper Trapezius
Stand with back straight, knees bent, and feet shoulder-width apart
Hold a dumbbell in each hand using an overhand grip, with palms facing each other
Bend at the hips until back is parallel to the floor and arms are hanging down in an
extended position (arms perpendicular to the floor)
Keeping elbows slightly bent, raise the dumbbells laterally in an arc-like motion until
arms are parallel to the floor
Slowly lower the dumbbells to the starting position
Standing front dumbbell raises (alternate)

Muscles - Anterior deltoids
Stand with back straight, knees slightly bent, and feet slightly less than shoulderwidth apart
Hold a dumbbell in each hand using an overhand grip with palms facing downward
Let arms hang straight down at the sides, holding the dumbbells approximately 2 to
4 inches from upper thigh level
Keeping elbows slightly bent throughout the entire movement, raise the left
dumbbell from upper thigh level to eye level, and slowly lower dumbbell to starting
position
Repeat the movement with the right dumbbell
Incline seated dumbbell curls (alternate)

Muscles - Biceps Brachii
Lie on an incline bench with back pressed firmly against the padding and feet flat on
the floor
Hang arms down at the sides, holding a dumbbell in each hand with an underhand
grip (palms facing upward)
Slowly curl the left dumbbell toward your left shoulder
When maximum biceps contraction occurs, slowly lower the dumbbell to the starting
position
Repeat with the right arm
Seated one arm triceps extension

Muscles - Triceps Brachii
Sit on a flat bench with feet flat on the floor
Hold a dumbbell with an overhand grip (palms are facing forward throughout the
entire movement)
Hold the dumbbell overhead with the arm fully extended
Lower the dumbbell until the forearm is parallel to the floor
At this point, the dumbbell is positioned behind the neck (end position)
Without bouncing the weight at the bottom of the movement, slowly extend the
dumbbell to the starting position and repeat the movement until the desired number
of repetitions is completed
Repeat for the other hand
One arm dumbbell rows (alternate)

Muscles - Latissimus Dorsi, Biceps, Brachialis, Trapezius (mid)
Hold a dumbbell with the right hand, using an overhand grip (palm facing the body)
Rest the left knee on a flat bench. Right leg should be flexed with the foot flat on the
floor
Bend forward at the hips and stabilize the body with a straightened left arm
At this point, the torso should be nearly parallel to the floor
The dumbbell in the right hand is held at full arm's length
Keeping the elbow close to the torso, pull the dumbbell upward in a straight vertical
line, allowing it to lightly touch the rib cage
Slowly lower the dumbbell to the starting position, and repeat the movement until
the desired number of repetitions is completed
Repeat for the left hand
Lunges with dumbbells

Muscles - Quadriceps, Hamstrings, Gluteal muscles
Hold a dumbbell in each hand with an underhand grip (palms facing the torso)
Hold the dumbbells at the sides of the body with arms fully extended (palms facing
your torso)
Step forward with the lead leg, keeping the back erect
Bend the knee of lead leg until it has reached a 90 degree angle
At this point, the knee of the back leg should be approximately 2 to 3 inches from
the floor
When fully lowered, push forcefully with the lead leg and return to the starting
position
Repeat the exercise with your other leg, and continue to alternate until the desired
number of repetitions is completed
Remember that a shorter lead step allows more emphasis to be placed on the
quadriceps muscles and a larger step places more emphasis on the gluteal and
hamstring muscles
Standing one leg heel raises

Muscles - Soleus & Gastrocnemius
Stand with back erect, knees slightly bent
Balance on one leg
Raise the heel off the ground to balance on the ball of the foot
Slowly lower the heel to the ground
Repeat the exercise with the other leg
Squats
Muscles - Rectus Femoris
Stand with back erect, knees slightly bent, and feet shoulder width apart
Arms fully extend at the side of the body
Lower the body until the thighs are parallel with the ground
Straighten the legs to return to the start position
Wrist Curls
Muscles - Forearm flexors
Hold a dumbbell with an underhand grip (palm facing upward)
Sit on the end of a bench, feet flat on the floor
Allow the forearm to lie on the thigh with the wrist and hand hanging over the end of
the knee
Allow the dumbbell to be lowered until it is rolled into the fingers
Using the forearm muscles raise the dumbbell by flexing the fingers and curling the
wrist
Lower the weight to the start position
Repeat for required number of repetitions
Repeat with the other hand
Wrist Extensions
Muscles - Forearm flexors
Hold a dumbbell with an overhand grip (palm facing downward)
Sit on the end of a bench, feet flat on the floor
Allow the forearm to lie on the thigh with the wrist and hand hanging over the end of
the knee
Allow the dumbbell to be lowered until it is rolled into the fingers
Using the forearm muscles raise the dumbbell by curling the wrist
Lower the weight to the start position
Repeat for required number of repetitions
Repeat with the other hand
Upper Body Conditioning

One of the most common sites of injury is the lower back. Injury in this region can be
because of muscular imbalance, weak or inflexible muscles or poor posture. The exercises
below will help develop the right level of conditioning to reduce injury to the lower back.
The exercises
Detailed below is a session of eight exercises. The exercises are to be performed slowly
and smoothly and at no time should you be out of breath.
Sit Ups (Upper Abdominals)
Lie on your back with your legs bent, knees together and feet flat on the floor
Rest your hands on your thighs
Sit up until the palms of your hands touch your knees
Return to the starting position
Perform the movements in a slow controlled fashion
Back Arches (Back)
Lie on you front with your legs crossed at the ankles, keep your feet firmly anchored
to the floor
Hands and arms straight out in front of you
Raise your upper body off the floor, keep your neck in line with your spine
Hold for one second and then slowly lower to the floor
Reverse Curl (Lower Abdominals)
Lie on your back with your legs bent, knees together and feet flat on the floor
Curl up the legs and buttocks off the floor
Hip and Leg raise (Gluteals and hamstrings)
Lie on your back with knees bent, feet flat on the floor
Place your hands by your side
Raise hips and straighten one leg and hold for a second before lowering
Repeat with the other leg
Transversus Abdominis (Abdominal)
Place yourself in the kneeling position with your hands on the ground
Hips directly above the knees
Shoulders directly above the hands
Keep the spine in a natural position
Relax the abdominal muscles and let the tummy sag down
Gently pull your tummy button and the area below it towards your spine
Hold for 10-15 seconds and then relax
Short sit ups (Hip flexors and abdominals)
Lie on you back with knees bent, feet flat on the floor
Rest your hands lightly on your chest
Raise your body so that your upper body is at 30-40 degree angle with the floor
Hold for one second before coming down slowly
Back Extensions (Back)
Sit on the floor with legs bent, feet flat on the floor
Position your hands on the floor behind you to take some of the weight
Raise your body off the floor so that your body is parallel with the floor
Hold for one second and slowly lower
Twisted Curl (Oblique Abdominals)
Lie on your back with your legs bent, knees together and feet flat on the floor.
Place the left ankle on the right knee with the left knee pointing away
Curl up the right shoulder to the left knee
Keep lower back on the ground
Repeat with the other leg and shoulder
How Many and How Often?

Start at one set of ten repetitions. Each week increase the number of repetitions by two.
When you reach twenty repetitions increase the number of sets by one and start again at
ten repetitions.
The exercises should be performed two or three times a week and be incorporated into your
training schedule.
Before You Start

Prior to starting any training program, it is recommended that you have a medical
examination to ensure it is safe for you to do so.
Leg Conditioning
This page identifies general and specific exercise to develop the legs. To gain any real
benefit it requires at least 16 weeks of continuous exercise. Prior to starting any training
program, it is recommended you have a medical examination to ensure it is safe for you to
do so.
General Drills
The following drills performed over 20 to 30 metres. Start with two sets and increment in
steps of 10 metres per two weeks. When you get to 30 metres, add an extra set and start
again at 20 metres. Perform the drill, jog for 20 metres and walk back, 5 minutes recovery
per set
Walking on toes
Walking on heels
Bum kicks with high knee
Skip with high knees
Jog with high knees
Skips for height
Side strides
Specific Drills
The following plyometric drills performed 6 to 10 times. Start with 2 sets and increment in
steps of 2 repetitions per week. When you get to 10 repetitions, add an extra set and start
again at 6 repetitions. Perform drill, jog for 20m and walk back, 5 minutes recovery per set.
Bounds
Bunny hops for distance
Bunny hops with high knee for height
Single leg hop with high knee
Specific Exercises
The following exercise performed for 30 to 60 seconds. Start with 2 sets and increment in
10 second steps. When you get to 60 seconds add an extra set and start again at 30
seconds. Recovery is 30 seconds between each exercise and 5 minutes per set.
Single leg squat
Legs forward astride squat
Single leg squat hops
Legs forward astride jump squat - swapping leg positions
Skipping or bouncing on toes
Running step ups onto a bench
Astride jumps onto a bench
Sideways hopping over 6" hurdle
Multi Gym Exercise

The following exercises performed using weights of 60% of max for the exercise - alternate
with an upper body exercise. Start at 2 sets of 10 repetitions, increment by 2 repetitions
each week, when you get to 16 repetitions, add an extra set and start again at 10
repetitions. 30 seconds recovery per rep and 5 minutes recovery per set.
Standing heel raise
Sitting ham string curls
Sitting leg press
Lying reverse ham string curls
Half squats
Step Ups
Lower Leg Conditioning

Before You Start
Prior to starting any training, it is recommended you have a medical examination to ensure
it is safe for you to do so.
The objective of the following exercises is to help improve lower leg strength and foot
speed.
Calf and Peroneus Brevis muscles

Exercises
Perform the following exercises on the spot
Double foot hops - knees slightly bent, keep the feet together at all times,
bouncing on the toes rising no more than 2 to 3 inches off the ground
Astride jumps - knees slightly bent, start with feet together, bounce on the toes
and move your feet out to each side about shoulder width apart, bounce on the toes
and bring the feet together again, repeat
Compass jumps - knees slightly bent, feet together and stay on your toes at all
times - bounce and move your feet forward (north), bounce and bring your feet back
to the starting point, bounce and move your feet to your right (east), bounce and
bring your feet back to the starting point, bounce and move your feet to the rear
(south), bounce and bring your feet back to the starting point, bounce and move
your feet to your left (west), bounce and bring your feet back to the starting point,
repeat
Rat-a-tats- knees slightly bent - on your toes at all times - looking for speed of
movement - running on the spot bringing the toes no more that 2 or 3 centimetres
off the ground.
How many and how long?

2 or 3 sets with each exercise lasting 20 to 30 seconds
Drills
Perform the following drills with a high knee action, sprint arm action and the whole body
tall and relaxed.
Walking on the toes
with your feet pointing forwards
with your feet pointing inwards 45
with your feet pointing outwards 45
repeat the above Skipping and then Jogging
How many and how far?

2 or 3 sets over a distance of 20 to 30 metres
Tibialis Anterior Muscles

Exercises
Perform the following exercise:
Stand one foot away from a wall - Lean back until buttocks and back touch the wall Keep heels on the ground - Flex ankles so toes rise as high as possible, let the feet
sink back - do not place toes on the floor
How many and how long?

2 or 3 sets for a period of 20 to 30 seconds
Drills
Perform the following drills with a high knee action, sprint arm action and the whole body
tall and relaxed.
Walking on the heels
with your feet pointing forwards
with your feet pointing inwards 45
with your feet pointing outwards 45
How many and how far ?

2 or 3 sets over a distance of 20 to 30 metres
General Fitness Training Program

The UK National Health Service (NHS 2012)[1] recommend that adults should try to be active
daily and do at least 2 hours of moderate-intensity aerobic activity every week, and
muscle-strengthening activities on two or more days a week that work all major muscle
groups.
What are the aims of a fitness training program?

The aim of the training is to improve your level of fitness by developing your balance, coordination, flexibility, strength and endurance. To achieve this we do need to exercise
outside of our comfort zone otherwise all we do is maintain our current level of fitness. If
you can hold a conversation with someone whilst walking or jogging on a treadmill then you
are not outside your comfort zone and all you will achieve is to burn a few calories.
What do I need to do before I start this training program?

If you have not exercised before on a regular basis then I would check with you doctor that
it is safe for you to undertake a regular training program.
How often should I train each week?

An approach to a week's training could be to exercise on 2 or 3 days with a rest day
between them e.g. exercise on Monday and Thursday or Monday, Wednesday and Friday.
Do I train at home or join a gym

The article on Home Gym or Gym Membership considers the advantages and disadvantages
of training at home or joining you local gym. Personally I belong to a local gym as I do not
have space to accommodate all the expensive training equipment.
What will a typical gym session comprise of?

Each exercise session will last approximately 1 to 1 hours and comprise of 5 units of
exercise - warm up unit, strength unit, a flexibility, balance, co-ordination and core unit, an
endurance unit and a cool down unit.
What is in a warm up unit?

The aim of a warm up unit is to prepare your body for the other session units and should
comprise of 5-10 minutes of gentle aerobic exercise (walking, jogging, cycling or rowing)
followed by some dynamic stretching exercises - e.g. Arm Swings, Hip circles and twists,
Lunges and Ankle Bounce. An explanation of these exercise and other exercises are detailed
on the dynamic stretching exercises page. The gentle aerobic exercise on this occasion
should be well within your comfort zone and I refer to the speed you should be working at
as "talking pace" - you could hold a conversation with somebody whilst exercising. This unit
will last between 10 and 15 minutes.
What is in a strength unit?

This can comprise of 4 or 5 dumbbell exercises e.g. Standing one leg heel raises, One arm
dumbbell rows (alternate), Seated one arm triceps extension, Incline seated dumbbell curls
(alternate) and Incline dumbbell bench press. An explanation of these exercise and other
exercises are detailed on the dumbbell exercises page. Perform 1 to 3 sets of 10 to 12
repetitions of each exercise using weights where you are near failure to complete the
exercise on the last repetition of each set. The strength unit can focus on the upper body as
the endurance unit will work strengthen the leg muscles. This unit will last between 15 and
20 minutes.
What is in the flexibility, balance, co-ordination and core unit?

The unit comprises of a selection of upper body conditioning exercises - e.g. Sit Ups (upper
abdominals), Back Arches (Back), Transversus Abdominis (Abdominal), Hip and Leg raise
(Gluteals and hamstrings). An explanation of these exercise and other exercises are detailed
on the upper body conditioning exercises page. All the exercises to be done smoothly and
slowly to develop balance and coordination. Start with 10 repetitions of each exercise and
over time increase the number of repetitions - the focus is quality of movement not quantity
of repetitions. This unit will last between 10 and 15 minutes.
What is in an endurance unit?

The endurance (aerobic) unit should comprise of a 20 to 40 minute activity of rowing,
running, jogging, cycling or cross-trainer. It could comprise of a mix of these aerobic
activities e.g. 10 minutes of jogging, 10 minutes of cycling and 10 minutes of rowing.
During this activity you should be working at around 70% of your maximum heart rate and
having to concentrate on your breathing - no chance of holding a long conversation with
anyone.
What do I do in the cool down?

The aim of a cool down unit is to remove waste products from the muscles, to realign
muscle fibres and re-establish their normal range of movement. This unit should comprise of
a 5 minute gentle jog or cycle followed by some static stretching exercise which you hold for
10 seconds e.g. Chest Stretch, Shoulder and Triceps Stretch, Hamstring Stretch, Calf
Stretch, Hip and Thigh Stretch and Quadriceps Stretch. An explanation of these exercise and
other exercises are detailed on the static stretching exercise page. This unit will last
between 10 and 15 minutes.
What do I need to take with me?

Take a drink, it does not need to be a fancy sports drink, plain water is fine. Take a mouthful
of your drink at regular intervals throughout your training session - e.g. every 5 to 10
minutes. Also take a towel to wipe down the equipment after you have used it.
How do I prevent boredom?

To prevent boredom vary the exercises you do each week and consider listening to your
favourite music as you exercise.
Do I need to do any other exercise or activity work?

I would consider going for a 20 to 30 minute gentle walk (this could be shopping) when you
are not at the gym. This will help develop your aerobic fitness, balance, coordination and
general strength. If you have a dog, problem solved - just take it for its walk(s) each day.
So what does a typical week look like?

Two gym sessions a week:
Day
Activity
Monday
Gym Session
Tuesday
Gentle 20 to 30 minute Walk
Wednesday
Thursday
Gym session
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Three gym sessions a week:

Day
Activity
Monday
Gym Session
Tuesday
Wednesday
Gym Session
Thursday
Friday
Gym session
Saturday
Sunday
How long before I see an improvement in my fitness?

In general it will be anything for 4 to 6 weeks before you start to see an improvement in
your general fitness. You will begin to notice that you can perform more repetitions of an
exercise, the dumbbells are getting heavier and the endurance sessions getting longer.
Do I need to keep a training diary - if yes what do I record?

YES - record what you did in the session e.g. exercises, sets, repetitions, weights, duration
of the aerobic session and what it comprised of, how you were feeling before and after the
session and any niggling injuries/twinges you are becoming aware of. The diary helps you to
monitor how your training is going and the progress you are making.
Conclusion
I hope this will help you get started on your journey to improving your level of fitness. If
you use a gym then speak to the instructors there for more ideas to vary your training and
perhaps get some personal one-to-one training when the instructors can access your
strengths and weakness and provide a more suitable program just for you.
If you are not convinced that exercising is worth the effort then have a read of the benefits
of exercising page.
Principles of Training
Why do people get involved in physical activity?
People get involved in exercise for a number of reasons: to improve their health and
physical condition, to achieve a sporting ambition, to relive the tension and stress of daily
life, to lose weight, it makes them feel good. Participating in sport encourages co-operation
in team sports, develops the element of competitiveness, provides a physical challenge and
the opportunity to meet new people and make new friends.
Principles of Training
Training to improve an athlete's performance obeys the principles of training: specificity,
overload, rest, adaptation and reversibility (SORAR).
Specificity
To improve the range of movement for a particular joint action, you have to perform
exercises that involve that joint action. It is quite possible for an athlete to have
good mobility in the shoulder joint but to have poor hip mobility. Conducting
shoulder mobilityexercises may further improve the shoulder mobility but it will not affect
hip mobility.
In addition to developing general levels of all round mobility in an athlete, coaches need to
consider the specific mobility requirements of a given event. The coach can analyse the
technique of his/her event, identify which joint actions are involved and determine which
need to be improved in terms of the range of movement. A thrower, for example, might
require improvements in his/her shoulder and spine mobility. A hurdler might need to
develop his/her hip mobility.
The amount and nature of the mobility training required by each athlete will vary according
to the individual athlete's event requirements and his/her individual range of movement for
each joint action. It may be necessary to measure the range of movement for particular
joint actions to determine the present range and future improvement.
Specificity is an important principle in strength training, where the exercise must be specific
to the type of strength required, and is therefore related to the particular demands of the
event. The coach should have knowledge of the predominant types of muscular activity
associated with his/her particular event, the movement pattern involved and the type of
strength required. Although specificity is important, it is necessary in every schedule to
include exercises of a general nature (e.g. power clean, squat). These exercises may not
relate too closely to the movement of any athletic event but they do give a balanced
development and provide a strong base upon which highly specific exercise can be built.
To use heavy throwing implements or weighted belts may seem the obvious solution to the
specificity problem, but it is probable that by doing so the athlete will unconsciously develop
compensatory movements in his/her technique in adjusting to the new weight. Most
authorities consider that in the throwing events the training implement should be kept
within 15% of the competition weight.
Can we be specific in the speed of movement? Training at low velocity increases low velocity
strength substantially but has little effect on high velocity strength (Coyle and Fleming,
1980).
Is there then any justification for slow velocity strength training for athletes who have to
perform movements at great speed? Yes. Slow velocity training may be of value in
stimulating maximum adaptation within the muscle. Muscle growth (and increase in
contractile strength) is related to the amount of tension developed within the muscle
(Goldberg, 1975). When an athlete performs high velocity strength work, the force he/she
generates is relatively low and therefore fails to stimulate substantial muscular growth. If
performed extensively the athlete may not be inducing maximum adaptation with the
muscles. It is important therefore for the athlete to use fast and slow movements to train
the muscles.
Overload
When an athlete performs a mobility exercise, he/she should stretch to the end of his/her
range of movement. In active mobility, the end of the range of movement is known as the
active end position. Improvements in mobility can only be achieved by working at or beyond
the active end position.
Passive exercises involve passing the active end position, as the external force is able
to move the limbs further than the active contracting of the agonist muscles
Kinetic mobility (dynamic) exercises use the momentum of the movement to bounce
past the active end position
A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity. The
load must be progressively increased in order to further adaptive responses as training
develops, and the training stimulus is gradually raised. Overload can be progressed by:
increasing the resistance e.g. adding 5kg to the barbell
increasing the number of repetitions with a particular weight
increasing the number of sets of the exercise (work)
increasing the intensity- more work in the same time, i.e. reducing the recovery
periods
Recovery
Rest is required in order for the body to recover from the training and to allow adaptation to
take place. An inadequate amount of rest may lead to over training.
Adaptation
The body will react to the training loads imposed by increasing its ability to cope with those
loads. Adaptation occurs during the recovery period after the training session is completed.
If exercises lasting less than 10 seconds (ATP-CP energy system) are repeated with a full
recovery (approximately 3 to 5 minutes) then an adaptation in which stores of ATP and CP
in the muscles are increased.
This means more energy is available more rapidly and increases the maximum peak power
output. If overloads are experienced for periods of up to 60 seconds, with a full recovery, it
is found that glycogen stores are enhanced.
The most noticeable effect of weight training with heavy loads on fast twitch muscle fibres is
larger and stronger muscles (hypertrophy).
The rate of adaptation will depend on the volume, intensity and frequency of the exercise
sessions. In their recent investigation Burgomaster et al. (2008)[3] reports that 6 weeks of
low-volume, high-intensity sprint training induced similar changes in selected whole-body
and skeletal muscle adaptations as traditional high-volume, low-intensity endurance
workouts undertaken for the same intervention period.
Hawley (2008)[2] states that the time of adaptation may be quicker for high-intensity sprint
training when compared to low-intensity endurance training, but that over a longer period,
the two training regimens elicit similar adaptations.
Reversibility or Detraining
Improved ranges of movement can be achieved and maintained by regular use of mobility
exercises. If an athlete ceases mobility training, his/her ranges of movement will decline
over time to those maintained by his/her other physical activities.
When training ceases the training effect will also stop. It gradually reduces at approximately
one third of the rate of acquisition (Jenson and Fisher, 1972). Athletes must ensure that
they continue strength training throughout the competitive period, although at a much
reduced volume, or newly acquired strength will be lost
Detraining risk for athletes

The effects of a long period of inactivity on physical fitness comes from a UK case study of
an Olympic rower (Godfrey et al. 2005)[1] , who took more than 20 weeks to fully recover
his fitness after an eight-week lay-off.
Although the athlete in question took the time off in response to the need for a physical and
mental break rather than because of illness and injury, this case study has clear implications
for injured athletes.
The athlete, an elite heavyweight male rower and current Olympic champion, allowed
himself the luxury of eight weeks of inactivity after competing in the Sydney Olympic
Games in September 2000. His fitness was assessed by means of a lab-based incremental
rowing test on four separate occasions: eight weeks before the Olympics; after eight weeks
of inactivity; after eight weeks of retraining; and after a further 12 weeks of training.
The key findings were as follows: After eight weeks' detraining
V02peak had decreased by 8%. After eight weeks of retraining it had increased by
only 4%, returning to just below pre-Olympic values after a further 12 weeks;
Power at peak oxygen consumption fell from a pre-Olympic value of 546W to 435W a reduction of 20%. After eight weeks' retraining it had increased by 15%, resuming
pre-Olympic values after a further 12 weeks;
Power at reference blood lactate concentrations declined by 27%, but returned to

just below or just above pre-Olympic levels after 20 weeks' retraining.
The researchers recommend that training programs should limit periods of complete
inactivity to no more than two to three weeks. Prolonged periods of inactivity should be
avoided and the training programme should incorporate some form of "maintenance"
training where a prolonged break is desired.
VO2 max
Fitness can be measured by the volume of oxygen you can consume while exercising at your
maximum capacity. VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres, one can use in
one minute per kilogram of body weight. Those who are fit have higher VO2 max values and
can exercise more intensely than those who are not as well conditioned. Numerous studies
show that you can increase your VO2 max by working out at an intensity that raises
your heart rate to between 65 and 85% of its maximum for at least 20 minutes three to five
times a week (referenced in French & Long (2012)[8]). A mean value of VO2 max for male
athletes is about 3.5 litres/minute and for female athletes it is about 2.7 litres/minute.
Factors affecting VO2 max

The physical limitations that restrict the rate at which energy can be released aerobically are
dependent upon:
the chemical ability of the muscular cellular tissue system to use oxygen in breaking
down fuels
the combined ability of cardiovascular and pulmonary systems to transport the

oxygen to the muscular tissue system
There are various physiological factors that combine to determine VO2 max for which there
are two theories: Utilization Theory and Presentation Theory.
Utilization theory maintains that VO2 max is determined by the body's ability to utilize the
available oxygen whereas Presentation Theory maintains it is the ability of the body's
cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen to active tissues.
A study by Saltin and Rowell (1980)[3] concluded that it is the delivery of oxygen to active
tissues that is the major limiting factor to VO2 max. A study by Gollnick et al. (1972)
[4]
showed a weak relationship between the body's ability to utilize the available oxygen and
VO2 max.
VO2 max for various groups

The tables below, adapted from Wilmore and Costill (2005)[2], detail normative data for
VO2 max (ml/kg/min) in various population groups.
Non Athletes
Age
Male
Female
10-19
47-56
38-46
20-29
43-52
33-42
30-39
39-48
30-38
40-49
36-44
26-35
50-59
34-41
24-33
60-69
31-38
22-30
70-79
28-35
20-27
Athletes
Sport
Age
Male
Female
Baseball
18-32
48-56
52-57
Basketball
18-30
40-60
43-60
Cycling
18-26
62-74
47-57
Canoeing
22-28
55-67
48-52
Football (USA)
20-36
42-60
Gymnastics
18-22
52-58
Ice Hockey
10-30
50-63
Orienteering
20-60
47-53
46-60
Rowing
20-35
60-72
58-65
Skiing alpine
18-30
57-68
50-55
Skiing nordic
20-28
65-94
60-75
Soccer
22-28
54-64
50-60
Speed skating
18-24
56-73
44-55
Swimming
10-25
50-70
40-60
35-50
Track & Field - Discus
22-30
42-55
Track & Field - Running
18-39
60-85
50-75
Track & Field - Running
40-75
40-60
35-60
Track & Field - Shot
22-30
40-46
Volleyball
18-22
Weight Lifting
20-30
38-52
Wrestling
20-30
52-65
40-56
Athlete's VO2 max Scores

The following are the VO2 max scores for a selection of the top female and male athletes.
VO2 max (ml/kg/min)
Athlete
Gender
Sport/Event
96.0
Espen Harald Bjerke
Male
Cross Country Skiing
96.0
Bjorn Daehlie
Male
92.5
Greg LeMond
Male
Cycling
92.0
Matt Carpenter
Male
Marathon Runner
92.0
Tore Ruud Hofstad
Male
91.0
Harri Kirvesniem
Male
88.0
Miguel Indurain
Male
Cycling
87.4
Marius Bakken
Male
5K Runner
85.0
Dave Bedford
Male
10K Runner
85.0
John Ngugi
Male
Cross Country Runner
73.5
Greta Waitz
Female
Marathon runner
71.2
Ingrid Kristiansen
Female
Marathon Runner
67.2
Rosa Mota
Female
Marathon Runner
VO2 max and age

As we get older our VO2 max decreases. A study by Jackson et al. (1995)[5] found the
average decrease was 0.46 ml/kg/min per year for men (1.2%) and 0.54 ml/kg/min for
women (1.7%). The decline is due to a number of factors including a reduction in maximum
heart rate and maximum stoke volume.
VO2 max and performance

VO2 max on its own is a poor predictor of performance but using the velocity (vVO2 max)
and duration (tlimvVO2 max) that an athlete can operate at their VO2 max will provide a
better indication of performance.
VO2 max evaluation tests

An estimate of your VO2 max can be determined using any of the following tests:
2.4km Run Test
Astrand Treadmill test - VO2 max test running on a treadmill
Astrand 6 minute Cycle test - VO2 max test on a static bike
Balke VO2 max test - suitable for endurance sports
Balke Incremental treadmill protocol test- VO2 max test on a treadmill (male and
female tests)
Bruce Incremental treadmill protocol test- VO2 max test on a treadmill (male and
female tests)
Cooper VO2 max test - suitable for endurance sports
Conconi test
Critical Swim Speed - measure of a swimmers aerobic capacity
Home Step Test - a step test you can conduct at home
Harvard Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness
Multistage Fitness Test or Bleep test - VO2 max test for endurance sports
Queens College Step Test - VO2 max test
Rockport Fitness walking test - VO2 max test
Tecumseh Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness
Treadmill VO2max test - VO2 max test
VO2 max from non-exercise data - VO2 max test
VO2 max from a one mile jog
VO2 max from a race result (time for a distance)
VO2 max Step Test
Wheelchair VO2 max Test
Heart Rate Zones

Heart rate training zones are calculated by taking into consideration your Maximum Heart
Rate (HRmax) and your Resting Heart Rate (HRrest). Within each training zone, subtle
physiological effects take place to enhance your fitness.
The Energy Efficient or Recovery Zone - 60% to 70%

Training within this zone develops basic endurance and aerobic capacity. All easy recovery
running should be completed at a maximum of 70%. Another advantage to running in this
zone is that while you are happily fat burning you may lose weight and you will be allowing
your muscles to re-energise with glycogen, which has been expended during those faster
paced workouts.
The Aerobic Zone - 70% to 80%

Training in this zone will develop your cardiovascular system. The body's ability to transport
oxygen to, and carbon dioxide away from, the working muscles can be developed and
improved. As you become fitter and stronger from training in this zone it will be possible to
run some of your long weekend runs at up to 75%, so getting the benefits of some fat
burning and improved aerobic capacity.
The Anaerobic Zone - 80% to 90%

Training in this zone will develop your lactic acid system. In this zone, your
individual anaerobic threshold (AT) is found - sometimes referred to the point of deflection
(POD). During these heart rates, the amount of fat being utilised as the main source of
energy is greatly reduced and glycogen stored in the muscle is predominantly used. One of
the by-products of burning this glycogen is lactic acid. There is a point at which the body
can no longer remove the lactic acid from the working muscles quickly enough. This is
your anaerobic threshold (AT). Through the correct training, it is possible to delay the AT by
being able to increase your ability to deal with the lactic acid for a longer period of time or
by pushing the AT higher.
The Red Line Zone 90% to 100%

Training in this zone will only be possible for short periods. It effectively trains your fast
twitch muscle fibres and helps to develop speed. This zone is reserved for interval
running and only the very fit are able to train effectively within this zone.
Heart rate variations for a given intensity

A reduction in heart rate for a given intensity is usually due to an improvement in fitness
but a number of other factors might explain why heart rates can vary for a given intensity:
Dehydration can increase the heart rate by up to 7.5%
Heat and humidity can increase the heart rate by 10 beats/minute
Altitude can increase the heart rate by 10 to 20%, even when acclimatised
Biological variation can mean the heart rate varies from day to day by 2 to 4
beats/minute
Resting Heart Rate

To determine your resting heart rate (HRrest) is very easy. Find somewhere nice and quiet, lie
down and relax. Position a watch or clock where you can clearly see it whilst lying down.
After 20 minutes determine your resting pulse rate (beats/min). Use this value as your
(HRrest).
If you have a heart rate monitor then put it on before you lie down. After the 20 minutes
check the recordings and identify the lowest value achieved. Use this value as your HRrest.
The heart is a muscle so with regular exercise it will become larger and become more
efficient as a pump. As a result you will find your resting heart rate gets lower so you will
need to check your HRrest on a regular basis (e.g. Monthly).
Calculation of a zone value

The calculation of a zone value, X%, is performed in the following way:
Subtract your HRrestfrom your HRmax giving us your reserve heart rate (HRreserve)
Calculate the required X% on the HRreserve giving us "Z"
Add "Z" and your HRrest together to give us the final value
Example: The athlete's HRmax is 180 and their HRrest is 60 - determine the 70% value
HRmax - HRrest = 180 - 60 = 120
70% of 120 = 84
84 + HRrest = 84 + 60 = 144 bpm
How to develop a Training Program

The process of creating a training program to help develop an individual's level of fitness
comprises of 6 stages:
Stage 1 - gather details about the individual
Stage 2 - identify the fitness components to develop
Stage 3 - identify appropriate tests to monitor fitness status
Stage 4 - conduct a gap analysis
Stage 5 - compile the program
Stage 6 - monitor progress and adjust program
Stage 1
The first stage is to gather details about the individual:
Age
Reasons for wanting to get fit
Current or recent injuries
Health problems
The sports they play and how often
Their dislikes and likes with regards training
What sports facilities they have access to - gym, sports centre etc.
Prior to starting any training, it is recommended you have a medical examination to ensure
it is safe for you to do so.
Stage 2
The second stage is to determine what components of fitness they need to improve. This
will depend upon what the individual wants to get fit for - to improve general fitness, get fit
enough to play in the Saturday hockey league, run a local 5 km fun run or compete in next
year's London Marathon.
Exercise scientists have identified nine elements that comprise the definition of fitness. The
following lists each of the nine elements and an example of how they are used:
Strength - the extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against
resistance (holding or restraining an object or person)
Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive

burst of movements (Jumping or sprint starting)
Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid

succession in opposing directions (ZigZag running or cutting movements)
Balance - the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (e.g. a
handstand) or while moving (e.g. a gymnastics stunt)
Flexibility - the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being impeded
by excess tissue, i.e. fat or muscle (Executing a leg split)
Local Muscle Endurance - a single muscle's ability to perform sustained work (Rowing
or cycling)
Cardiovascular Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles

and their ability to use it (Running long distances)
Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contracture time

after time (Continuous explosive rebounding through an entire basketball game)
Coordination - the ability to integrate the above listed components so that effective
movements are achieved
Of all the nine elements of fitness cardiac respiratory qualities are the most important to
develop as they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation. You will
need to consider which of these elements are applicable to the individuals training program
based on what it is they want to get fit for.
Stage 3
The next stage is to identify appropriate tests that can be used to initially determine the
individual's level of fitness and then to monitor progress during the training. The Evaluation
Test page identifies suitable tests for each of the fitness elements.
Identified test should be conducted and the results recorded.
Stage 4
We now know the individual's background, objectives and current level of fitness. We now
need to conduct a gap analysis of the current fitness levels (from test results at stage 3)
and target fitness levels (identified at stage 2). The results of this process will assist in the
design of the training program so that each component of fitness is improved to the desired
level.
The following is an example of a gap analysis:
Test
Fitness
Component
Multistage Fitness Test
Aerobic
30 metre acceleration Test
Speed
4.3 seconds
3.9 seconds
Illinois agility run Test
Agility
20 seconds
<16 seconds
Standing Long Jump Test
Leg power
2.4 metres
2.8 metres
Over head medicine ball

throw
Arm power
16.1 metres
16 metres
Current
Target
Level 12 Shuttle Level 12 Shuttle

2
5
Gap analysis - Aerobic fitness and arm power are good and just need to be maintained sprint, agility and leg power tests are below target - leg power needs to be improved.
Stage 5
The next stage is to prepare a training program using the results of the gap analysis and
FITT principles.
F - frequency - how often should the individual exercise?
I - intensity - how hard should the individual exercise?
T - time - how long should each session last?
T - training activity - what exercise or training activity will help achieve the
individual's fitness goals?
For frequency, intensity and time you should start at an easy level and increase gradually
e.g. 10% increments. Aerobic training should last for 20 to 40 minutes. Strength work
should last 15 to 30 minutes and comprise of 3 sessions a week with 48 hours recovery
between sessions.
Plan the program in four week cycles where the workload in the first three weeks increase
each week (easy, medium, hard) and the fourth week comprises of active recovery and
tests to monitor training progress. The aim of the four week cycles is to:
Build you up to a level of fitness (3 weeks)
Test, recovery and adjustment of the training program (1 week)
Build you up to higher level of fitness (3 weeks)
Test, recovery and adjustment of the training program (1 week)
Build you up to an even higher level of fitness (3 weeks)
and so on
The tests used to assess the individual's initial level of fitness should be planned into week 4
of the program in order to monitor progress and effectiveness of the program. The test
results can be used to adjust the program accordingly.
The program needs to last 12 to 16 weeks in order to see any real benefits and the planning
(initial & subsequent adjustments) should be conducted with the individual so that they feel
they own the program. This will ensure the program is enjoyable and convenient to do.
Stage 6
The program has now been agreed and the individual can undertake the program. Every 4
weeks meet and discuss with the individual:
How the training has gone
The test results
Progress towards target fitness levels
Adjustments to the training program
Example programs
The following are example training programs:
Develop general fitness for team sports
Develop general strength using dumbbells
Training to run a marathon
Energy Pathways
Energy production is both time and intensity related. Running at a very high intensity, as in
sprinting, means that an athlete can operate effectively for only a very short period of time
where as running at a low intensity, as in gentle jogging, means that an athlete can sustain
activity for a long period of time. There is a relationship between exercise intensity and the
energy source.
Energy Pathways
Matthews (1971)[2] divides the running requirements of various sports into the following
"energy pathways": ATP-CP and LA, LA-02, and 02.
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate: a complex chemical compound formed with the

energy released from food and stored in all cells, particularly muscles. Only from the
energy released by the breakdown of this compound can the cells perform work. The
breakdown of ATP produces energy and ADP.
CP - Creatine Phosphate: a chemical compound stored in muscle, which when broken

down aids in the manufacture of ATP. The combination of ADP and CP produces ATP.
LA - Lactic acid: a fatiguing metabolite of the lactic acid system resulting from the
incomplete breakdown of glucose. However Noakes in South Africa has discovered
that although excessive lactate production is part of the extreme fatigue process, it is
the protons produced at the same time that restricts further performance
O2 means aerobic running in which ATP is manufactured from food, mainly sugar and
fat. This system produces ATP copiously and is the prime energy source during
endurance activities
When working at 95% effort these energy pathways are time limited and the general
consensus on these times are as follows:
Duration
Classification
Energy Supplied By
1 to 4 seconds
Anaerobic
ATP (in muscles)
4 to 10 seconds
Anaerobic
ATP + CP
10 to 45 seconds
Anaerobic
ATP + CP + Muscle glycogen
45 to 120 seconds
Anaerobic, Lactic
Muscle glycogen
120 to 240 seconds
Aerobic + Anaerobic
Muscle glycogen + lactic acid
240 to 600 seconds
Aerobic
Muscle glycogen + fatty acids
The result of muscle contraction produces ADP which when coupled with CP regenerates
ATP. Actively contracting muscles obtain ATP from glucose stored in the blood stream and
the breakdown of glycogen stored in the muscles. Exercise for longer periods requires the
complete oxidation of carbohydrates or free fatty acids in the mitochondria.
The carbohydrate store will last approximately 90 minutes and the free fatty store will last
several days.
All three energy systems contribute at the start of exercise but the contribution depends
upon the individual, the effort applied or on the rate at which energy is used. Davis et al.
(2000)[3], shows how the energy systems contribute to the manufacture of ATP over time
when exercising at 100% effort. The thresholds (T) indicate the point at which the energy
system is exhausted - training will improve the thresholds times.
The Alactic Energy System

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) stores in the muscle last for approximately 2 seconds and the
resynthesis of ATP from Creatine Phosphate (CP) will continue until CP stores in the muscles
are depleted, approximately 4 to 6 seconds. This gives us around 5 to 8 seconds of ATP
production.
To develop this energy system, sessions of 4 to 8 seconds of high intensity work at near
peak velocity are required e.g.
3 10 30 metres with recovery of 30 seconds/repetition and 3 minutes/set.
15 60 metres with 60 seconds recovery
20 20 metres shuttle runs with 45 seconds recovery
Energy Production
(Phosphocreatine + ADP) (Creatine Phosphokinase) (Creatine + ATP)
Influence of the recovery time

The length of recovery between repetitions is important in the recovery of power output
through the resynthesis of CP. A study by Holmyard et al. (1994)[4] with a group of subjects
who performed 6 second sprints with recovery intervals from 15 to 180 seconds found that
there is a 81% recovery in peak power output (PPO) with a 1 minute recovery and a 92%
recovery of PPO in 3 minutes.
Recovery Time
(seconds)
PPO recovery
(%)
15
68.7
30
73.6
45
78.1
60
81.0
120
88.2
180
92.2
The Lactate Energy System

Once the CP stores are depleted the body resorts to stored glucose for ATP. The breakdown
of glucose or glycogen in anaerobic conditions results in the production of lactate and
hydrogen ions. The accumulation of hydrogen ions is the limiting factor causing fatigue in
runs of 300 metres to 800 metres.
Sessions to develop this energy system:
5 to 8 300 metres fast - 45 seconds recovery - until pace significantly slows
150 metre intervals at 400 metre pace - 20 seconds recovery - until pace
significantly slows
8 300 metres - 3 minutes recovery (lactate recovery training)
There are three units within this energy system: Speed Endurance, Special Endurance 1 and
Special Endurance 2. Each of these units can be developed as follows:
Speed Endurance
Special Endurance 1
Special Endurance 2
Intensity
95 to 100%
90 to 100%
90 to 100%
Distance
80 to 150m
150 to 300m
300 to 600m
No of Repetitions/Set
2 to 5
1 to 5
1 to 4
No of Sets
2 to 3
Total distance/session
300 to 1200m
300 to 1200m
300 to 1200m
Example
3 (60, 80, 100)
2 150m +
3 500m
2 200m
Anaerobic Capacity and Anaerobic Power

Anaerobic Capacity refers to the body's ability to regenerate ATP using the glycolytic system
and Anaerobic Power refers to the body's ability to regenerate ATP using the phosphagen
system. These energy systems can be developed with appropriate interval training sessions.
Glycolytic and Phosphagen energy systems

Glycolytic - the breakdown of glucose by enzymes into pyruvic and lactic acids with the
release of energy (ATP).
Phosphagen - the use of creatine phosphate stored in the muscles to generate energy
(ATP).
Energy Production
(Glucose + 2 ATP) (Pyruvic Acid) (Lactic Acid + 2 ATP)
Recovery time
Denadal & Higino (2004)[5] concluded from their research that 8 minutes is all you should
take during track speed workouts over anything up to 800 metres - even those going deep
into lactate build up.
The Aerobic Energy System

The aerobic energy system utilises proteins, fats and carbohydrate (glycogen) for
resynthesising ATP. This energy system can be developed with various intensity (Tempo)
runs.
The types of Tempo runs are:
Continuous Tempo - long slow runs at 50 to 70% of maximum heart rate. This places
demands on muscle and liver glycogen. The normal response by the system is to
enhance muscle and liver glycogen storage capacities and glycolytic activity
associated with these processes
Extensive Tempo - continuous runs at 60 to 80% of maximum heart rate. This places
demands on the system to cope with lactate production. Running at this level assists
the removal and turnover of lactate and the body's ability to tolerate greater levels of
lactate
Intensive Tempo - continuous runs at 80 to 90% of maximum heart rate. Lactate

levels become high as these runs boarder on speed endurance and special
endurance. Intensive tempo training provides the base for the development of
anaerobic energy systems
Sessions to develop this energy system:
4 to 6 2 to 5 minute runs - 2 to 5 minutes recovery
20 200m - 30 seconds recovery
10 400m - 60 to 90 seconds recovery
5 to 10 kilometre runs
Energy Production
(Glucose + Fats + Amino Acids + Oxygen) (Krebs Cycle) (34 ATP)
Energy System recruitment

Although all energy systems turn on at the same time the recruitment of an alternative
system occurs when the current energy system is almost depleted. The following table
provides an approximation of the percentage contribution of the energy pathways in certain
sports (Fox 1993)[1].
Sport
ATP-CP and LA
LA-O2
O2
Basketball
60
20
20
Fencing
90
10
Field events
90
10
Golf swing
95
Gymnastics
80
15
Hockey
50
20
30
Distance running
10
20
70
Rowing
20
30
50
Skiing
33
33
33
Soccer
50
20
30
Sprints
90
10
Swimming 1.5km
10
20
70
Tennis
70
20
10
Volleyball
80
15
Other names used for the Energy Systems

The Alactic Energy System is also referred to as the:
PCr Energy System
ATP-CP Energy System
ATP-PCr Energy System
Start Up Energy System
Creatine Phosphate Energy System
Oxidative Independent Energy System
Alactic Anaerobic Energy System
Short Term Energy System
The Lactate Energy System is also referred to as the:
Lactic Acid Energy System
Lactic Anaerobic Energy System
Anaerobic Lactate Energy System
Linking Energy System
Oxidative Independent Glycolytic Energy System
Non-oxidative Glycolytic Energy System
Medium Term Energy System
The Aerobic Energy System is also referred to as the:
Keep going Energy System
Oxidative Dependent Energy System
Long Term Energy System
References
1. FOX, E.L. et al. (1993) The Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport. 5th ed.
Madison: Brown & Benchmark
2. MATTHEWS, D. et al. (1971) The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and
Athletics. Philadelphia: Saunders
3. DAVIS, B. et al. (2000) The Interrelationship of the energy system and their
threshold points [Diagram]. In: Physical Education and the Study of Sport. London:
Harcourt Publishers p.139
4. HOLMYARD, D.J. et al. (1994) Effect of recovery on performance during multiple
treadmill sprints. London: E&FN Spon
5. DENADAL, B.S and HIGINO, W.P. (2004) Effect of the passive recovery period on the
lactate minimum speed in sprinters and endurance runners. J Sci Med Sport, 7 (4),
p. 488-96

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Health & Fitness

The Components of Fitness

Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive

Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid

Flexibility - the ability to achieve an extended range of motion without being

Cardiovascular Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles

Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contraction time

Power (speed & strength)

Improving your condition

General core stability exercises

General all round body conditioning exercises using dumbbells

General conditioning exercises for the upper body

General and specific leg conditioning exercises

Specific exercises to develop lower leg strength and foot speed

Why should I exercise on a regular basis?

I am new to training so what should I do?

Tests for fitness components

Illinois Agility Test

Standing Stork Test

Multistage Fitness Test

Sit & Reach test

NCF Abdominal Conditioning Test

Standing Long Jump or Vertical Jump

Standing on one leg with eyes open for balance

Side-bending of the trunk for spinal flexibility

Modified push-ups for upper body muscular function

What are the classifications of strength?

Maximum strength - the greatest force that is possible in a single maximum

Elastic strength - the ability to overcome a resistance with a fast contraction

Strength endurance - the ability to express force many times over

Absolute and Relative strength

Relative strength - The maximum force exerted in relation to body weight or

How do we get strong?

number of repetitions of an exercise

number of sets of the exercise

intensity by reduced recover time

How do we develop strength?

Maximum strength can be developed with :

Elastic strength can be developed with :

complex training sessions

medicine ball exercises

Strength endurance can be developed with :

hill and harness running

The effects of strength training

an increase in ATP, CP and glycogen concentration

a decrease in oxidative enzyme activity

a decrease in mitocarbohydratendrial density

These changes vary slightly according to the training intensity.

Myogenic - changes within the muscle structure

Neuogenic - changes to the connection between muscle and nerve

supporting connective tissue (ligaments and tendons)

Strength training programs increase the intramuscular stores such as adenosine

RAMSAY, J. A. et al. (1990) Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Medicine

BEATTIE, K. et al. (2014) The Effect of Strength Training on Performance in

FAIGENBAUM, A. D. et al. (1996) The effects of strength training and detraining on

MACKENZIE, B. (1997) Strength [WWW] Available from:

Articles on Strength Training

Books on Strength Training

1 Watt = 0.73756 ft/lb/sec = 6.12 kg/m/min

1 Watt = 0.01433 kcal/min = 0.05 ml/kg/min

1 kcal/min = 3.5 ml/kg/min

1 kcal = 4.186 kjoules

1 kjoule = 0.23889 kcal