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SHIP PRODI.ICTION
SECOND EDITION
BY
R I C H A R D L E E S T O R C H ,C O L I N P . H A M M O N ,
HOWARD M. BUNCH, & RICHARD C. MOORE
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CORNELL
MARITIME
PRESS
CENTREVILLE, MARYLAND
,?t132 ,l
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,5Br
I e95
Library ofCongressCataloging-in-publication
Data
Shipproduction / byRichardleeStorch
p.
cm.
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C'
C O N T EN T S
xix
INTRODUCTION
The Shipbuilding Process,3
Shipbuilding Terms and Defrnitions,6
Ship Definitions, 6
Ship Types,6
Shipyard Facilities, 6
Organization, 7
Trades,11
ClassificationSocietiesand RegulatoryAgencies,1A
Status of the Shipbuilding Industry, 14
The World Shipbuilding Market, 15
The U.S. Shipbuilding Industry, 18
The U.S. Shipbuilding Market, 21
ResourceMarkets,2S
Industry Organization and Performance,25
TechnologyDevelopmentsand Productivity, 28
References,29
2l$o
XI
31
Vi
CONTENTS
Group Technology,45
Group Technology,an Overview,46
Group TechnologyDefined,47
Classificationand Coding,49
Group Technologyand the Shipbuilding Model, 51
Work Breakdown Structures, 53
Systems-OrientedWork Breakdown Structure, 54
Product-OrientedWork Breakdown Structure (PWBS).54
References,59
ilI.
60
105
coNTENTS
vii
Welding Processes,126
Soldering and Brazing, 134
Distortion Removal, 135
Outfit Processes,136
Machinery, 137
Piping, 138
Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning (HVAC), 140
Electrical, 141
Accommodations,142
Deck Fittings,142
CombatSystems,142
Material-Handling Processes,143
Material-Handling Equipment, 143
Material-Handling System Design, 148
Rigging, 148
Staging/Scaffolding, 149
SurfacePreparation and Coating, 150
SurfacePreparation, 150
Shop Priming, 156
Coating Systems,156
Flame-SprayedCoating, 157
Quality Assurance,158
Steel ProcessQuality Assurance,158
Outfit ProcessQuality Assurance,159
Test and Trials, 159
VesselDelivery Certificates, 160
References,160
V. SHIPYARD LAYOUT
Historical Perspective,161
Pre-World War II, 162
World War II-1960,162
1960-Present, 163
Shipyard Facilities and Siting, 168
General Yard Layout, 17O
Building Positions,171
Material Handling, 173
WarehousingFacilities, 174
Production Facilities, 175
ProcessLanes,189
Physical ProcessLanes, 189
ProcessLane Loading, 193
References,194
i
I
161
Viii
coNTENTS
195
252
CONTENTS
IX
319
359
CONTENTS
Facilities, 367
Planning Approach,368
ManagementApproach, 384
Repair and Overhaul, 386
UnscheduledVoyageRepairs, 386
Planned Maintenance,391
Overhaul, 394
Conversionand Modernization, 396
Deactivation,403
Scrapping,404
RecentInnovations in Ship Repair, 404
Maintenance ManagementApproaches,405
Delivery of Services,406
TechnologicalTrends, 406
References,408
GLOSSARY
409
INDEX
421
436
P L A T ES , F I G U R ES , A N D T A B L E S
Plates
All plates follow page 84.
Fig. 3-27. Outfit units. (a) An engineroom
tank top unit. (b) Pumps, valves,pipe
pieces,and foundationsincorporatedas a
unit. (c) Pneumatic tubing and supports
form a small unit. Fig. 3-28 (a & b).
Typical machinery outfit units (the same
problem area). Fig. 3-29. Machinery
outfit unit assembledon a common
foundation (courtesyAvondale Shipyard).
V. Fig. 3-58.Erection, keel laying plus 15 workdays.Fig. 3-59.Erection, keel laying plus
19 workdays.Fig. 3-60.Erection, keel
laying plus 22 workdays. Fig. 3-61.
Erection, keel laying plus 22 workdays.
Fig. 3-62.Erection, keel laying plus 24
workdays. Fig. 3-63.Erection, keel laying
plus 24 workdays.
VI. Fig. 3-64.Erection,keel laying plus 27 workdays. Fig. 3-65.Erection,keel laying plus
28 workdays.Fig. 3-66.Erection, keel
Iaying plus 29 workdays.Fig. 3-67.
Erection,keel laying plus 29 workdays.
Fig. 3-68.Operation and test (vessel
Iaunched 43 workdays after keel laying,
deliveredsevenmonths after starting
fabrication).
XI
Xii
PLATES,FIGURES,AND TABLES
Figures
1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
l-4.
1-5.
1-6.
2-I.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
2-7.
2-8.
2-9.
2-70.
2-11.
2-12.
2-13.
2-14.
2-15.
2-76.
3-7.
3-8.
3-9.
3-10.
3-11.
3-12.
3-13.
3-14.
3-15.
3-16.
3-17.
3-18.
3-19.
3-20.
3-21.
3-22.
3-23.
3-24.
3-25.
3-26.
3-1.
3-2.
3-3.
3-4.
3-5.
3-6.
Industrial projectmanagementcycle,62
System and zoneorientations in the
management cycle,62
Design process,64
Design outfit specialtygroups,64
Processlanes for simultaneoushull
constructionand outfrtting, 65
Integrated schedulesfor hull construction,
outfrtting, and painting,66
3-27.
3-28.
3-29.
3-30.
3-31.
3-32.
PLATES.FIGURES.AND TABLES
Mast units, 87
On-blockoutfrtting in a pipe tunnel
under a cargo hold, 88
3-35.
SeePlate II.
3-36. SeePlate II.
3-37. SeePlate II.
3-38. SeePlate II.
SeePlate II.
3-39.
3-40.
SeePlate II.
3-41. Zone painting method (ZPTM) manufacturing levels, 90
ZPTM classificationby product aspects,
3-42.
91
3-43. Typical paint systemsapplied in
accordancewith ZPTM, 92
A center deck and center transversebulk3-44.
head grand block, upside down, 94
3-45. A grand block, including the side shel^,
top side tank, transverse
hopper, and side transverse bulkhead
ofa cargohold, 94
3-46. The same grand block as in figure
3-45,94
.)-zt
, .
SeePlate III.
3-48. SeePlate III.
3-49. SeePlate III.
3-50. SeePlate III.
3 - 5 1 . SeePlate III.
3-52. SeePlate III.
3 - 5 3 . See Plab fV.
3-54. See Plate fV.
3-55. SeePlate IV.
3-56. SeePlate IV.
3 - 5 7 . See Plate IV.
3-58. SeePlate V.
3-59. SeePlate V.
3-60. SeePlate V.
3 - 6 1 . SeePlate V.
3-62. SeePlate V.
3-63. SeePlate V.
3-64. SeePlate VI.
3-65. SeePlate VI.
3-66. SeePlate VI.
3-67. SeePlate VI.
3-68. SeePlate VI.
3-69. Pipe piece family manufacturing method
(PPFM) manufacturing levels,95
PPFM classfficationbyproduct aspects,96
3-70.
Problem area subdivisions for pipe
3-77.
piece fabrication, assembly, and joining
levels,97
Tlpical classificationsfor PPFM, 98
3-72.
Tlpical decisionlogic for determining
3-73.
pipe piecefamilies, 99
3-33.
3-34.
3-74.
3-75.
3-76.
3-77.
3-78.
3-79.
Xiii
Arrangementofatomsincubiclattices,106
Dendritic crystal growth schematic,107
Grain boundariesof dendritic
crystals, 107
4-4.
Iron/iron carbidephasediagram, 108
4-5.
Stmctural changesin0.407ocarbonsteel
during slow cooling,109
4-6.
Stress-straincurve,111
4-7.
S-N plot offatigue test results, 111
4-8.
Diagram illustrating plate being
straightened in roll-straightener, 116
4-9.
Diagram illustrating the straightening
of thin plates (sheetmetal), 116
4 - 1 0 . Heavy-duty shears,117
4-tt.
Band saw for sheet metal cutting, 117
4-r2.
Burning torch, 118
4 - 1 3 . Profile cutter, 120
Flame planer, 120
4-t4.
4-15(a).Rolls used for shell plate curving, 120
4-15(b).Rolls used for forming round components,120
4-76. Pressused for bending plate, 121
4-17. Pressbrake, 121
4-18. Gap press,121
4-19. Frame bender, 122
4-20.
Curvature from line heating, 122
4-21,. l,ocal reactionsiiom line heating, 122
4-22. Convergenttype torch tip, 123
4-23. Typical line heating operations,124
4-24. Butt weld, 125
4-25. Fillet weld, 125
4-26. Metallurgical zonesin welding, 125
4-27.
Tlpical penetrationsfor various welding
processes,125
4-28.
Singleand multi-pass welds, 125
4-29. Gas welding process,128
4-30. Oxyacetylenegas welding equipment,
t28
4-31. Electric arc welding processes,129
Manual shieldedmetal arc welding, 130
4-32.
4-33.
Manual shieldedmetal arc welding
process,130
Manual shielded metal arc welding
4-34.
positions,130
4-35. Gravity welding machine, 131
4-7.
4-2.
4-3.
XIV
4-36.
PLATES,
FIGURES,
ANDTABLES
4-80.
4-81.
4-82.
4-83.
5-1.
5-2.
5-3.
5-4.
Productionorganizationproperties,162
First-generationshipyardlayout, 163
Second-generation
shipyard layout, 164
High-capacity,in-line processshipyard,
165
5-5.
In-line processshipyard in futl
production,165
5-6.
Self-propelledtransporter, 165
5-7.
Third-generationshipyard layout, 167
5-8.
Fourth-generationshipyard layout, 169
5-9.
Proposedfourth-generationnewbuilding
yard layout, 170
5-10. Longitudinal-slopedbuilding ways, 171
5-11. Graving dock,t72
5-12. Side-launchways, 173
5-13. Floating dry dock with removable
wing wall, 173
5-I4.
Floating dry dock with heary-lift
translation system, 173
5-15. Synchrolift, 174
5-16. Level building launch facilities, 174
5-17. Warehousefacility, 175
5-18. Flow diagram of N/C steel marking
process,176
5-19. Typical layout ofa steel curved panel
shop and panel line, 178
5-20. Automatic stiffener welding, 179
5-21(a). Large shipyard steel panel line in
operation,179
5-21(b). Larger shipyard steel panel line
schematic,179
5-22(a). Shipyardsteelpanelline schematic,179
5-22(.b).Shipyard steel panel line in operation,
180
5-23. Panelline blast and coatfacility, 180
5-24. Typical layout of a block surfacepreparation and coatingfacility, 181
5-25. Erection site painting, 181
5-26. Schematicof a semiautomatedpipe
shop, 182
5-27. Pipe storageand retrieval rack, 182
5-28. Pin jig, 183
5-29. Typical shipbuildingjigs and fixtures,
lB4_87
5-30. Adjustable mobile scaffolding,188
5-31. Erection work unit, 188
E-32. Processlane facility layout, 190
5-33. PlatenAlock categories,191
5-34. Flat block platen. 192
PLATES,
FIGURES,
ANDTABLES
6-1.
6-2.
6-3.
6-4.
6-5(a).
6-5(b).
6-5(c).
6-5(d).
6-5(e).
6-6.
6-7.
6-8.
6-9.
6-10.
6 - 11 .
6-12.
6-13.
6-14.
6-15.
6-16.
6-17.
6-18.
6-19.
6-20.
6-21.
6-22.
6-23.
6-24.
6-25.
6-26.
6-27.
6-28.
6-29.
6-30.
6-31.
6-32.
6-33.
Product-orienteddesigrrprocess,196
The pallet concept,198
Information interchangeto integrate
HBCM, ZOFM, andZPTM, 199
Intensity ofgroup technology
engineering effort, 20 1
The design and engineeringcycle,
marketing to contract, 202
The design and engineeringcycle,
contract to Go meeting, 203
The design and engineering cycle,
Go meeting to K meeting, 203
The design and engineering cycle,
K meeting to ML meeting, 204
The desigrr and engineering cycle,
ML meeting to keel laying,204
Preliminary block plan, 205
Functional desigr responsibilities,206
Structural key plan, 208
Structural key plan, 208
Structural key plan, 209
Structural key plan, 209
Diagrammatic of part of a seawater
ballast system,210
System plan for part offorecastle deck
mooring system,211
Material ordering zones,2l2
Material list by system (MLS), 212
Transition designresponsibilities,2I4
Compositedraft of an engine room, 215
Separationof types of outfrtting materials on compositearrangements,217
Compositearrangementsshowing
hull outfrt, 218
Workinstructiondesignresponsibilities,
2t9
Coordinationof design and material
defrnition,220
Stagesfor outfitting components,221
Mold loft-generated key plan, 223
Mold loft-generated yard p),an,223
Mold loft-generated work instruction
224
Mold loIt-generatedwork instructionplan,
224
Mold loft-generated material list, 225
Mold loft-generated material list for a
pallet,226
Mold loft-generated schedule,226
.Information booklet title page,227
Improveddesignapproach,228
Design and productioninformation
useful for improving design at various
stages,229
Classificationofstandards.230
6-34.
6-35.
6-36.
6-37.
6-38.
6-39.
6-40.
6-4I.
6-42.
6-43.
6-44.
6-45.
6-46.
6-47.
6-48.
6-49.
6-50.
6-51.
6-52.
6-53.
6-54.
6-55.
6-56.
6-57.
6-58.
7-t.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
7-6.
7-7.
7-8.
7-9.
7-10.
7-lf.
7-I2.
7-13.
7-14.
7-15.
7-16.
7-17.
XV
XVi
PLATES,FIGURES,ANDTABLES
7-18.
7-79.
7-20.
7-2I.
7-22.
7-23.
7-24.
Schedulinghierarchy, 271
Milestone schedule,272
Outfitting master schedule,272
Monthly schedule,273
Weeklyschedule,2T3
Planning and schedulingcycle,274
Shop organization by zonelproblem
area.lstage,276
Communication and feedbackchannels.
277
Typical work unit, 282
L-type grand blocks,284
Block defrnition consistent with
integrated HBCN, ZOFM, and ZPTM,
285
Hullconstructionproduction
planning flow, 286
Hull constructionproduction scheduling
flow,287
Man-hour budget determination system,
293
Manpower expendituresfor hull
construction, 299
Manpower expendituresfor machinery
outfitting,299
Manpower expenditures for electrical
assembly(noncable),299
Manpower expendituresfor electric
cable assembly,299
Production progress for hull
construction, 299
Typical cost centers.300
Productivityofpartsfabrication, 301
Productivity of subassemblyand block
assembly,301
Productivityoferection, 301
Productivity of machinery outfitting, 301
Productivity of electrical assembly
(noncable),301
Productivitycontrol group, 303
Relationship of material to desigrr,
procurement, and production, 304
Flow of material-related information in
desigr,306
Critical path model of material lead time,
307
Material control classifications,307
Material control identification codes,309
Structure for material cost classification,
310
Functional flow of the requisition
process,311
Typical classifrcationstandards,313
Relationshipof material lists to
design and procurement,314
7-25.
7-26.
7-27.
7-28.
7-29.
7-30.
7-31.
7-32.
7-33.
7-34.
7-35.
7-36.
7-37.
7-38.
7-39.
7-40.
7-4I.
7-42.
7-43.
7-44.
7-45.
7-46.
7-47.
7-48.
7-49.
7-50.
7-51.
7-52.
8-1.
8-2.
8-3.
8-4.
8-5.
8-6.
8-7.
8-8.
8-9.
8-10.
8-11.
8-12.
8-13.
8-14.
8-15.
8-16.
8-17.
8-18.
8-19.
8-20.
8-21,.
8-22.
8-23.
8-24.
8-25.
8-26.
8-27.
PLATES.
FIGURES.
ANDTABLES
8-28.
8-29.
8-30.
8-31.
8-32.
8-33.
9-1.
9-2.
9-3.
9-4.
9-5.
9-6.
9-7.
9-8.
9-9.
9-10.
9-11.
9-12.
9-13.
9-14.
9-15.
9-16.
9-I7.
9-18.
9-19.
9-20.
9-21.
9-22.
9-23.
9-24.
9-25.
9-26.
9-27.
9-28.
9-29.
XVII
Tables
1-1. The world's leading shipbuilding nations, 17
1-2. U.S. shipyard new constructionand repair
facilities, 19
1-3. Hourly compensationfor shipyard workers
worldwide(U.S.$), 21
4-1. Requirements for ordinary-strength hull
structural steel, 113
4-2. Requirements for higher-strength hull
structural steel, 114
4-3. Properties of high-strength hull structural
steelsdevelopedfor Navy ship
construction,115
4-4. Applicability ofcutting processesto
materials, 118
4-5. Characteristicsof fusion welding processes,
127
4-6. Weaponssystemscomponentsof combatant
ships, 143
P R EF A C E
In 1981 the leaders of the National Shipbuilding Research Program (NSRP) recognized the need for greater focus on shipbuilding education;the result was the establishment of an educationpanel (SP-g)within
the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers Ship Production Committee-the
implementation arm of the NSRP. The frrst
project authorized by the panel was a textbook on advanced conceptsof ship production. The first edition of the book was
published in 1988. In 1993 the decisionwas
made to revise the book, and to update its
contentsto be consistentwith the technology
changesthat have occurredin the years since
the first edition was released.This book is
the revised, secondedition.
Signifrcant changeshave been made in
the second,revised edition from the text found
in the original version. Chapter I, which contains the history of shipbuilding and statistics relating to production and market share,
has beenupdated to have more current information. Chapter II has been expanded to
more directly incorporateinto the text material relating to shipbuilding economictheory.
In Chapter fV there has been new material
added that relates especially to fabrication
processes.Throughout this sectionthere has
been an updating of all processinformation
to more accurately reflect the state of technology that currently exists. Antiquated information has been removedfrom Chapter V
XX
PREFACE
Mr- \{aymond
\iarn Zeig\er, Mr' 'IoYrrr \)cart'
and Nlr' George
I'au\ Vickers,
i.tt""V,-fanr.
supwho
contributors
Additional
O'I(eefe.
SHIP PRODUCTION
CHAPTER ]
INTRODUCTION
Pr ocess
1 . T h e S hipbuilding
Shipbuilding is an industry that produces
products (ships, offshorestructures, floating
plants, etc.) for customers (private owners,
companies,governments,etc.).In most cases,
the product is built to order and customized
to the specificrequirementsof the purchaser.
This applies even in caseswhere a similar
seriesof ships is being built. The entire processis likely to vary somewhat,dependingon
the customer involved, but it generally involvesa number of specificstages.Thesemay
be summarized as:
.
.
.
.
.
.
developmentof owner'srequirements
preliminary/concept design
contract design
bidding/contracting
detail design and planning
construction
The first stage in the shipbuilding processis the formulation of the product requirementsby the customer.For example,a shipping line may forecastthe need for a means
of transporting 250,000automobilesper year
betweenJapan and California; a state transportation agencymay need to ferry 150,000
passengersper day acrossan inland waterway over 10 routes averaging 30 trips per
route; an oil company may need to transport 10 million tons of crude oil per year
from the Caribbean to the northeast United
i
SHIPPRODUCTION
complex and very detailed planning is required. Detail design and planning must answer the questions of "what, where, how,
when, and by whom." Determiningwhat parts,
assemblies,and systems are to be built and
what componentsare to be purchasedis primarily detail design. Where and.how are facility-use questions that include determination of the location within the shipyard and
constructiontools and techniquesto be used.
Considerationsof subcontractingand in-house
manufacture versus purchasing are also answeredhere. Thesequestionsare resolvedas
part of planning. When determines the sequencingof all operations,including purchasing and manufacturing, as well as need times
for information (design, planning, approvals,
etc.). This is the schedulingfunction. Finally,
by whom relatesto the utilization of the shipyard work force. Clearly, there is considerable interdependence among the answers to
these questions.The successofany shipyard
or shipbuilding project is directly related to
the answers to the questions or to the detail
design and planning process.
The frnal stage of the shipbuilding process is the actual construction of the vessel.
Ship constructioncan be consideredto occur
in four manufacturing levels. The first is
parts manufacturing, using raw materials
(such as steel plate and sections,pipe, sheet
metal, and cable) to manufacture individual
parts. The purchasing and handling of componentscan be consideredto be a part ofthis
lowest manufacturing level. The next manufacturing level involves the joining of parts
and./orcomponentsto form subassembliesor
units. Thesesmall collectionsofjoined parts
are then combined in the third manufacturing level to form hull blocks. Hull blocks are
commonly the largest sectionsof ships built
away from the final building site. Erection,
the final manufacturing level, involves the
landing and joining of blocks at the building
site (such as launching ways, graving dock,
or dry dock).The actual construction phase of
INTRODUCTION
I
SHIPPRODUCTION
2. Shipbuilding
Termsand Definitions
Shipbuilding is the constructionofships, and
a shipyard is the placewhere ships are built.
Shipbuilding is a construction industry
which uses a wide variety of manufactured
componentsin addition to basic construction
materials. The processthereforehas many of
the characteristicsof both construction and
manufacturing. Shipbuilding requires many
workers having various skills (or trades;,
working within an established organizational structure at a specificlocationin which
necessaryfacilities are available.The goal of
a privately owned shipbuilding companyis to
earn a profit by building ships.
2.1.ShipDefinitions
A ship, although a complex combination of
things, can be most easily classified by its
basic dimensions, its weight (displacement)
and./orload-carrying capacity (deadweight),
and its intended service. Figure 1-1 defrnes
a number of basic ship dimensionsas well as
typical shipboardregions.Somespecificdefrnitions are dependent on the vesseltype or
selvice, but in general, most definitions are
applicablefor all ship types.
2.2.ShipTypes
Ships can be subdivided into a number of
classesbasedon their intended service. The
primary classesare (1) dry cargo ships, (2)
INTRODUCTION
SUPERSTRUCTURE
RUDDER
MAIN DECK
FORECASTLE
. PROPELLER
LENGTHBETWE
LENGTHOVERALL
Fig. 1-1.Basicshipdimensions
anddefinitions.
SHIPPRODUCTION
BULK
CARRIERS
OIL
TANKERS
PASSENGER
SHIPS
COAL
SHIPS
COASTAL
FERRIES
INDUSTRIAL
VESSELS
TRAWtERS,
SEINERS,
ETC,
FLOATING
DRY
CABTE
LAYERS
00cKs
II
ROLL.ON
ROLL.OFF
(RO/RO)
t
CARGO
LINERS
LIQUEFIED
GAS
CARRTERS
l
I
ORE
SHIPS
CRUISE
SHTPS
HARBOR
FERRIES
COMBATANT
SHIPS
OTHERS
AIRCRAFT HYDROFOIL
CARBIERS
CRAFT
II
FACTORY
tcEFLOATING
SURFACE
SURFACE
BREAKERS CRANES COMBATANTS E T T E U I D
SHIPS
(PROCESSORS)
SHIPS
(SES)
CHEMICAL OIUBULI(/ORE
CARRIERS (080)sHrPS
BARGE
CARRIERS
DREDGES
FLOATING
WORK
PLATFORMS
SALVAGE/BUOY
VESSELS
AUXILIARIES
SUBMERSIBLES
SUBI\,IARINES
II
I
REFRIGERATED
CABGOSHIPS
LUMBER
CARRIERS
I
TENDERS
PILOT
CRAFI
Fig. 1-2.Shiptypes.
administration, (2) production,(3)engineering, (4) purchasing, (5) quality assurance,
and (6) projectmanagement(contractadministration).
Administration includes the chief executive officer and stafl payroll, accounting,personnel, labor relations, safety, and job estimating.
Productionis the department responsible
for the actual construction.Consequently,all
trades workers are in the production department. Planning, scheduling,and production
control functions may also be in the production department. Generally,75 to 85 percent of the shipyard's employeesare in this
department.
Engineering is responsiblefor the preparation of information about the construction
project to be used by productionin constructing the vessel.Engineering functions include
preliminary design,detail design,production
engineering,and, sometimes,bidding of new
INTRODUCTION
C O N T A I N E RS H I P
H O L DN O . 4
HOLDNO.2
q.-
s-
\rJL
MACHY
SPACE
TANKNO.5
T A N KN O . 4
T A N KN O . 3
TANK NO. 2
,l
TANKNO.1 D . T .
NO.
F
TANKER
z
t ruo.o
| ruo
l,!L| i HoLo
i frflL! f,!:?i L3:3i uor-o
BALLAST
BULKCARRIER
s^Y.lt
10
SHIPPRODUCTION
HARBOR
FERRY
FISHING
VESSEL
DIESELOIL SIORAGETANK
INTRODUCTION
11
MACHYSPACE
coMBATANT(SURFACE)
AIR-CONDITIONING
BLOWER/ HEATER
DIESELROOM
ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
ROOM
t I
-r -*f F 1**rf
SPACE
EOUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL
HYDROFOIL
Fig. 1-3 (continued).
quirements. A separateprojectmanagement
or contract management department is
charged with overseeingthe progress of a
particular shipbuilding project. It monitors
compliancewith budgets,schedules,materials usage, and the overall progress of the
shipbuilding program. Within this department, it is commonto have shipbuilding superintendents who are responsiblefor each
construction project. This department, too,
has generally been the lead group in the
implementation of statistical processcontrol
conceptsinto the yard's activities.
2.5.Trades
Within the production department, actual ship
construction work is subdivided into various
trade skills.[2] Theseare:
. air-conditioningequipment mechanic:
installs, maintains, and repairs refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment
. blaster: preparessurfacesfor coating
by abrasiveblasting (may be combined
with painter)
. boilermaker: assemblesboilers, tanks,
and pressurevessels,using power tools
12
SHIPPRODUCTION
PARKING LOT
BOUNDARY
o
tr
{r
Y
F
a
a
U
J
(r
U
z
U
I
L
F
a
o
(r
ADMINISTRATION
O F F I C EB U I L D I N G
o
F
a
U
L
I METAL I
I SHOP I
UNIT
ASSEMBL
6",/ **
K9
:*
FLAT BLOCK
ASSEMBLY BAY
O U T F I /TT E S T& T R I A LP I E B
Fig. 1-4.Representative
shipyardlayout.
and hand tools (may also refer to all of
the steelworking trades)
. carpbnter:fabricates and assembles
woodenstmctures, gratings, keel blocks,
and shorings,and is often responsible
for launching (may also perform joinery
work)
. chipper/gnnder:grinds and chips weld
splatter, high spots,burrs, weld slag,
and rust from metal surfacesof ships
to improve their appearanceor prepare
them for painting
o electrician (inside):installs and maintains wiring, fixtures, and equipment
for shipyard facilities
o electrican (outside):installs and repairs
wiring, fixbures, and equipment for all
electrical services aboard ship
r electronicsmechanic:works on various
types of electronicequipment to put it
in repaired operating condition
r electroplater:sets up, operates,and
maintains metal plating baths to deposit
-_-__--_-
INTRODUCTION
13
14
SHIPPRODUCTION
3. Statusof theShipbuilding
Industry
I
through the Navy and Maritime Administration (MarAd), the federal government
has provided a market through direct purchase and differential subsidies. The government also provides a market indirectly
through tax incentives, financing, and cabotage and cargo preference legislation. (Cabotage is the reservation of all domestic and
]
l
t
I
INTRODUCTION
15
------l
16
SHIPPRODUCTION
M GRT
(TO A LOG SCALE)
LAUNCHES
1975
35.0
14.0
1893 1903
1943
1953
1963
1973
1983
1993
Fig. 1-5.Worldshipbuildingmarketcycles.
dramatically. The worldwide order book declined from a peak of 242.3 million deadweight tons (dwt) in Ig74 to 32.0 million in
the first quarter of 1979, and some tankers
were laid up as they were completed.Many
of the marginal shipbuilders who were able
to penetrate the market during the boom
years went bankrupt or were nationalized.
In particular, highly automated shipyardsin
Europe were either nationalized or restructured. Even Japan suffered nrany bankruptcies and a reduction in shipbuilding capacity
of 35 percent.
Although some recovery occurred in
the world shipbuilding market, its condition
throughout the 1980scan be describedas depressed.At the end ofthe decade,the industry was beginning to show signs of recovery,
with modest increasesoccurring in the early
1990s.
INTRODUCTION
17
nations
Table1-1. The world'sleadingshipbuilding
(Rankingby percentage
sharein tonnageon order)
1992
1988
1985
Japan
43.3"/"
SouthKorea
32.57"
Japan
39.0%
SouthKorea
19.OY"
Jaoan
25.8"h
SouthKorea
21j%
Brazil
6.1"/o
Yugoslavia
5.0%
Denmark
5.4%
Taiwan
35%
Taiwan
3.9"/"
China
5.1"/o
China
3.47o
Brazil
3.5Y"
Taiwan
3.3%
Germany
2J%
China
3.3%
Romania
2.97"
Poland
2.0%
Germany
3.2"/"
Brazil
2.77o
sqg'n
2.9%
Poland
3.1%
Germany
2.4%
Yugoslavia
1.9%
Spain
3.1%
GreatBritain
2A%
Romania
1.7"/"
ltaly
2.7%
Poland
23%
Denmark
1.7%
Romania
23%
Spain
2.3%
u.s.A.
1.570 Denmark
1.97"
Croatia
2.17"
9.77"
AllOthers
9.0%
AflOthers
11.8"/"
AllOthers
Totaltonnageon order(Year-endrecords)
1985: 46,696,555dwt
1988: 38,536,093dwt
1992: 68,672,316dwt
"Newbuilding
Various
issues.
London.
Fairplay.
Supplementl'
Source:
the samesince1980.Japanbecamethe world
leader in commercial shipbuilding in 1956
and has continued to maintain that position.
South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, and Brazil
emergedas strongly contendingshipbuilding
nations in the 1970s.In the early 1980s,the
People'sRepublic of China also began a serious entry into the worldwide shipbuilding
market.
To maintain their market share, the
nations have followed a variety of marketing strategies, which have included subsidy
schemesand major initiatives to improve productivity. Since 1975 the work forces have
beenreducedover 60 percentin West Europe,
and over 70 percentin Japanesevards. These
18
SHIPPRODUCTION
The U.S. active shipbuilding base is defined as privately owned shipyards that are
engagedin actively seekingconstructioncontracts for naval and commercial ships over
1,000tons. As of December81, 1998,there
were 39 shipyards (public and private) in the
United Statescapableofbuilding or drydocking a ship greaterthan 220 meters,and which
had an active employment of more than 200
persons.The list is shown in Table 1-2. As
seen,there are 14 new constructionyards, 17
repair yards with dry dock facilities, and
eight navy yards. Figure 1-6 displays the
location ofthe yards.
Beyondthe 39 shipyardsshownin Figure
1-6 there are about 560 additional establishments in the U.S. Census'sStandard Industrial Classification (SIC 3731 lshipbuilding
and RepairingJ).According to the Department of Labor, aggregateemploymentin the
private shipbuilding and repair sectorin 1992
was 123,000persons.[6]Additionally,the public shipyards also employed about b0,00060,000,making the total U.S. shipyard employment figure slightly over 170,000-the
largest number of shipyard workers in any
nation outside China, and possiblyRussia.
Approximately 80 percent of the total
labor forceof the primary active shipbuilding
baseconsistsof productionworkers. Employment levels have varied considerably over
time for all but a few of these yards. Typically, about 80-90 percent ofthe total active
shipbuilding baseproductionworkers are engaged in naly new construction, overhaul,
repair, or conversion.
In U.S. shipyards, between Bb and 60
percent of the direct costs associatedwith
building a ship are attributable to labor. In
foreign yards the labor percentageis significantly less: 20-35 percent.[Z]The major differenceis related to the types of ships being
built: the U.S. yards build naval ships primarily, and foreign yards concentrateon commercial ships. Also, someof the differenceis
INTRODUCTION
19
Table1-2. U.S.shipyardnewconstruction
andrepairfacilities
(Overalllength>220mand more than 200 employees,October1993)
YARDNAME
LOCATION
AK-WAInc
AlabamaShipyard
AtlanticDrydockCorp
AllanticMarine
Avondalelndustries
Bath lron WorksCoro
BathlronWorksCorp
BenderShipbuilding
& Repair
Bethlehem
SteelCorp
BethshipSabineYard
NavalShipyard
Charleston
Colonna'sShipyard
DetyensShipyard
GeneralDynamics
HalterMarine
IngallsShipbuilding
Intermarine,
USA
LongBeachNavalShipyard
MarelslandNavalShipyard
MaritimeContractors
McDermott,
Inc.
MelroMachineCorp
Nat'lSteel& Shipbuilding
Co.
NewparkShipbuilding
& Bepair
NewportNewsShipbuilding
NorfolkNavalShipyard
NORSHIPCO
NorthFloridaShipyards
PearlHarborNavalShipyard
PetersonBuilders
Philadelphia
NavalShipyard
PortlandShipRepairYard
Portsmouth
NavalShipyard
PugetSoundNavalShipyard
San Francisco
Drydock
SouthwestMarine
TampaShipyards
ToddPacificShipyards
TrinityMarineGroup
Tacoma,WA
Mobile,AL
FL
Jacksonville,
Mobile,AL
NewOrleans,LA
Bath,ME
Portland,ME
Mobile,AL
SparrowsPoint,MD
PortArthur,TX
Charleston,
SC
Norfolk,VA
Mt. Pleasant,SC
Groton,CT
MossPoint,MS
Pascagoula,
MS
Savannah,GA
LongBeach,CA
Marelsland,CA
Bellingham,
WA
MorganCity,LA
Norfolk,VA
San Diego,CA
Houston,
TX
NewportNews,VA
Portsmouth,
VA
Norfolk,VA
Jacksonville,
FL
PearlHarbor,Hl
SturgeonBay,Wl
Philadelphia,
PA
Portland,
OR
Kittery,ME
Bremerton,
WA
San Francisco,
CA
San Diego,CA
Tampa,FL
Seattle,WA
Beaumont,TX
TOTALCOUNT
Adaptedfrom
"Report
REPAIR
YARDS
NEW
WITHDRYDOCK
CONSTRUCTION
FACILITIES
U.S.NAVY
YARDS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
14
17
20
SHIPPRODUCTION
12,22,26,27
*.ro P
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
AK-WA Inc.
AlabamaShipyard
AtlanticDrydockCorp.
AtlanticMarine
AvondaleIndustries
Bath lron WorksCorp.
Bath lron WorksCorp.
BenderShipbuilding
& Repair
BethlehemSteelCorp.
BethshipSabineYard
CharlestonNavalShipyard
Colonna'sShipyard
DeytensShipyard
GeneralDynamics
HalterMarine
IngallsShipbuilding
Intermarine,USA
Long BeachNavalShipyard
Mare lslandNavalShipyard
MaritimeContraclors
Tacoma,WA
Mobile,AL
Jacksonville,
FL
Mobile,AL
New Orleans,LA
Bath,ME
Portland,ME
Mobite,AL
Sparrowspoint,MD
PortArthur,TX
Charleston,SC
Norfolk,VA
Mt. Pleasant,SC
Groton,CT
MossPoint,MS
Pascagoula,
MS
Savannah,GA
Long Beach,CA
Mare lsland,CA
Bellingham,WA
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
21 5
McDermotl,Inc.
MetroMachineCorp.
Nat'lSteel& ShipbuildingCo.
NewparkShipbuilding& Repair
NewportNews Shipbuilding
NorfolkNavalShipyard
NOSHIPCO
NorthFloridaShipyards
PearlHarborNavalShipyard
PetersonBuilders
PhiladelphiaNavalShipyard
PortlandShip RepairYard
PortsmouthNavalShipyard
PugetSoundNavalShipyard
San FranciscoDrydock
SouthwestMarine
Tampa Shipyards
Todd PacificShipyards
TrinityMarineGroup
MorganCity,LA
Norfolk,VA
San Diego,CA
Houston,TX
NewportNews,VA
Portsmouth,VA
Nor.folk,
VA
Jacksonville,FL
PearlHarbor,Hl
SturgeonBay, Wl
Philadelphia,
PA
Portland,OR
Kittery,ME
Bremerton,WA
San Francisco,CA
San Diego,CA
Tampa,FL
Seattle,WA
Beaumont,TX
INTRODUCTION
21
for shipyardworkersworldwide(U.S.$)
Table 1-3. Hourlycompensation
Country
1975
1980
UnitedStates
Canada
6.85
6.35
HongKong
Japan
Korea
Singapore
Taiwan
1.05
3.92
0.54
1.20
0.57
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
8.75
7.04
5.73
5.13
7.22
Italy
Norway
Sweden
Kingdom
United
5.82
N/A
8.08
3.74
9 . 1 7 8.48 18.87
12.50 11.28 21.92
13.22 10.03 20.93
7.52
6.45 13.21
t.o/
6.75
1.65
1.95
1.54
1985 1990
2.32
8.12
2.13
3.20
2.46
3.78
15.04
6.52
5.16
7.50
FromU.S.Bureau
Nov.1991
of Labor
Statistics,
than 100 people.Topsideyards usually have
the capability of transporting men and material to the work site.
The U.S. ship repair industry continues
to be very active and competesvery aggressively in both domesticand foreign markets.
The U.S. shipyards benefit from their location in the United States (the world's most
important trading nation). Therefore, location, timeliness of repairs, and better pricing
can, and do, give the U.S. yard an advantage
over foreign competition.
The frnal element of the industry is the
group known as "second-tier"shipyards. These
yards are primarily engaged in supporting
inland waterway and coastal carriers. Their
focusis the constructionand repair of smaller
vessels,e.g., supply boats, tugboats, ferries,
frshing vessels, barges, and small military
22
SHIPPRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
23
24
SHIPPRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
lead times, another measure of the performance of the supplier base,have also generally exhibited the expectedresponseto economic conditions.Thus, lead times will also
be influenced more by general economicconditions than by the status of the shipbuilding
industry.
The shipbuilding supplier base, along
with other predominantly defense-oriented
industries, has declinedsincethe 1950s.The
U.S. industry is, in several instances, dependent on a single supplier. Examples rnclude suppliers ofanchors, anchor chain, and
activated rudders. In the case of quiet ball
bearings used in submarines and many surface ships, the single source is a Japanese
manufacturer. Reasons generally cited for
the declinein the supplier base are:
. cyclesand small size of the market
o costsassociatedwith government
regulations
r problems associatedwith military
specifrcations/standards
The last two apply specificallyto suppliers of
military equipment but, becauseof the importance of the government market, affect
the entire industry.
The effect of the size and cycles of the
market receivedconsiderableCongressional
attention throughout the 1970s.
However, very little has changed as a
result of extensivetestimony and somedocumentation by the Navy. Many subcontractors
and component suppliers simply frnd it uneconomicalto upgradeor evenretain capacity
for a market that is both small and sporadic.
Additionally, the small subcontractorssee a
much more cyclical market than is apparent
from observing the aggregate.When business
is slack, shipbuilders tend to make components in their own facilities-components
that would be subcontracted in times of
greater demand. The result is an accentua-
25
26
SHIPPRODUCTION
ships outside the United States. The strategic value of the industry is well recognized,
however, and maintenance of a peacetime
shipbuilding industrial base is a practical
necessity. The industrial organization and
investment policies of the industry have
evolved in responseto signals from the government, and the structure of the industry is
essentially a product of national maritime
policy, or the lack ofsuch a policy.
The industry is anything but homogeneous in terms of ownership,companysize,and
primary markets. However,somerough generalizations can be made with respect to
profrtability and capital budgeting policies.
Beginning in 1959, the major shipyards
changed from mostly independent firms to
divisions of large corporations.With the exception of Todd, this transition was accomplished through conglomeratemerger or acquisition by aerospaceor other large companies.
The reasonsfor conglomeratemerger are
complex. In general, however, this form of
acquisition is used because it provides a
means of increasing the price/earningsratio
ofthe parent company,and offersscaleeconomies in the capital market without running
afoul of the antitrust laws. Either vertical
integration or merger with a company that
manufactures the same basic product line is
often infeasible for large corporations becauseof the antitrust laws.
Whatever the particular corporate reasons for acquiring shipyards, it is not clear
that such acquisitionswere successful,based
on usual economicstandards. The business
environment has been characterizedas "one
of high risk and low returns."[12] Profitability
has in general been low. It has been shown
that profrtability was two-tiered: mediumsized yards that retained their traditional
old line shipbuilding identity were profrtable,
while those that were primarily aerospace
oriented sustained consistent losses.It has
also been suggestedthat cash flow rather
INTRODUCTION 27
28
SHIPPRODUCTION
Although labor rates have shaped national policy, they do not explain the labor
intensivenessofthe industry nor the low productivity compared to foreign shipbuilders
and other construction and batch manufacturing industries. The U.S. government has
shapeddemand,and demand has guided technolory and capital formation. The demand for
ships in the United States has historically
been uneven and, more importantly, uncertain. Demand is based on the underlying
world demand for shipping and national defense requirements, both highly cyclical, as
modifred by the political and economicclimate. Additionally, in an attempt to broaden
the shipbuilding base, Na'vy acquisition has
traditionally been spread among several
builders. Programs comprising 20 and 30
ships have been allocated to as many as
sevenshipyards. The fragmentation of orders
and ensuing uncertainty did not offer incentive either to modernize facilities or reorganize pmduction. The result was a high-cost
labor-intensive industry.
In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Navy
initiated acquisition policies, such as multiship contracts,intended to encourageinvestment in shipbuilding technology.In addition
to Navy efforts to provide incentives for modernization, the Maritime Administration developed standard ship designs to promote
multi-ship construction programs. Through
the National Shipbuilding ResearchProgram,
the Maritime Administration also conducted
an active education and technology transfer
program in conjunctionwith the shipbuilding
industry. The industry responded to these
policies and has made major organizational
and technologicalchangesover the past ten
years. Despite significant capital expenditures
in the 1970s,an overall decreasein productivity during approximately the same period
was reported to be between 15 and 35 percent.[16]The United States is recosnizedas
INTRODUCTION
29
30
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
5 . I b i d ,p . 4 6 .
6. U.S. Industrial Outlook, 1993--Shipbuilding
and Repair,pp.2I-22.
7. Whitehurst, C.H., The U.S.Shipbuilding
Industry, Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute
Press, 1986.
8. Op. cit., U.S.Industrial Outlook,pp.21-23.
9. Martin, J.C., "The Labor Market of the
United States Shipbuilding Industry,"
Ph.D. dissertation,Washington: George
Washington University, 1978.
10. Martin, J.C., N.B. Davis, M.H. Kahn, and
W.J. Shafer, "Accomplishing Shipyard
Work for the United States Navy: Institutions, Systemsand Operations,"Institute
for DefenseAnalysis, August 1975.
11. Coordinatorof Shipbuilding, Conversion,and
Repair, Department of Defense,"Annual
Report on the Status ofthe Shipbuilding
and Ship Repair Industry of the United
States,"1982.
72. Kattz, E.M., and Associates,'"TheCapital
Budgeting Policiesof the U.S. Shipbuilding
Industry: An Analysis of Defense Industry
Behavior,"Office of Naval Research,
October 1979.
CHAPTER II
SH I P B U I L D I N G M A N A G E M E N T T H E O R Y
1. lntroduction
generalprinciplesofgroup technology,which
are introduced and related to the traditional
economicmodel of shipbuilding in the second
sectionof this chapter.Two work breakdown
structures, one system-orientedand one product-oriented,are describedin the last section. The product-orientedwork breakdown
structure (PWBS) is the vehicle for applying
group technologyto ship construction.PWBS
will be exploredin depth in Chapter III.
2. Shipbuilding
Economic
Theory
productionrate varies over time accordingto
the stageof completion.Second,ship cost estimating is inexact and as construction proceeds,production rates have to be adjusted.
Consequently,this shipbuilding model reflects
the effects, on total cost, of production rate
changes over time. These effects, and the
underlying variables which determine production rate, will be examinedin detail as the
modelis developed.This modelhas beenused
to analyze and explain cost overruns in shipbuilding programs. It is used here to gain
insights into costdrivers and how costsmight
be controlled using better production managementtechniques.
Defining a production function for shipbuilding entails three basicbut essentialcon-
The shipbuilding model is based on the theory of production applied to a production run
for a predetermined,frxedtotal output. When
total output is frxed,the producer'sdecisions
include the productionrate and when to start
and stop production. These decisionsare, of
course, interdependent; when any two are
made, the third is determined. Total output
is fixed at the time of contract signing. The
times to start and complete production are
generally determined as part of the shipbuilder's bid, subjectto somemodifrcationas
a result of frnal negotiations.Consequently,
the average production rate is also determined. However, traditional shipbuilding,
comparedto most manufacturing industries,
is complicatedby two important factors. First,
31
32
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
The second and third major considerations, time dependenceand production rate
effectson cost, are particularly important to
this discussion.A ship consistsof many intermediate products, called work packages.A
work package consists of some number of
required man-hours.An increasein required
output implies an increasein number of work
packages or an increase in required manhours per work package.The optimum erection sequenceimplies the availability of each
completedwork packageat a specificpoint
in time. Completedinterim products(work
in process)represent significant inventory
costs.If interim products are completedtoo
early, capital is tied up in the form ofvalue
added, and storage costs may be increased.
Interim products generally require more expensive storage facilities, corrosion control,
and security than raw materials. Late completion ofinterim products results in bottleneck delays and interference among work
packageswhich were originally scheduledfor
different time periods.Similar problems can
be anticipated if material or equipment that
is supplied by vendors outside the shipyard
arrives too early or too late.
The shipbuilding progress curve is Sshaped,as shown in Figure 2-I(a). This implies a bell-shaped production rate. If production proceedsaccordingto plan, the production rate curve correspondsto the rate of
resourceapplication, as shown in Figure 21(b). In the early stages of ship production,
steel is being cut and formed. At this time,
outfitting is limited; the work area is limited
by shop and platen space,and these determine the optimum production rate. As erection proceeds,more resourcescan be applied
in the form of simultaneous prefabrication,
fabrication,erection,and outfitting. This corresponds to the central portion of the curve
shown in Figure 2-I. Later in the cycle, the
work area is again severelyrestricted.A limited number of workers can be in the same
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
33
u1
>U
FF
<O
>Od
TIME
U
F
cc
zA
oz
FZ
oz
l<
o>
o
tr
L
TIME
Fig. 2-1.Productionplan for traditionalship construction.
ganization ofthe work and tighter control of
resourcesand work processes.
The dynamic shipbuilding model presented in the next subsectionexplains the
combinedeffect of resourcemarket phenomena presentedin Chapter I, and changesto
the originally planned production schedule.
The optimum constmction rate over time dependson frxed capital, the quantity and quality of workers, required changesto the original plan, and changesin the number of workers. During the construction of a ship, or a
seriesof ships,only changesin the number of
workers are generally controllableby the shipbuilder. The model is used to show how factors not under the control ofthe shipbuilder
may disrupt the constmction processand reduceproductivity, and how this disruption is
traded off against delay. It will be shown in
Section 4 that many of the adverse effects of
these factors can be reduced or eliminated
using group technology.
2.1.The Shipbuilding
Model
Once a ship, or series of ships, has been
contracted for, the shipbuilder's incentives
34
SHIPPRODUCTION
a
:
G3.
-l
2
=
U\l
OF
rrq
tz
dg
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
processthroughout the ship. It may also result in spillover effectson other ships or programs.
These assumptions can be stated as a
standard production function.
Qt
where:
Kt = rate of use of capital at time t
Lt = rate of use of labor at time t
E6 captures the efficiency effects of changes
to required output. The componentsof E include the effects of incomplete or missing
plans, disruption ofworkers or support services, and worker morale.
Physical output rate, qt, is measured in
terms such as feet of pipe installed or tons of
steel erectedper day. However,a measureof
output rate is neededwhich will allow a comparison oftons ofsteel and feet ofpipe. The
units for production rate are "standard manhours" per unit time. A standard man-hour is
the amount of physical completion which
should be accomplishedby one worker working one hour if all of the other determinants
of productivity are as originally planned.
In the long run the shipyard's capital and
labor inputs can be adjusted to achieve the
optimal size for the yard. The shipbuilder's
choiceof capital stock will depend on many
things, including expectedlong-run demand
and the need for flexibility. The size of the
capital stock,in turn, will also determine the
optimal rate of production for the yard.
In the short run, capital is frxed and output is varied by adjusting the sizeof the work
force or the averagelength ofthe work day.
Short run doesnot mean that the shipbuilder
cannot change capital stock but rather that
such changesare not soughtbecausechanges
to required production rate are viewed as
temporary.
Labor, L1, is defined as quality-adjusted
labor. Labor is not homogeneous,and the pro-
35
36
SHIPPRODUCTION
the crew. Experiencelevel is commonly represented by total yard or craft turnover. Journeyrnan/total worker ratio and turnover are
both commonlyused predictors of productivity in shipbuilding.
2.1.2. ExperienceCurue Effects.The experiencecurve is the name applied to an observed
relationship between costs and accumulated
experience.It is related to quality adjusted
labor, as defined earlier, and is used for a
variety of operating management purposes,
especiallyin the areas of planning and cost
control. The conceptof the experiencecurve
can be expressed,mathematically, as follows:
V' = a./xb
where:
V* = the averagecost of"x" units
produced
x = rurnber of identical units
a = the cost ofthe frrst unit produced
b = &n exponent that varies with the
complexity of the ship
The experiencecurve indicates that the averagecostof all units produceddeclinesat some
constant rate as a function of accumulated
experience.The term is now defrned as the
percentimprovement that occursin the average cost of all units producedeach time the
accumulated unit production is doubled. In
the shipbuilding industry, the experience
curve benefit has generally been found to be
in the 5-10 percent range. It should be noted
that while unit costs (exclusiveof inflation)
tend to decrease,the reduction is not automatic. Such cost decreasescan, in fact, result
only from the actions of management.
The reasons underlying the experience
curve effect include:
o learning
. specialization
o investment
. scale effects
I
I
l
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
example,considerthe implications of the experience curre in terms of market share. According to the experience curve, the market
leader would also have the lowest unit costs.
As a result the market leader would also be
in the strongest position to be the pricing and
technologicalleader in the market.
2.1.3. AdjustmentCosts. Adjustments to labor
cause output to be less than is theoretically
possible, assuming a particular production
relationship and level of resources.This occurs because the adjustment absorbs resources which could be used in producing
output. For example,more capital and labor
are devoted to training when manning is increased.The resulting change in the span of
control, particularly in middle level management, also results in decreasedproductivity.
The resulting decreasedproductivity is generally referred to as frictional or internal
labor adjustment costs. These adjustment
costs are termed internal costs in contrast to
external adjustment costs which are associated with market conditions.
Examples of external labor adjustment
costs are severancepay, recruiting costs,or
short-run increasesin wagesfor a firm hiring
from a relatively non-mobile labor force.
Shipyard workers, in general, are geographically less mobile than other construction
workers.[4] Thus, external adjustment costs
can be expectedto be important in shipbuilding. However,sinceman-hour costsare being
considered,external adjustment costsshould
show up in the skill and experience variables.
The rate of changein the number ofworkers is of particular theoretical and practical
interest.[5] Adjustment costshave the following characteristics: (1) both positive and
negative adjustments to the work force may
result in positive adjustment costs, and (2)
adjustment costs are assumedto be convex.
The frrst characteristic is straightforward for
positive adjustments. A positive adjustment
37
38
SHIPPRODUCTION
with higher-level directives such as environmental standards.Changesmay also be proposedby the builder either to correct design
deficienciesor to accomplisha given task at
lower cost.A changemay also be a "constructive change,"resulting from someact or omission of the customer, such as customer-furnished material or documentsthat are late,
defective, or otherwise different than originally specifred.Additionally, required output may changebecauseofnatural disasters,
such as hurricanes. Underestimating total
required output may occur becauseof a tendency to "buy in," or bid low on an initial
contract with the expectation of recouping
any lossesthrough follow-on contracts. Underbidding has also been shown to be a natural result of some contract forms becauseof
risk-aversebehavior of the bidders.[7]
One effect ofchanges to required output
is often describedby the term "disruption." In
addition to the identifrable increase in requirements, changesin required output may
have a compounding effect on effrciency over
a number of ship systems, cost centers, or
programs.Planning breaksdown becausethe
changedor added work must be done out of
the usual sequence,and this causesscheduling problems in other parts of the ship or
shipyard.Ifthe addedwork requiresa change
in production method, it may have the same
effect on learning as breaking the production run into a larger number of smaller
production runs. The result could then be
additional setup costs and greater total and
averagecosts.
It is also possiblethat addedwork resulting from customer-directedchanges can be
done concurrently with the basic ship work
and with little increase in capital requirements. This is equivalent to an increase in
the business base for a yard with unused
capacity. The result could be no change or
even an increasein productivity. Curve A in
Figure 2-3 showsthe averagecostfor a hypo-
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
39
40
SHIPPRODUCTION
B
^g
(c/q) 3
-
9
F
a
u
1 . 2
\aq2
\----!-
I
I
'| /
I
I
G
U
(c/q) 1
RATE OF OUTPUT(q)
ll
U)
o
o
!!
. .
(c/q) 3
(c/q) z
ff (.rq)r
"
'
RArE OF OUTPUT(q)
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
SHIPBUILDING
41
42
SHIPPRODUCTION
Q+A
> z
r l l
l r l
{=
>l
(b)
| | l
I l
ill
F
(I
z
F
l
(r
o-
t 0
t6
t i = l
T|ME(0
Tl[rtr /r\
z_
z
z
z
1\
to
tr=T
T r M E( t )
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
43
44
sHrPPRoDUcloN
overtime worked during off-hours (at
night or on weekends)may be an effi.cient way to keep the ship on schedule
becauseit decreasescongestionand
allows more intensive use of capital
facilities.
(4) Bottlenecks(becauseof late or missing plans or equipment) reduceoptimum production rate and increase
minimum average cost. Some bottlenecks are too costly to work around,
and the delays they causemay delay
completionof the ship.
(5) Changesin required output (changes
ordered by the owner or correction of
builders' mistakes) increase minimum average cost and may also reduce optimum production rate. This
occurs partly becausecongestionreduces productivity when manning is
increasedin responseto the increase
in required output.
(6) Adjusting labor in responseto changes
in the optimal production rate results
in internal adjustment costs. These
costs occur becauselabor and management serviceswhich could be producing output are diverted to training or schedulingtasks. This means
that in addition to the added cost
caused by congestion after labor is
adjusted upward, there is a cost of
getting to the new level. This cost
may be incurred when manning is
reduced as well. This occursprimarily becauseoflabor hoarding.
2.4.TheShipbuilding
Model:An Example
Figure 2-7 demonstrates the effect on ship
cost of the variables discussedindividually
earlier in this chapter. This example is representative of man-hour profiles for one ship
in a multiship construction progrzrm.Average
daily man-hours(plannedand actual),average
change in required man-hours, and average
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
.-.
- O-O
=
=
=
=
45
A
l\
!\/\t\./\,ir
, y r , . JY
. t Vi i , i
\. / i\
a
E
l
iI
\
\
o
u
E
u
TIMEAFTERSTARTFABRICATION
3. GroupTechnology
The economic model of shipbuilding developed in the previous section describesimportant cost drivers and the mechanics of cost
measurement in shipbuilding. Knowing the
major sourcesof costs and how to measure
them, however, is not necessarily the same
as knowing how to control them. In this section the basis for controlling costs through
improved management and production organization is presented.The meansof organizing the work is the application of group
technology.
44
SHIPPRODUCTION
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
/\
; t
\,/\/\
I\ . .
. t\ /\ /\
\
I
\
\I
2
!
o
U
E
u
TIMEAFTERSTAFT FABRICATION
3. GroupTechnology
The economicmodel of shipbuilding developed in the previous section describesimportant cost drivers and the mechanics of cost
measurement in shipbuilding. Knowing the
major sourcesof costs and how to measure
them, however, is not necessarily the same
as knowing how to control them. In this section the basis for controlling costs through
improved management and production organization is presented.The meansof organizing the work is the application of group
technology.
46
SHIPPRODUCTION
3.1.GroupTechnology,an Overview
Group technology (GT), also called family
manufacture (FM), began as an outgrowth of
an attempt to developa more efficient system
of classification and coding for use in the
managementof industrial processes.As with
any scientific endeavor,a classifrcationsystem is essentialto the organizationofdata in
order to facilitate analysis and synthesis,the
formulation of hypotheses,experimentation,
deduction, and finally generalization to a
practical application. However, the classification systemis only a techniqueor tool ofthe
scientist. Likewise, group technology is an
innovation in the broader freld of management of manufacturing processes,not just a
technique for keeping track of material,
parts, subassemblies,etc.
Group technology is also called cellular
manufacture.The word "cell" conveysimportant information essential to understanding
what group technologyis and how it can be
applied to shipbuilding. In the machining
industry, where GT has been most extensively applied, a cell consistsof somenumber
of grouped machines and the peoplewho operate them. Generally the operators are
cross-trainedto operateall the machinesin a
given cell. Instead ofpiece parts being scheduled sequentially, the cell is scheduledand
loadedwith parts which are classifiedaccording to shape,material, size, etc., into a "family." The cell is then effectivelyoperatedas a
single machine.A part is essentially worked
continuously from the time it is loaded into
the cell until it emergesas a completedinterim product. As a consequence,the time
spent in processand the inventory level of
work in processcan be a fraction of what is
normal for a traditional manufacturing layout and production control system.
In establishing families, an effort is also
made to reducethe number of different individual parts. This may involve marketing as
well as design personnel,sincethe salesman
would generally like to be able to frll every
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
47
A) CONVENTTONAL
PROCESS
METHOD
B) GROUPPROCESS
METHOD
KEY: L=LATHE
M = MILLING
MACHINE
C = C U T T I N GM A C H I N E
D=DRILLPRESS
G =GRINDER
48
SHIPPRODUCTION
S H I P B U I L D I NMGA N A G E M E NTTH E O R Y
49
cerning management,engineering,
and material control. It means that
the former must be responsiveto production control in a way not normally
expectedin conventionalshipbuilding.
3.3. Classification
and Coding
Group technology is not synonymous with
classification and coding. However, classification of the elementsof production is perhaps
the frrst step in the successfulimplementation of GT. The defrnition of group technology
presentedby Ransonis valuable becauseofits
generality and applicability to all aspects of
companyoperation.Sotoo must a classification
system be based on the assumption that all
elements of the company are subject to classification and coding (seeFigure 2-9).
3.3.1. C/assification.The Webster defrnition
of classificationis "Systematic arrangement
in groups or categoriesaccording to established criteria."[14] This definition is straightforward and suitable for the purpose of this
discussion. A key word in this defrnition
which perhaps requires some elaboration is
"criteria." The hierarchical
classifrcationsystem used in botany or biology is familiar to
every scientist. This system ofclassification
is called the Linnean hierarchical taxonomy,
after the Swedish botanist Karl von Linn6.
Organisms are classed into kingdom, phylum, subphylum, class,order, family, genus,
species,and variety according to mutually
exclusiue and permanent characteristics.
Edward Brisch, a mechanical engineer
and designer,adoptedthe decisiontree type
hierarchical classificationsystem derived by
von Linn6, but addedtwo principles or criteria. In addition to mutual exclusivity and
permanent characteristics,he required that
the systembe all-embraclngand basedon the
user'spoint of uiew.llS) Brisch's taxonomy
has becomeone of the standards for industrial application.
50
SHIPPRODUCTION
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
51
a classificationscheme,as applied by
the BoeingAirplane Companyto the
design and manufacture of commercial aircraft.[15]
3.3.2. Coding. Classifrcationand coding are
often used as if they were one word. They are
not. The codeis the vehicleby which a classification systemis made operational.A classifrcation systembasedon ke5'words,suchas is
used for somelibrary searches,is feasible.In
general, however, a code consisting of numbers, letter characters, or symbols is much
more effective.A sequential numbering system should not be confusedwith coding. A
code must not only identify an object, but
must be basedon permanent,mutually exclusive attributes accordingto someuser objective. For purposesofretrieval and easeofuse,
it is desirablethat the codereflect yes or no
questions.An objecteither has a certain characteristic or it doesn't. This does not mean
that codesmust be binary. A particular hierarchical category such as size may be described by the digits zero through nine to
describeten different sizes.
Codes may also be mnemonic. Letters
correspondingto the first letter ofkeywords
may be used to represent certain attributes.
For example,oneshipyardusesIL10 to identify a ten-footinclined ladder. Further examples will be given in Chapters III and VII,
where codingwill be discussedin more detail.
3.4.GroupTechnology
and the Shipbuilding
Model
It was shown in Section1 that a major source
of low productivity (high costs)in shipbuilding is unanticipated changes in production
rate. This takes many forms (increasedmanning, overtime, rapid fluctuations in manning, idleness,etc.)and can be traced to more
than one direct cause(poor cost estimation,
designinstability, bottleneck delaysbecause
of missing material or plans, high turnover,
52
SHIPPRODUCTION
such as the fire main work order, then becomes a logical source of borrowed budget.
Shop foremen simply charge resources expendedfor onejob to the job with the remaining budget. It is something like a pyramid
club. The final accounting can be deferred as
long as somework orders are still open.The
shop foremen,of course,hope to bring budgets into line through various effrcienciesbefore the final accounting.Even if this is done,
it is impossible to properly account for expendedcostsof somesectionsof the ship. As
a result, estimating future jobs or even
ships in the same seriesis very inexact. Additionally, areas where productivity might
be improved may be disguised.Management
doesn't know that such areas are contributing to costs in excessof what was planned.
Consequently, no effort may be made to correct the situation.
Another sourceof low productivity is idleness.A major sourceof idleness is a breakdown in resource scheduling and control.
Workers report to a job and find someone
from another trade in their way becauseof a
lack of schedulecoordination. The workers
sz!
/!'rccs-s
-^sls eNo
{tu'
*at"r,";
--{%c)
1:onlasLE
ME|{r
eo\.IP
{ PARTg
't)-3600
"'
5t
eE^
Spa^
--AlD
-
ds
AlRPt l{EOEStGr
ANOMAXUFrcTUR}{O
tsit
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
SHIPBUILDING
53
4. WorkBreakdown
Structures
Any management approach must specify
what is to be done, where it is to be done,
when it is to be done,and what resourcesare
to be applied. This specification generally
takes the form ofdivision ofthe total process
54
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
types and complexity of machinery operations. The codesused to processdata according to this classifrcation scheme must be
applicable to previously manufactured as
well as current parts for the purpose of retrieving processstandards. This sectionand
Chapter III will concentrateon the classifrcation system (PWBS) and its relationship to
group technology.Coding systems and specific codesin use in the United States will be
addressedin Chapter VII.
Classifrcationby product aspectsrelates
a part or subassemblyto a systemor zone of
a ship design and also to work processesby
problem area and.by work sfage.Thus, product families are determined both by design
and manufacturing attributes. This concept,
combined with a greater degreeof interaction
between design and production engineers,
has proven to be a powerful means for improving productivity.
4.2.1. WorkPackageClassification PWBS first
divides the shipbuilding processinto three
basic types of work: hull construction,outfitting, and.painting,becauseeachimposesmanufacturing problems that are inherently different from the others (see Figure 2-12).
Zone-orientedproduction,i.e., the Hull Block
Construction Method (HBCM), is already being applied for hull construction by most
shipyards. The same logic is not employed
everywhere for outfrtting by zones,which is
more complex and diffrcult to undertake.
55
Thesethree types of work are further subdivided into fabrication and,assemblyclassifrcations which are normally associatedonly
with hull construction and outfitting. Within
the painting classification, fabrication applies to the manufacture or preparation of
paint, and.assemblymeans its application.
These assembly subdivisions are naturally
linked to zones and are the basis for zone
dominancein the managementcycle.
Secondly,PWBS classifiesinterim products in accordancewith their needs for resources,i.e., material, manpower, facilities,
and expenses.For example,resourcesare classified and allocated in accordancewith common parameters to different structural panels, regardlessof their location in the ship.
Different outfit units are treated the same
way. Definitions of theproduct resourcesarel
. Material, to be used for production,
either direct or indirect, e.g.,steel
plate, machinery, cable,oil, etc.
. Manpower, to be chargedto production,
either direct or indirect, e.g.,welder,
gas cutter, fitter, finisher, rigger,
material arranger, transporter, etc.
. Facilities, to be applied to production,
either direct or indirect, e.g.,buildings,
docks,machinery, equipment, tools, etc.
In order to optimize productivity, a ship must
be constructedin accordancewith a carefully
establishedplan that provides for processes
(Group)
100- HullStructure
- Structural
(Element)
101- GeneralArrangement
Drawings
(Subgroup)
110 ShellandSupporting
Structure
(Element)
111- ShellPlating,
Surface
ShipandSubmarine
Pressure
Hull
(Element)
112- ShellPlating,
Submarine
Non-Pressure
Hull
(Subgroup)
120- HullStructural
Bulkheads
(Element)
121- Longitudinal
Structural
Bulkheads
122 - Transverse
Bulkheads
Structural
Fig.2-11.Example0f U.S.Navyhierarchicalsubdivisions.
56
SHIPPRODUCTION
PRODUCT
WORK
BREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
(PWBS)
PIPE
PIECE
FAMILY
MANUFACTURING
(PPFM)
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEORY
57
o
x
PRODUCIRESOURCES
AXIS
(x1)
MATERTAL
MANPowER(x2)
@
U
E
l
@
U
c
(x3)
FACtLtTtES
expEHses(xa)
o
E
o
SYSTEM
(r1)
ZONE
lY2\
AREA
(y3)
(v4)
58
SHIPPRODUCTION
,,1
ln
\| \
r
l/
T
1 , ,
*1,/
o
Fig.2-l4.Impacts of time, units of resources,and
quality of work circumstance on productivity
value.
z.
z
z.
I
(L
DETAIL
DESIGN
SPECIFICATION
OFINTERIM
PRODUCTS
BY
ZONE/AREA/STAGE
Fig.2-16.Iterativedevelopment
ofworkpackages.
SHIPBUILDING
MANAGEMENT
THEoRY
59
CHAPTER III
P R O D U CT - O R I E N T E D
W O R K B R E A K D O W N S T R U CT U R E
1. lntroduction
Major shipbuilding cost drivers, the principles ofgroup technologyby which costs can
be controlled,and two classificationsystems
(work breakdownstructures)were presented
in Chapter II. In this chapter the logic and
proceduresby which group technology(GT)
is applied to shipbuilding will be introduced
and the product-oriented work breakdown
structure (PWBS) described in detail. The
theoretical model of shipbuilding partially
explainedwhy overlap and parallelism of planning, design,material definition, material procurement, and construction of interim products are key elements in high-productivity
shipbuilding. This overlap,alongwith highly
organizedplanning and controlling, contributes to maintaining a level or near-levelwork
load and to reducingidlenessand congestion.
Overlap is also necessaryto minimize the
inventory costof work in process,and to maximize the utilization of capital equipment.
The overlap of design, material definition,
material proflrrement, and production requires
that information developedin each phasebe
formatted according to the requirements of
the other. This commonalityis achievedusing
the product-oriented work breakdown structure
(PWBS) describedin this chapter.
Up to this point the generic term group
technologyhas been used extensively.A par-
60
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
61
2. Planning
for Production
Planning starts with preplanning, alsocalled
the marketing stage, and continues through
design and material defrnition. Preplanning
includes initial regulatory body review, preliminary definition of contract specifications,
proportions, lines, other technical data and
procurement specifications,and preliminary
block defrnition. Preplanning will be covered
in detail in Chapter VII. In order to successfully include production considerationsin preplanning, a building strategy is developed.The
building strategy reflects the capabilities and
preferences of the shipyard, modified to frt
the specifrcsof the vessel to be built. It is
developedby consideringblock breakdowns,
processlanes, and pallet lists and material
with which the shipyard has experience,and
which representits current best practice.The
building strategy helps to defrne and prioritize decisionsabout the shipbuilding project
at its earliest stages.The building strategy is
discussedin more detail in Chapters VI and
VII. An overview of designand material definition, the importance of overlap of these
stageswith production, and their impact on
PWBS will be treated in this section.This will
be expandedin a more detailed treatment in
Chapter VI.
Signifrcant overlap of design, material
procurement,and production is essentialfor
reducing the overall constructionperiod, but
overlap reducesthe time neededto organize
information developedby designers. Thus,
from the outset, desis-ninformation must be
62
SHIPPRODUCTION
ESTIMATING
PLANNING
SCHEDULING
EXECUTION
EVALUATION
Fig. 3-1.Industrialprojectmanagement
cycle.
view ofthe total final product, the ship as a
whole, broken down by systems (structural
and functional). During planning (including
design), a key transformation from systems
orientation to zone orientation occurs.This
zone orientation is then maintained through
execution and some testing (a part of evaluation) to mirror the manner in which the
work is performed.Finally, a transformation
back to systems orientation takes place to
permit overall evaluation of the product and
systems testing. These system-to-zoneand
zone-to-systemtransformations are a key to
group technologyshipbuilding (PWBS).
2.1. Designand MaterialDefinition
Design is divided into:
. basic design
. functional design
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
63
64
MLS
MLF
MLP
MLC
SHIPPRODUCTION
- MateEt
- Mateiat
- Maleriai
- Material
List by System
List tor Ffiinggzane/Atedstage
List for ptE pece
List lorComponent (othet than ppe)
HULL
SUPERSTRUCTUBE
DIAGBAMMANCS
COMPOSITES
WORK INSTFUCNON
SUPERSTRUCTUFE
MACHINEFY
H - HULLOUTFIT
M - MACHINERY
OUTFIT
S - SUPERSTRUCTURE
OUTFIT
Fig. 3-4. Design outfrt specialtygroups.
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
rJ
*
ffi
B
ltr
t?
HE
66
SHIPPRODUCTION
tions would facilitate group technology shipbuilding, traditional trade organization would
not precludethe adoptionofthese principles.
2.3.Controlling
Zone-orientedschedulingis necessaryto control the flows of work on various processlanes
so that the creation of interim products anticipates only immediate needs.Such scheduling coordinateshull construction,out- fitting, and painting, and allows periods after
work stages for the collection and distribution of interim products to other work stations. The goal is to minimize buffer storage.
Thus, integrated schedules,as shown in Figure 3-6, are essential for fabrication through
final outfitting. The schedulesshould address
all fabrication and assemblywork, including
lofting and painting.
A primary end product of schedulesis
flexibility, the ability to quickly identify good
options basedupon constant feedbackabout
material procurement and work progress.
Adjustments are neededto counter potential
INTEGRATED
HULL
CONSTRUCTION
OUTFITTING
&
PAINTING
MASTEF
SCHEDULE
ON-BOARDOUTFITTING
MASTERSCHEDULE
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORK BREAKDOWNSTRUCTURE
3. ZoneConstruction
Method
Becauseinherently different types of work
are required, a product-oriented breakdown
of ship construction work should accommodate the following zone-orientedmethods:
rr
,'
67
I
68
SHIPPRODUCTION
. achieve
manpower
savings
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
are allocated'
Whenpr0ductresources
each work packageis optimally sized,based
70
SHIPPRODUCTION
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
CODES
ASPECTS
PRODUCT
PLAN'G MFG
LEVEL LEVEL
AREA
ZONE
STAGE
ul
=
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O B N I LS T A G E
AREA:PARALLEL
PARTSFROM PLATE
+
<t--:1'^
AREA:NON.PARALLEL
PARTSFHOM PLATE
<-.---->
\-------
AREA:INTERNAL
PARTSFROM PLATE
.,.....'_
ffi
\
t
| t r
\_:i--:-i----:
s-
'
, \ '
ji-:i---t:J
-------'
\ r ' . . , . . \ r
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\
. _ f l
=YJ
s13
AREA:PARTSFROM
ROLLEDSHAPES
PARTASSEMBLYLEVEL
ASSEMBLYSTAGE
BLOCKPABT
During back assembly,parts and./orassembled parts are frtted on the oppositeside ofa
marked surface of a main part (back assem-
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
73
SUB.BLOCK
LEVEL
ASSEMBLY
ASSEMALY
STAGE
@@ =K
*il9
$VM,
AREA:SIMILARWOFKCONTENTIN LARGEOUANTITY
f
VP
lN SMALLOUANTITY
AREA:SIMILARWORKCONTENT
74
SHIPPRODUCTION
The assemblystageat the block level is for combining a panel with parts, assembled parts,
and,/orsub-blocks,and sometimesa semi-block.
When many blocksare required it couldbe useful to add further classificationsby problem
area, basedupon internal framing, such as:
'
r
.
r
eg9 box
longitudinals attached beforewebs
longitudinals attached after webs
other
. flat panel
. curved panel
. superstructure
Stage at this level is subdividedinto:
r joining or nil
o pre-erectionor nil
. back pre-erectionor nil
For very small ships, the pre-erectionstage
provides forjoining grand blocks in order to
creategrand-grandblocks.Back pre-erection
providesfor further assemblywork after turnover, such as attaching bulwarks, chain
pipes,etc. Figures 3-18 through B-28 show
relationships between semi-blocks,blocks,
and grand blocks that were actually employed for construction of a 22,000 dwt general cargo carrier. It was purposely selected
as the basis for illustration becauseit is one
of a kind, rather than a ship of a standard
series.
3.1.5.Hull Erection.Erection is the frnal level
of hull constmction where the entire hull is
the zone.Problem areas at this level are:
. fbre hull
o cargohold
. engine room
. aft hull
. superstructure
Stageis simply divided into:
o erection
r test
Tests at this level, such as tank tests, are
independent of erection and are distrnguishedby the size of their work packagesas
comparedwith the tests and inspections of
other levels.The latter tests and inspections
are includedin the packagesofeach level and
respectivelyimplemented at the time when
eachinterim product is being finished.
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
Fig.3-12(a)
Fis.3-12(b)
Fig.3-12(c)
Fig.3-12(d)
Fig.3-12(e)
F i g .3 - 1 2 ( f )
75
Fig. 3-12. Block assembly problem area and stage classifications. (a) Problem area: flat; stage: egg box
framing. (b) Problem area: flat; stage: assembly. (c) Problem area: special flat (greater work content);
stage: assembly off flow. (d) Problem area: curved; stage: assembly. (e) Problem area: special curved
(gteater work content); stage: assembly off flow. (f) Problem area: curved and special curved; stage:
assembly on and offflow.
76
SHIPPRODUCTION
FMMTNGSTAGI
ASSEMALYSTAGE
B^CKASEMALYSTAG
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
77
B L @ K A S S E M B L YL E V E L
P $ T E J o I N I N G S T A G E I F F A M I N G S I A G E I A S S E M B L Y S T A G E
BL@KASEMBLY LEVEL
ASSMBIY SIAGT
590TONS
INCLUOING
OUTFIT
Fig. 3-14. Block assembly and grand-block joining, showing the top of a wing tank.
SMI8L@X
ASSEMELY LEVEL
ASSEMALY STACE
Fig. 3-15. Semi-block and block assembly, showing a bottom wing tank side shell with hopper and the
transverse hopper in a cargo hold.
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
B L O C KA S S E M E L YL E V E L
A S S E M B L Vs r A c E
ercx rsseuarv
s'nct
GMNDA!@X
J O I N I N GL V E L
J O I N I N CS I A G E
z2
))
75E TONS
INCLUOING
outa'T
P U T E J O I N I N GS - A G E
A S S E M S L YS I A G E
PANEL + SUBAL@KS =
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
B L O C KA S S E M A L YL E V L
A S S M 8 L YS T A G E
Fig. 3-18. Block assembly, showing an upper deck and an engine room flat.
S E M I . B L @ KA S S E M E L YL E V E L
assEMaLy srAGE
B A C K A S S E M B L Ys r A G E
/'v
M I
trg
u_-,'
\
ft t ,\ \ \
('\l-uH
\ \-/v ' ,
LEVEL
STAG
79
SHIPPRODUCTION
80
LEVEL
8L@KASSEMBLY
putE JorNrNG
srAGE
AssEvB.tsracE
)
re*
"'^,,eleo
Fig. 3-20. Semi-block and block assembly, showing a forecastle and the upper deck in a fore body.
GMNOBL@(JOINING
JOI!ING STAGE
PRE.EBECTIONSTAGE
LEVEL
BACK PAE.RECTIONSTAGE
Fig. 3-21. Grand-blockjoining, showing a forecastleand the upper deck in a fore body
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
JorNtNo sracE
A S S E M B L Ys r A G E
G M N O - 8 L @ K J O I N I N GL E V E L
J O I N I N GS T A G E
Fig. 3-22. Block assembly and grand-block joining, showing the bottom of an engine room.
PANEL + PARTS +
SU&SLOCKS =
81
82
SHIPPRODUCTION
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
83
OPERATION
A N DT E S T
ON.BOARD
OUTFITTING
ON-BLOCK
OUTFITTING
COMPONENT
PROCUREMENT
84
SHIPPRODUCTION
As the implementation of ZOFM progresses,the need becomesgreater for balanced planning and scheduling,and cooperation between hull construction, outfitting,
and painting planners.
3.2.3. ComponentProcurement.As shown in
Figures 3-24 and 3-25, component procurement is the initial manufacturing level. It
producesinterim products or zones for outfitting for which no further subdivision is
neededby the shipyard. Typical work packages and material requisitions are grouped
by zone and by problem area to addressthe
separateprocurementproblems:
. in-house manufacturing
. outside manufacturing
e purchasing
These problem areas are further classified
by requirements for manufacturing drawings,
purchaseorder specifications,and raw materials, as shown in Figure 3-26. When preparations for outside manufacturing are the
same as for in-house,a shipyard retains better control, avoidsvendor drawing approvals,
and makes eligible many small firms that do
not have design or purchasing departments.
After having performed groupings by
zone,problem area, and similarities in component types and sizes, further grouping is
made by stage as follows:
. design and material preparation or nil
. manufacturing or nil
o palletizing
The palletized componentsare assigned to
their respectivework packagesat subsequent
manufacturing levels.
3.2.4. Unit Assembly and Grand-unit Joining.
Just as a block is a key zonefor hull construction, a unit is a key zone for outfrtting which,
as illustrated in Figures 3-24 and 3-25, may
require only a single manufacturing level.
Productivity is enhancedwhen units are similar in required man-hours for assembly,numbers of components,volume, weight, design
standards,etc. Grouping by such similarities
facilitates organizing and uniformly loading
processflow lanes.
As indicated in Figure 3-27 (Plate I), unit
sizesvary significantly. Therefore,two problem areas are designatedat the unit assembly level:
r large size
. small size
The distinction is by required lift capacity.
Large units weigh more and small units
weigh less than one ton. If many small units
are planned for assemblyof larger units, another manufacturing level may be included
for sub-unit assembly. Problem areas at the
unit level could be further subdividedinto:
. machinery unit (machinery combined
with aII adjacentcomponents,including
foundation,pipe pieces,valves,supports,
walkways, ladders, etc.)
o pipe unit (no machinery,just pipe
piecescombinedwith valves, supports,
walkways, etc.)
. other (hatch coverswith coaming,
masts,etc.)
Stagefor unit assemblyis divided as:
. assembly
r welding or nil
The welding stage applies for extensive or
specialwelding requirements,as welding incident to routine unit assemblyis performed
by fitters during the precedingassemblystage.
Someshipyards have developedmachinery units into standard arrangements which
can be adaptedfor various types and sizesof
ships. As required design and material definition is already available,much planning for
a standard machinery unit can progressjust
PLATE I
Fig.3-27(a)
Fig.3-27(b)
Fig.3-27(c)
Fig.3-28(a)
Fig. 3-29
Fig.3-28(b)
PLATE II
Fig.3-35
Fig.3-36
Fig.3-38
Fig. 3-39
Fig. 3-40
PLATE III
Fig.347
Fig.3-48
Fig. 3-49
Fig.3-50
F i g .3 - 5 1
Fig. 3-52
side shell and engine room flat right side up. Fig.
3-51. On-block outfitting of the block shown in
figures 3-49 and 3-50 being completed right side
up next to the building dock. Fig. 3-52. Erection of
the block shown in figures 3-49 through 3-51.
PI"ATE IV
Fig.3-54
Fig. 3-55
Fig
Fig.3-57
PI.ATE V
Fig.3-58
trin ?-trO
Fig.3-60
F i g .3 - 6 1
Fig. 3-62
Fig.3-63
PLATE VI
Fig. 3-64
Fig.3-65
Fig.3-66
Fig.3-67
Fig.3-68
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
ASPECTS
PRODUCT
PLAN'G M'F'G
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE
AREA
85
CODES
ZONE AREA STAGE
STAGE
U
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WELDING
EH=EE5
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86
SHIPPRODUCTION
PROBLEM
AREASUBDIVISIONS
PROBLEM
AREA
DESIGN
TO FURNISH
MATERIALTO BE FURNISHED
IN.HOUSE
MANUFACTURING
MANUFACTURING
DRAWING
YES
OUTSIDE
MANUFACTURING
MANUFACTURING
DRAWING
YES/ NO
PURCHASING
PURCHASE
ORDER
SPECIFICATION
SELDOM
/ NO
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
Fig.3-30
Fig.3-31
Fig.3-32
Fig.3-33
87
Fig. 3-30. Engine room outfit unit (courtesyAvondale Shipyard). Fig. 3-31. A hatch cover and coaming
unit. Fig. 3-32.Very complexpiping units, for the deck ofa product tanker (courtesy Avondale Shipyard).
Fig. 3-33. Mast units.
When the items to be frtted compose a small
quantity per block, outfit work can be performed at the site where the block was assem-
88
SHIPPRODUCTION
on-ceilingfrtting
on-ceilingwelding or nil
on-floor frtting
on-floor welding or nil
--_-T_-_
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
The welding stagesapply only if there is special or extensivewelding to be done. Openspace frtting and welding should be completed before closures imposed by the continuing erectionofblocks in order to take full
advantage of easy access.Therefore, such
work should be incorporated in the erection
schedule. Closed-spacefrtting and welding
activities should be minimized as much as
practicable as they require more working
hours, more transportation services, and
longer durations (seeFigure 3-40,Plate II).
The on-boardoutfittinglevel useson-board
divisions as zoneswhich are subdivisionsof
the ship as a zone as for the erection level in
hull constrrrction work.
3.2.7. Operationand Iest The operation and
test level applies to work required to assess
the performanceof eachship'sfunctional systems. At this level, zone is the entire ship.
Problemsare groupedto match teams of specialists to the hull, machinery, and superstructure areas.
Operation and test are regarded as a
single stage.Thus, at this level, work is packaged by one or more systemswithin each of
the problem areas defrned for the specialist
teams. It is the traditional method for planning operation and test work.
3.3.ZonePaintingMethod
The ZonePainting Method (ZPTM) is a natural extension of the logic employed in both
HBCM and ZOFM. It transfers much paint-
89
90
SHIPPRODUCTION
PRODUCT.ORIENTEDWORKBREAKDOWNSTRUCTURE 91
CODES
ASPECTS
PRODUCT
PLAN'G M'FG
LEVEL LEVEL
STAGE
AREA
ZONE
PAMNNG
NIL
U'
TOUCH.UP
(t
at9
CI..EANING
=
8 Oo ou
*ur
= 6 zfi
fg
HEFEE
D
6
oo
4)N
z
tr
PREPAMTION
SURFACE
PAINTING
AFTER
OVERTURNING
TOUCH.UP
AFTER
OVERTURNING
NIL
U'
r
ko
D
5
oo
e=H
HEEEE
CLEANINGAFTER
OVERTURNING
NIL
NIL
PREPARATION
SURFACE
AFTEROVERTURNINGN I L
PAINTING
HAHo o
o(ro
=tr
6g
z
tr
rcUCH-UP
OL
EE8
=gE
NIL
OVFRTIIRNING
=
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NIL
PAINTING
Bs
(t)
ts
D
5
oo
PAINTING
E,
t!
z.
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t5
62
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HH
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fg
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z.
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SURFACEPREPAMTION
o
j
N
CLEANING
uJ
r
o-
TVFRTIIRNING
SURFACE
AFTER
PREPAMTION
OVEFTURNING
lL
CLEANING
PREPAMTION
SURFACE
PAIMNNG
NIL
AFTER
CLEANING
AFTER
U'
IU
92
SHIPPRODUCTION
MANUFACTURING
LEVEL
PAINT SYSTEM A
PAINT SYSTEM B
FINISH
COLOR
COLOR
FINISHUNDERCOAT
COLOR
COLORED PRIMER
PRIMER
PRIMER
NUMBEROF COATS
PER SPECIFICATION
PRIMER
SHOP PRIMER
SHOP PRIMER
S H O PP R I M E R
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
93
4. PipePieceFamilyManufacture
The integration of the HBCM, ZOFM, and
ZPTM representsthe application of the principles of group technology to shipbuilding.
Together they form a total shipbuilding
system.Group technology(GT) may also be
used to organizework within individual shops,
such as the pipe shop or machine shop. In
fact, these applicationsare closerto the traditional beginnings of GT. Pipe shop organization will be consideredas an example of the
application of GT to one particular shop in a
shipyard.[21
The engine room of a 22,000 dwt dieselpropelled ship contains about 3,600 pipe
pieces. The many differences among them
hide commonalitiesthat are useful for planning their manufacture. GT is used to systematically classifypipe piecesinto groupsor
families having design and manufacturing
attributes which are suffrciently similar to
make batch manufacturing practical. The processis called Pipe PieceFamily Manufacturing (PPFM).
The collectionof seeminglydifferent pipe
piecesinto suchfamilies avoidslaboriousjobshop type planning, scheduling, and manu-
progressionof developingpipe
stage-by-stage
pieces within such work flow lanes greatly
enhancesproduction control. Further, the separation by stages permits the switching of
work flow from one processlane to another
without diminishing control.
In PPFM the key zone is that which defines a planned pipe piece.It is an optimum
division of a pipe line, usually consistingofi
. cut pipe (including branch when
applicable)
. flanges
. elbows,sleeves,tees,etc.
A finished pipe pieceappearsin Figures 3-25
and 3-26 as a componentfrom the "in-house
manufacturing" problem area within the lowest ZOFM manufacturing level needed for
outfrtting on-unit, on-block,or on-board.Thus,
zone for PPFM is different from that for
HBCM, ZOFM, and ZPTM, in that it is not
derived from a hull block. Because of this
difference,PPFM is developedindependently
and is only problem area oriented, as distinguishedfrom the zoneorientationsof HBCM,
ZOFM, and ZPTM.
pieces
withina
facturing.
Instead,
different
A further
distinction
isthatPPFM
isa
94
SHIPPRODUCTION
plied in the sevenmanufacturing levels presentedin Figure 3-69.The accompanyingproduct aspects in Figure 3-70 show that the
most important considerationsfor classifying
proposedpipe piecesby problem area must
take accountof similarities in:
e material specified(steel,copper,
polyvinylchloride,etc.)
e bore size
. shape(straight or bent)
. length
. other factors
Fig.3-44
{F
:*
Fig.3-45
Horizontal combinations of the product aspects characterize the various types ofwork
that are requisite and sufficient for the
work to be performed at each manufacturing level. Vertical combinations of the various work package types denote the process
lanes for pipe piece manufacturing. Typical
problem area subdivisionsfor only the pipe
fabrication, pipe piece assembly, and pipe
piecejoining levels are presentedin Figure
3-71.
The work packages,grouped by unique
similarities at all levels, facilitate modularization ofthe fabrication processesandjustification for expensive but highly efficient
facilities. Whether manual or automatic
fabrication methods are used, the number
and variety of pipe pieces needed for ships
justifres PPFM. Advantages are:
. less rearrangementof jigs and tools
r less variation in the work durations
and man-hours required among the
sametype work packages
o better accuracy
o signifrcantmanpower savings
Fig.3-46
4.1.WorkLots
Fig. 3-44. A center deck and center transverse
bulkhead grand block, upside down. Fig. 3-45. A
grand block, including the side shell, top side tank,
transverse hopper, and side transverse bulkhead
ofa cargo hold. Fig. 3-46. The same gtand block as
in frsure 3-45.
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
95
sHtppRoDUcloN
96
PRODUCT
ASPECTS
PLAN'G M'F'G
LEVEL LEVEL
ZONE
AREA
o
1t
o<
PALLET
EIE
=9q
UJ
<vx
dEzi)
<fF
gtr
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Yul
STAGE
=O
CODES
3e$
PALLETIZING
o
o
o
z
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(/)
I
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U
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COATING
NIL
PICKLING
NIL
COATING
PROCESS
()
o
=
k
o
o
o
z.
TEST
PROCESS
TESTING
NIL
U
o
r!
oU
I
PIPE
PIECE NIL
ut
FINISHING
PIPEMATERIAU
X-MYORNIU
BORSSTRAIGHT
ORBEMT/LENGTH
WELDING
BENDING
ON
PIPE
PIECE
PIPEMATERIAU
X-MYORNIU
MAINORBRANCII/
BORE/STMIGHT
ORBEI,IT/LENGTH
cuT
PIPE
NIL
PIPEMATERIAUPIPE
MAINORBRANCH
BORE
NIL
U
z.
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z.
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fl
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FINISHING
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JOINING
NIL
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CUTPIPE
U
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CUTTING
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PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
97
P I P EP I E C EJ O I N I N G
PIPE PIECEASSEMBLY
U
PIPE FABRICATION
MAIERIAL
X,RAY
O RN I L
MAIN OR
BRANCH
BORE
STRAIGHT
ON BENT
LENGTH
STRAIGHT
SMALL
BENT
STRAIGHT
MAIN
SHORT
LONG
MEDIUM
NIL
AENT
STEEL
STRAIGHT
SHORT
LONG
LARGE
U
E
EENT
o
BRANCH
X.RAY
NONFERROUS
PVC
OTHER
98
sHrPPRoDUcroN
PPFM)
T Y P I C A LC L A S S I F I C A T I O NFSO R P I P E . P I E CFEA M I L YM A N U F A C T U R I N(G
PPFM
NO.
P I P EP I E C EC L A S S I F I C A T I O N S
01
Straight
S K E T C HO R R E M A R K S
50 mm
t-
04
20Omm
o7
250 mm
l1
50 mm
65 \
14
200 mm
ntc tested
z4
25
c lnso
HydrostalicTested
27
31
Plaslic
Bent By Heating
41
. 40 kgicm,
4 50 mm
65 !
44
51
I
I
Assembled
54
61
T
'---'--l
*--_l-
--__l
*-L
!
- - * I F - - - T - <
tr-_1
71
Threaded
77
Penetrations
F.q-
81
Heating Coils
;2
StainlessSteel
6l
NonJerrous
90
Urgent
91
zilmm
- Lining
.Galvanizing
69
__J
4 50 mm
SpecialCoatjng
200 mm
4 200 mm
57
I
40 ko/cm2
---,,'-
J
-Tf-
J:L
.1
l-;
-ll-
-'--{
(M)'
92
93
95
Unit Assembled
96
Long.term"
a7
Cast Steel
9!)
General
( M ) - E x c e p tf o r P P F MN o . 9 6
00
(M)
(M)
r - r + t
l
r
f
L ' l - . - - t
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
M A N U F A C T U R I N GS Y S T E M
99
Altor-T,oatmont
Svstem
2
20@ & below
30
27
27
3t
29
29
33
35
35
26
a
Low Presuro
Pio6 in Gsnoral
30
34
g2
32
E E
30
30
23
23
2A
25
34
fi
31
4
4
n
29
27
27
a a
Attor-Treatment
Sysrem Code
Figures3-74
ures 3-72and 3-73,respectively.
through 3-76 show pictures oftypical PPFM
classifications.
4.4. Pipe PreceAssembly
At this manufacturing level, flanges,sleeves,
etc., are attached to cut pipe. The finished
assemblyis the zone for a pipe piece except
for main and branch subassemblieswhich
3.
100
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.3-74(a)
Fis.3-74(b)
Fig.3-74(c)
Fig.3-74(d)
F i g . 3 - 7 4 . T y p i c a l P P F M c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .( a )
Straight. (b) Straight. (c) Bent after fabrication. (d) Bent after fabrication. (e) Bent after
fabrication.
Fig.3-7a(e)
PRODUCT-ORIENTED
WORKBREAKDOWN
STRUCTURE
101
are deferred until after they arejoined to create a branch pipe pieceduring the next manufacturing level. Grinding on non-tested pipe
piecesand machining on pipe piecesto be Xray tested, or on pipe for hydraulic systems,
are deferred to the next manufacturing level.
Fig.3-75(a)
Fig.3-75(b)
Fig.3-75(c)
Fig.3-75(d)
Fig. &-75(e)
Fig.3-7s(f)
Fig. 3-75. Typical PPFM classifications. (a) Bent before fabrication. (b) Bent before fabrication.
(c) Assembled.(d) Unit assembled.(e) Mocks for molding. (f) Adjustable (looseflange).
102
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.3-76(a)
Fig.3-76(b)
Fig.3-76(c)
Fig. 3-76.Typical PPFM classificationsofpenetrations.(a) Parallel runs. (b) Coppertubing brazedto steel.
(c) Completedpenetrations.
STRUCTURE
WORKBREAKDOWN
PRODUCT.ORIENTED
103
Fig. 3-79.Pipepiecepalletsandpalletstorageareas.
Figure 3-77 showspipe pieceassemblyworkstations, with containersfor completedassemblies and lanes wide enoughfor forklift trucks.
4.5.PipePieceJoining
4.6.Testingand Coating
o testing or nil
Problem area for coating is grouped by the
different coating processesrequired. Stageis
phasedas:
. pickling or nil
. coating or nil
104
SHIPPRODUCTION
Pipe piece coating often doesnot require special facilities (seeFigure 3-78).
4.7. Palletizing
Palletizing is the final manufacturing level
and providesfor the sorting ofall pipe pieces
(including electrical conduit) in accordance
with stmctured material lists. Each list establishes the pipe piecerequirements for a specific
pallet. Problem areas for palletizing are:
. hull
. machinery
. superstructure
Stage is simply:
o palletizing
Figure 3-79 shows typical pallets and palletizing areas.
References
1. Okayama,Y., and L.D. Chirillo, Product
Work Breakdown Structure. National
Shipbuilding ResearchProgram, Maritime
Administration, in cooperationwith Todd
Pacifi c Shipyards Corporation, revised
December1982.
2. Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo, C.S.Jonson,
and M. Kasama, Pipe PieceFamily Manufacturing, Maritime Administration, in
cooperationwith Todd Pacifrc Shipyards
Corporation,March 1982.
CHAPTER IV
METAL MANUFACTURING
A N D C O N S T R U C T I O NP R O C E S S E S
1. HullMaterials
The materials used in shipbuilding may be
conveniently discussedin the categoriesof
hull construction, outfrtting, and painting.
The complexity of functional requirements of
a ship results in the use of a wide variety of
materials. Structural materials are required
to assure structural and watertight integrity,
in addition to providing a platform for accomplishing the ship'smission objectives,such as
carrying cargo or passengers. Additionally,
structural materials are required to support
machinery and equipment. Ships are made
primarily of metal. Various gtades of steel
predominate, although aluminum is sometimes used for superstructures of ships in
which weight or stability is a critical factor.
Outfrt systems are required to perform a
wide variety of functions, such as main ship
propulsion,hotel services,andpumping. Within outfit, the major categoriesare machinery, piping, I{VAC (heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning), electrical, accomrnodations,
deck fittings, cargo-handlingequipment,and
combat systemsfor naval ships. Many of the
componentsused in outfrt systems are purchasedfrom outside vendors and installed
by the shipbuilder. Included in this category are main engines, generators,motors,
pumps, valves, winches, chocks,cleats, and
105
106
SHIPPRODUCTION
V
(a)
(b)
and
tungsten,
ofchromium,
thearrangement
arecalled
Thefirstcrystals
vorsolidifrcation.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
107
"Fq##*
Fig.4-2.Dendriticcrystalgrowthschematic.
Fig.4-3.Grainboundaries
of dendriticcrystals.
nuclei and act as seedsfor further solidifrcation. Small solid impurities may provide the
starting points for the nuclei.
Crystals grow by the joining of atoms to
those already in the lattice structure. The
growth proceedspreferentially in certain directions, since atoms can attach themselves
to other atoms on some planes of the lattice
more readily than on other planes.Preferential growth is perpendicularto the facesofthe
existing cube.The result ofthis preferential
growth is a treelike structure composedof
branches at right angles to one another (see
Figure 4-2). This type of crystal is called a
dendrite. As growth continues,the branches
become larger and thicker and the spaces
betweenthe branchesare frlled by the solidifying liquid. Random orientation of the axes
of different crystals results in the formation
of many crystals. These crystals come into
mutual contact at grain boundaries, where
they are held together by atomic attractive
forces(seeFigure 4-3). The processof solidification, including crystal formation and
grain growth, has a significant impact on the
material's mechanicalproperties.
differently from pure metals when solidifying. They also have considerably different
mechanicalproperties,which affectstheir use.
The major controlling variables are the composition of the alloys,their temperature, and
the mechanical or thermal treatments that
may have been used in their manufacture.
Basic information concerning the equilibrium temperature and compositionof an alloy can best be presentedin a phasediagram.
The phase diagram is a plot of temperature
versus composition of the alloy. Phase diagrams are not theoreticallypredicted,but are
rather the result oflaboratory investigation.
This experimentation involves a determination of the melting and freezing point for
various alloy compositions,or determination
of a plot of the liquidus and solidus curves as
a function of composition.For any alloy, there
is one compositionthat will freeze(solidify)
at a lower temperature than any other alloy.
This alloy with the lowest melting point is
called a eutectic.
Since steel is the primary metal alloy
usedin hull construction,a detailedreview of
its phase diagram will be presented. Pure
iron is a relatively weak and ductile metal
and is rarely used in structural applications.
The addition of small amounts of carbon(and
perhapsother elements)producessteel,with
108
SHIPPRODUCTION
3000
2800
DELTA
IRON
2600
/-
2802"F
DEL
AND LIQUID
\ n
MELT
LtctUIDUS:PRIMA 1Y AUSTEN,TE
'
AUSTENITE
BEGINS TO 1OLIDIFY I
I|
I
\LIDUS:FR ,rr"o)
ts coMPt .ETE
-sc
\\-
ruErr \
AND
JSTENITE
ut
(I
2079F
AUSTENITE
v(r)
2000
E.
t"lr
0-
1800
L!
1600
<.\
'\
tso-
1670"F
\ -
.,/urrrr,r,
FERRITE
0
1000
u
o
o*o
E,!;tr*
1200
2tr
>u
CEMENTITE
- FERRITE AND
I AUSTENITE
1400
AUSTENITEAND
EUTECTIC
I
o
ts^
o
l!
q F
ts:
p
=RRITEAND
PEARLITE
o$r
;'5
CEMENTITE AND
PEARLITE
800
CEMENTITE AND
PEARLITE
t!
o
a?
o
a
N
600
,,20.0082.C
0 0 . 2 5 0 . 5
1 1
rrrr * urrrro,rl
ll r rrorrrEcro,+
srEers#
rnorus+lk-
cAsrtRoNS_l
C A R B O NP, E RC E N T
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
109
FERRITE
(870'C)
AUSTENITE
AT 16OO"F
AUSTENITEAND FERRITEJUST
BELOW
UPPER
ENDOF
TRANSFORMATION
RANGE
AUSTENITE
PEARLITE
FERRITE
FERRITE
AUSTENITE
AND FERRITEJUST
ABOVELOWERTRANSFORMATION
RANGE
Fig. 4-5. Structural
PEARLITE
AND FERRITE
AT ROOMTEMPERATURE
110
SHIPPRODUCTION
PROCESSES
AND CONSTRUCTION
METALMANUFACTURING
111
NECKING
ELONGATION
UNIFORM
ELONGATION
(UPPER)
Y I E L DP O I N T
6
0
G
F
a
OFFSET
YIELD
STRENGTH
FBACTURE
STBENGTH
S T R A I N . . I N C H E SP E R I N C H
100
80
_ 6 0
a
Y
b 4 0
ut
U)
U
(!
F
a z
'-
FNsroN TO EOUAL
B: -1 1f rc-cir',llEEssror.r
,
C Y C L E ST O F A I L U R EN
112
SHIPPRODUCTION
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
113
Table4-1. Requirements
for ordinary-strength
hullstructural
steel
D
DS
CS
Fully killed
fine-grain
practice2
(See43.3.2d)
Fully killed
fine-grain
practice
(See43.3.2d)
Fully killed
frne-grain
practice
(See43.3.2d)
Fully killed
fine-grarn
practice
(See43.3.2d)
Grades
Deoxidation
Chemical
Composition
(Ladle Analysis)
Any method
except rimmed
steel for plates
over 12.5 mm
(0.5 in.)
Any method
except
rimmed steel
For all grades exclusive ofGrade A shapes and bars the carbon content +1/6 ofthe manganese content is not
t o e x c e e d 0 . 4 0 V a . T h eu p p e r l i m i t o f m a n g a n e s e m a y b e e x c e e d e d u p t o a m a x i m u m o f
1 . 6 5 V ap r o v i d e d t h i s
condition is satisfied.
0.23 maxl
0.21max.
0.21max
0.18max.
0.16max.
0.16max.
Manganese 7o
2.5x carbon
min. for
plates over
12.5mm
( 0 . 5i n . )
0.80-1.10
0.60 min. for
fully killed
or cold
flanging
0.70-1.35
0.60 min. for
thickness 25 mm
(1.0in.) and
under
0.70-1.35
1.00-1.35
1.00-1.35
Phosphorus %
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04max.
Sulphur %
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.35max.
0.10-0.35
0.10-0.35
0.10-0.35
0.10-0.35
CatbonTo
Silicon %
Tensile Test
Tensile strength
Yield Point, min.
Elongation,min.
Impact Test
Charpy V-Notch
Temperature
No. of Specimens
0"c (32'F)
Over 25 mm
( 1 . 0i n . )
-10'c (14'F)
-40'C (-40"F)
2.8 kg-m
(20 ftlbs)
2.0 kg-m
(14 ftlbs)
2.8 kg-m
(20 ftlbs)
2.0 kg-m
(14 ft-lbs)
2.8 kg-m
(20 ft-Ibs)
2.0 kg-m
(14 ft-lbs)
3 from each
50 tons
3 from each
50 tons3
3 from each
plate
Normalized
over 35 mm
(1.375in.) thicka
Normalized
AB5
D
AB
Heat Treatment
Marking
AB
A
AB
B
Notes
1. A maximum carbon content of 0.26Vais acceptablefor Grade
A plates equal to or less than 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) and all
thicknesses of Grade A shapes.
2. Grade D may be furnished semikilled in thickness up to 35
mm (1.375in.) provided steel above25.0 mm (1.00 in.) in
thickness is normalized. In this case the requirements
relative to minimum Si & Al contents and frne srain practice do not apply.
Normalized
AB
DS
AB
CS
114
S H I PP R o D U c T I o N
Table4-2. Requirements
for higher-strength
hull structuralsteel
Process ofManufacture:
Gradesl
Deoxidation
AH32
DH32
EH32
AH36
DH36
EH36
Semi-killed
Killed,
fine grain
practices
Killed,
frne grain
practice5
Semi-killed
KiIIed,
fine grain
practice5
Killed,
frne grain
practice5
or Kllled"
or krlled"
0.18max.
0.90-1.60
0.04 max.
0.04 max.
0.10-0.50
0.40 max.
0.25max.
0.08max.
0.35 max.
0.05max.
0.10max.
Tensile Test
Tensile Strength
48-60 kg/mmz;68,000-85,000psi
50-63 kg/mm2;71,000-90,000psi
32kg/mm2;45,500psi
36 kg/mm2;51,000psi
Elongation, min.
F o r A l l G r a d e s : I 9 V c i n 2 0 0 m m ( 8 i n . ) o r 2 2 V o i n 5m
0 m ( 2 i n . ) ( f o r s p e c i m e n i n F i g u r 4e 3 . 2 ) o r 2 0 7 c
in 5.65 !A (A equalsarea of test specimen).
None
Required
Marking
AB/AH32
-20'c (-4'F)
-40'c (-40'F)
3.5 kg-m
(25 ft-lb)6
2.4kg-m
(17 ft-lb)6
3.5 kg-m
(25 ft-lb)
2.4kgm
(17 ft-]b)
3.5 kg-m
(25 ft-1b)6
2.4kgm
(17 ft-tb)6
3.5 kg-m
(25 ft-lb)
2.4k4-m
( 17 ft-lb)
3 from each
40 tons
3 from each
plate
3 from each
40 tons
3 from each
plate
AB/DH327
AB/EH32
AB/DH 367
AB/EH36
Notes
1. The numbers following the Grade designation indicate
the yield point to which the steel is ordered and produced
in kglmmz. A yield point of 32 kg/mm2 is equivalent to
45,500 psi and a yield point of 36 kg/mm2 is equivalent to
51,000 psi.
2. Grade AH 12.5 mm (0.50 in.) and under in thickness may
have a minimum manganese content of 0.7}Vo.
3. Grade AII to 12.5 mm (0.50 in.) inclusive maybe semi-killed
in which case the 0.107o minimum Silicon does not apply.
None
Required
AB/AH36
-20"c (-4.F)
-40'c (-40.F)
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1 16
SHIPPRODUCTION
2. MetalProcesses
A large part of the production work performed at a shipyard involves the handling,
straightening, cutting, forming, and joining
of steel plates and steel structural sections.
Most structural shipbuilding therefore involvesthe related processesofcutting, shaping, and welding steel. For commercialshipbuilding, steel processesare subject to review
and approval by regulatory bodies (USCG)
and./orclassificationsocieties(ABS). In U.S.
practice, most oversight is performed by ABS,
operating under a memorandum of understanding with the USCG. The ABS Rules for
Building and Classing Steel Vessels[2] contains a section on the required procedures
and practices of welding for hull construction
and outfitting. Similar standards and requirements have beenestablishedby the U.S. Navy
for naval ship construction.
Fig. 4-8. Diagram illustrating plate being straightened in roll-straightener. l-lower work rolls; 2upper work rolls; S-back-up rolls; 4-auxiliary
rolls: 5-roller table.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
117
2.2.Cutting
Steel and aluminum generally come to a
shipyard in standard sizeplates or structural
shapes.Prior to its use in shipbuilding, much
of this material must be cut to required
sizes and shapes.The cutting of metals in a
shipyard is done by mechanical or thermal
processes.
2.2.1. MechanicalCutting.Mechanicalcutting
primarily involves two types of machines:
shearsfor heavier, structural steel,and saws
for lighter metal, e.g., sheet metal. These
mechanical devices are being used less for
heavier cutting work, having been replaced
by thermal cutting equipment. Heavy-duty
shears (see Figure 4-10), sometimes called
guillotines, may still be useful for cutting
smaller shapesor improvingwork flow. Sheet
metal is commonly cut in shops,often using
band saws (seeFigure 4-11).
Plates with straight edgesare cut using
guillotine shears(or press shears).Plates with
curved edgesare cut with press shearsif the
radius of curvature is large, or with disk shears
Fig.4-11.Bandsawfor sheetmetalcutting(courtesyClausingStartrite).
if the radius of curvature is small or if the
edgesare ofirregular shape.
One of the advantagesof mechanicalcutting is that there is little distortion causedby
the cut. As a result, mechanical cutting is
often specifredwhere dimensionalcontrol can
be affected by the heat distortion that occurs
in a thermal cut; an example would be the
cutting of thin materials.
118
SHIPPRODUCTION
processes
to materials
Matenal
I
i
Carbon
steel
Oxygen
Cutting
. Plasma
Arc
I
Cutting
Air
: Carbon
Arc
Cutting
Laser
Beam
Cutting
Yes
Yes
Yes
Stainless
steel
Special
Treatment
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cast iron
Special
Treatment
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
y*"
Yes
Yes
Yes
Aluminum
Titanium
] Special
i
i Tieatment
Copper
R"lr;.,)
Refrlc
-"t1o
[
Source: Welding Handbooft, Eighth Edition.
Oxygen(gas)cutting usesa flame to rapidly oxidize (burn) the metal to form a liquid
oxide, which is then blown away by the kinetic energy of the gas stream. It can be
manual or automatic and both types are commonly used in shipyards.Acetyleneand propane are the most commonfuels used for gas
cutting. The equipmentfor gascutting is similar to that used for gas welding, except a
burning torch is used (see Figure 4-I2) instead of a welding torch. Oxygen cutting is
almost always selectedto cut mild steel plates
up to 12inches(300mm) thick. Alloy steelsare
more diffrcult, and the quality of the cut in
such steelsdependson the alloy formulations
that exist in the material. Stainlesssteelscannot be easilycut, but a poorquality separation
can be made by introducing a flux or iron-rich
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
Plasma arc cutting is the other predominant thermal cutting technique.It is an efficient processthat provides excellent quality
cuts and may also be used for edgepreparation. Plasma arc cutting seversthe metal by
melting a localizedarea with a constricted
arc and blowing away the molten metal
with a high-velocityjet of ionized gas. The
principle is identical to plasma arc welding,
and the torch is similar. Plasma arc cutting
is often done with the workpiece over or immersed in a water bath, to limit problems
associatedwith noise.smoke.and the molten
metal.
The plasma arc cutting processis versatile. AII metals can be cut, and mild steel can
be severedfaster if the material is less than
314inch thick (approximately).On the negative side, more metal is removed because
the kerfs are wider and, in thick plates, the
kerfs are smoothbut slightly beveled.The processproduceslarge amountsofoxidesofnitrogen and is much noisier than the oxygen cuttingprocess.Finally, the processis a consumer of electricity, and this can make it more costly if electricalenergyis priced at a premium.
The air carbon arc cutting processuses
an arc to melt metal which is removed by a
high-velocityjet of compressedair. The depth
and contour of the groove are controlled by
the electrode angle, travel speed, and current. Groovesup to 5/8 inch (16 mm) deepcan
be made in a single pass. In severing operations, the electrodeis held at a steeperangle
and is directed at a point that will permit the
tip of the electrodeto pierce the metal being
divided. This processis noisy and expensive
and is thus used only for specializedoperations, Iike removing weld defects,or severing
excessmetal from castings.
In laser beam cutting the sourceofheat
is a concentratedcoherentlight beam.A combination of melting and evaporationprovides
the mechanism for removing material from
the kerf. Laser beam cutting can cut all metals and certain nonmetallic materials, such
119
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
2.3. Forming
Shipbuilding involves applying considerable
curvature to steel plate and structural members. As in cutting, forming can be accomplished using mechanical or thermal techniques.
2.3.1. Mechanical Forming. The primary mechanical forming machines are rolls, presses,
and shape benders. All these machines are
hydraulically operated and commonly work
with the steel cold. Rolls are primarily used
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
121
Fig.4-I7. Pressbrake(courtesyPacificPressand
Shear).
122
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
W
(,' i' ,i /' /' tFig. 4-20. Curvature from line heating.
N E H EA T I N G
r-l
t l
I
+
SWELTING
COOLING
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
SREUSED
C O N V E R G E NT O R C H . T I P A
F O R L I N EH E A T I N G
DIVERGENTORCH-TIPS
A R EN O T
U S E DF O R L I N E H E A T I N G
Fig.4-22.Convergent
typetorchtip.
tural sections.Sinceframe bendingmachines
are not usually designedto bend in the plane
ofa beam flange, line heating can be used.It
is also an effectivemethod of twisting longitudinals. Complex shapes, such as bulbous
bows, are another ideal application of line
heating. Figure 4-23 showstypical line heating operations.
2.4.Welding
Welding is the preferred method of joining
metal for the building of ships. Although
there are numerousvariations, weldedjoints
are typically either butt welds or fillet welds.
[5] Butt welds join two members lying approximately in the same plane (see Figure
4-24) andfillet weldsjoin surfacesat approximately right angles to one another (seeFigwe 4-25).
Shipyard welding processesare of the
fusion welding type. In fusion welding, a heat
sourceis used to melt the edgesof the joint,
permitting them to fuse with molten weld
metal. Three metallurgical zones are thus
created:the fusion zone,the unmelted heataffectedzoneadjacentto the fusion zone,and
the unaffected parent metal (seeFigure 4-26).
[10] The quality of the weld and the weld-
123
124
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.4-23(a)
Fis.a-23(b)
Fig.4-23(c)
Fig.a-23(d)
Fig.a-23(e)
Fig.a-23(f)
Fig. 4-23. Typical line heating operations.(a) Bending plate (courtesyAvondale Shipyard). (b) Finishing
plate using sight line templates(courtesyAvondaleShipyard).(c)Forming extremecurvature for a bulbous
bow (courtesyLockheedShipbuilding).(d) Using adjustablesight line templates.(e) producing secondary
curvature in a plate that had previouslybeen line heated.(0 Use of dogsand wedgesin conjunctionwith
line heating.
125
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
FUSED ZONE
PROFILE
PROCESS
--o-
FLUX,SHIELDED
A R CW E L D I N G
GAS,SHIELDED
A R CW E L D I N G
N O R M A LC U R R E N T
H I G HC U R R E N T
L O WC U R F E N T
ELECTRONBEAM
AND LASER
--o-____<--)_
V
-*O-
H I G HC U R R E N T
-T-
DEFOCUSEDBEAM
---o-
FOCUSEDBEAI\,4
--------{-'+
\|,
UNAFFECTED
P A R E N TM E T A L
H E A TA F F E C T E D
ZONE
UNAFFECTED
PABENT
METAL
F I L L E RP A S S E S
S I N G L EP A S SW E L D
MULTIP A S SW E L D
ROOT PASS
Fig.4-26.Metallurgicalzonesin welding.
Fig. 4-28.Singleandmulti-passwelds.
126
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
Table4-5. Characteristics
of selectedfusionweldingprocesses
Process
lal
Source
Power Sourc
ad Polairly
Arc
Allenating or
dtrd cuiienl
E drde
Fsirve
or n4atve
Arc
Allemaling or
dnd curenr
Shreld!ry Agenl
Arc
Allernaling
currniwilh
sl$ilizalion
lor alumin!m
magnesium ad
dred cuiienl
eledrd nqalve
lor other melals
Arc
Drccl cuiienl.
elsrde
neatve
with lowlrquency
(l hz) or high
(1 khz)
fiqlenq
curenl ndulaio.
Arc
0tr9c1 cu(enl
electde psitive
Arc
Dtrtrl cuiienl
eldrode psove
tu tuve
but In shon
cncu[rE mela tanster
Oned cutrenl.
dedrde psilive
5f 100hz Wl*
suFps6
on row
cu(ent badground
Dned cuiienl,
eledrde nsrve
(GTA) weldinq
lGTA) weldrru
Range
Industrial
Slag ad sell
generare gas
All enginsire
merars atu
alloys excepl
pufe Cu pGcrous
m6tats towmeftng arc
1 mm upwards
Carbn. low
alloy atu hqh
alloy slesls
CoWr alloys
1 mm upwads
(bul geneGlly
over l0 mm)
Downhand or hoizontal
vsdil joinls suilable tor
aolomalic woldrng Boile.s
p.essure vessels studural
srel hon2onlal pinls In
sloa! tanks
ftgon.Hlium
or Argon/Helium
mrxlures
Allereineeri4
melds expl
Zn ad Be atu
lhi alloys
1 mm lo doul
6 mm
1 mm to aboll
6nm
Automatc GTAwelding ol
rdeso t.&lotubsSeet
ro rmprove consrsrency 0l
Fnotaton or (high iiquency)
p.evnr arcwanoer
1 mm upwards
1 mm upwards
1 mm uryads
Posilionalweldiru ol
relatvely lh,n rbn or
alloy sleel
Usually up lo
tuut 1 5 mm
Normally iow.curenl
applition where gas
lungslen arc lads sliflnss
Also usd al highsr curenls
in keyblre md tor r@l
Catun sleel
(noffially Co,
arc (GMA)
Pulsd Arc
Arc
Aeodcq
Coz
Argon/O,
Argon/CO,
Slud{Sw)
Electosiag
Webire (ESw)
Lasr (LBw)
Arc
Dkd cuilenl,
ddrde
nqanve
lo. stsl, psitiv
lor nonietrous
aulomanc Arcdrawn
ben
tp oi stud ad
work untl mellino oeurs
art sbd hn pressd on
lo suda@ Web qde
Catun s1el
cowf
duminlm,
2!nc and lad
Bronz weldiQ
Sheel melal
and dF uplo
$llgenerald
gas + Gnrc
terule arcund
weld zone
low
C&n
alloy atu high.
alloy slsl
Alumrnum.
Nrdel ad
cwr
alloys
rqurc
ituividud study
Slud diamelers
uP lo &ul
25 mm
Eesshn@
halire ol
liqurd s14
Alle.naling or
dkecl cutrenl
Slag
Catun. low
alloy and high
alloy slel
50 mm upward
Chemil
None
None
Sleel, austenitic
CNi nsl,
corr,
copFr
Nomdly up lo
100 mm
Up lo 10 mm
Lshl bam
et@pl ditrerenl enercy
Edron Fam
(EBVO
Electon
bam
Dtrecl curienl
1r2m kV. Fwe.
geneally n farye
1i2 l0 kW Wodpise
@sitive
Aulomatc wldiru
dd
oul in vacuum
&am ol sledrcns emifled
by lhde
locusd on
prnl No mtal fansler
Vacuum
(10: mm Hg)
25 mm nomally
Nuclea ad aerospae
IndustDs Wddiry ad
100mm
compnnls
such as gears
127
128
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL
I N N E RC O R E
WELDING
TORCHTIP
ACETYLENE
FEATHER
MOLTENWELDMETAL
F I L L E RR O D
SOLIDIFIED
WELDMETAL
,r*^x
WORKING
PRESSURE
GAUGE
PRESSURE
CYLINDER
GAUGE
OXYGENREGULATOR
M I X I N GC H A M B E F I
ACETYLENE
NEEDLEVALVE
OXYGEN
NEEDLEVALVE
OXYGENHOSE
ACETYLENE
REGULATOR
ACETYLENE
HOSE
CYLINDER
PRESSURE
GAUGE
TWIN
HOSE
Fig. 4-30. Oxyacetylenegas welding equipment.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
INERTGAS
SHIELDED
NON-CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE
FLUX
SHIELDED
SHIELDED
SUBMERGED STUD
METAL
ARC
ARC
WELDING
II
PLASMA
ARC
129
M,I.G.
M.I.G.
FLUX
CORED
ARGON
COe
PROCESSES
SHIELDED
SHIELDED
PULSE
SPBAY
DIP
TRANSFER TRANSFERTRANSFER
processes.
I'ig.4-31.Electricarcwelding
FUSARC
130
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
as classifredby the American Welding Society (AWS) [11] and the American Societyfor
Testing and Materials (ASTM). The choiceof
electrodeis basedon the specifrcsof the welding, i.e., the required compositionand properties of the deposited weld metal. The
position of the welding may also affect the
choice of electrode.The flexibility of this
processmakes it one of the most popular in
shipbuilding.
PROTECTIVE
GAS FROM
ELECTRODE
COATING
MOLTENWELDMETAL
D I R .O F T R A V E L
E L E C T R O DW
E IRE
ELECTRODE
COATING
ARC
SOLIDIFIED
WELDMETAL
M E T A LD R O P L E T S
BASEMETAL
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
OVERHEAD
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTBUCTION
PROCESSES
C O R EW I R E
131
W I R ES P I R A L
PROVIDING
ELECTRIC
CONTACT
LONGITUDINAL
FLUX
COATING
ELECTRODE
FEEDROLLS
W E L D I N GC U R R E N T
SHELLPLATE
SOLIDIFIED
WELDING
coi/4PosrTroN
GROUND
ACOR DC
ELECTRODED I R E C T I OO
NF W E L D
H
WELDING
ELECTRODE
WELDING
COMPOSITION
O R " F L U XT" U B E
V E EI F R E O U I R E D
W E L DB A C K I N G
IFREOUIRED
PLATEMETAL
W O R KP I E C E
WELDMETAL
132
SHIPPRODUCTION
STUD
FERRULE
['is.4-39.
St"d*"ldi"e'.
STUD
MOVEMENT
I STUD
i
MOVEMENT
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
133
DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL
SHIELDING
GAS
MOLTENWELD
METAL
SOLIDIFIED
WELDMETAL
-------.-------
WELDING
TORCH
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
ARC
FILLER
ROD
BASEMETAL
--_--,_-> DtRECTtON
OFTRAVEL
NOZZLE
ELECTRODE
134
SHIPPRODUCTION
DIRECTIONOF TRAVEL
W I R EG U I D EN O Z Z L E
ARC
Coz
WATER-COOLED
C O P P E RS H O E
OF]IFACETO
CONSTRICl ARC
FILLER
ROD
S H I E L D I N GG A S
L i
Ef:-\:Il:.L_
r r rr F T. . . i r . r r \
SOLIDIFIED
METAL
BASE
MET
AL
Fig. 4-44.Electrogas
welding.
MOLTEN
WELDMETAL
t
W I R EF E DI N T OP O O L
Fig. 4-43.Electroslag
welding.
tance welding. Often, a cooledbacking plate
is used behind the workpiece to contain the
molten pool.Another process,electrogaswelding (seeFigure 4-44), employs a similar setup
but uses a flux-coatedelectrodeand CO2gas
shielding. Both of these processesare very
efficient for automatically making vertical
butt welds and are highly advantageous for
thicker plate. These techniques can be expectedto receiveconsiderablywider application in shipbuilding.
Thermit welding is a processthat uses
superheatedliquid metal to melt the workpieceand providefrller metal. The liquid met-
alresults
frome chemiael
rcsdilfrbetwoen
a
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
the parent metal for it to flow without melting the parent metal. If the melt temperature of the frller metal is above 450"C. the
process is called brazing. In soldering and
brazing, the liquid flows into and frlls the gap
by capillary action. In both processes,flux is
used to create the proper protective atmosphere for the joint.
Soldering is commonly done using a soldering iron, by flame heating, resistance
heating, or induction heating. Dip soldering,
in which the assemblyis dipped in a bath of
molten solder,is also employed.Brazing methods include the use of flame heating, resistance heating, and induction heating. Brazing may also be done by dipping in a bath.
Solderedand brazedjoints do not typically have strength properties that are
equivalent to weldedjoints. They are therefore primarily used as sealing and bonding
agents, with the strength of the joint generated by mechanical interlocking. Consequently, brazing and soldering frnd primary
shipbuilding application in small diameter
pipe joints, sheet metal fabrication, and in
somejoinery work.
135
_ U S E DF O RM O S TF A I B I N G
WORK
LINEAR
X \ +
x + +
Ft_r--t_l
-l-i-Fr
I I
[ " ' ' I
CROSS.HATCH
q o o
Ar
VARIATIONS
OF ABOVE
i--:L-_-l
S P O T _ F O R P L A T ET H I N N E B T H A N - 5 M I L L I M E T E R S .
T R I A N G L E_ F O R S T I F F E N E R S
2.7. DistortionRemoval
Even where the best-known techniques are
employedto avoid distortion causedby heat
processes,enoughdistortion often remains to
adversely affect the efficiencyof subsequent
assemblywork. Thus, for productivity reasons,
line heating can be applied for fairing after
gas cutting parbs,subassembly,and block assembly. In each such manufacturing level,
line heating for removing distortion is a regular work processequivalent to marking, cutting, frtting, or welding. Line heating is also
applied for fairing after erection, but is required in significantly lesser amounts than
when not applied throughout the earlier manufacturing levels.
Compared to conventional methods for
fairing, properly applied line heating produces more accurate finishes and has less
R E DH O T - F O RE X T R E M D
E I S T O R T I O NASC; C O M P A N I EBDY
H A M M E R I NO
GR P R E S S I N (GB L A C K S M I T H I N G ) .
Fig. 4-45. Classification
of fairing
methods.
136
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig.a-a6(a)
Fig. a-a6(b)
Fig. 4-46. Distortion removal following stiffener
welding. (a) On heavy plate (courtesy Avondale
Shipyard). (b) Using a manual double torch tip. (c)
Using a semiautomatic torch tip.
Fig.a-46(c)
followed by line, triangle, or spot heating is
often effective.Extreme indentationsor creases
usually require red-hot heating and pressing
or hammering (blacksmithing).
As for forming curved plates, water cooling is effectivefor most fairing work but is not
3. OutfitProcesses
Outfrt includes all nonstructural parbs of a
ship. Among these items are:
. main propulsion systemsand auxiliary
machinery
. pumps and piping systems
o heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning machinery and systems@VAC)
. electrical systems
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
Fig.4-47(a)
Fig.4-47(b)
Fig.4-47(c)
Fis. a-a7(d)
137
Fig. 4-47 . Distortion removal. (a) At a block butt joint. (b) At a hatch coaming. (c) At a bulkhead, using a
pine leafpattern. (d) At a deck, using a water ring surrounding a torch (courtesy Avondale Shipyard).
138
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig. 4-48.Shipyardmachineshop(courtesyIngalls
Shipbuilding).
factured in pipe shopsin most shipyards and
then deliveredto the assemblysite, whether
assemblyis on-outfrt units, on-block,or onboard the ship. The integration ofpipe piece
assemblywork into the complete shipbuilding systemis discussedin detail in Chapters
III and VII. The design of various piping
systems(fuel oil, bilge and ballast, fire main,
etc.) is discussedin detail in Marine Engineering.fl2T This section will outline the specific pipe piecemanufacturing processes.
Piping assembly is accomplishedeither
by welding (including brazing and soldering)
or by bolting. The specificprocessesinvolved
in pipe piecemanufacturing include cutting,
edge preparation for welding, hole and contour cutting, flange frtting and welding, and
bending. Additionally, functions related to
other aspectsofshipbuilding that also apply
to pipe piece manufacture include surface
preparation and coating, testing, including
X-ray or other weld-testing procedures,and
material handling.
In general,pipe piecemanufacturing processesand equipment are dependenton the
pipe sizeand material. Shipboardpiping materials are predominantly steel, but also include nonferrous metals such as copper and
alloys, and plastics (PVC). Generally, pipe
over 2 inches (50 mm) in diameter is commonly steel, and manufacturing processes
can be subdividedbetweenpipe over 2 inches
(50 mm) in diameter and pipe less than 2
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
139
ic flange frtting and welding machines are becomingmore commonin shipyard pipe shops.
Certain operations require that material
in a localizedarea of pipe be upset or formed
into a prescribedshape.Such operationsinclude the swaging of pipe ends to a larger
diameter, the similar operation of forming
pipe reducers from short pipe sections,and
the extrusion of bossesdirectly on the pipe.
Shipyards may swage the ends of coppernickel pipe in order to minimize the use of
pipe couplings.One such processuses handheld mandrelsto swagethe endsofheater coil
piping; the mandrel is simply struck with a
hammer to form the swageof the proper size.
Thesesamedevicescan be used to make pipe
reducers from short pipe sections,although
the more common method is to use a forming
jig on a conventionallathe. The pipe-bending
phase can be the most expensive phase of
work in the pipe piece fabrication process.
Considerablecapital investment is required
to set up and use eventhe simplestof bending
equipment. This fact has forced some shipyards to fabricate all but the smallest piping
with purchasedelbows.
The two basic processesof bending are
cold bending and hot bending. Cold and hot
bending can be further subdivided into bending with or without internal support. As wall
thickness and bend radius decreaserelative
to pipe diameter, internal support may be
140
SHIPPRODUCTION
tions for service. The ordered thickness includesallowancesfor normal thinning due to
bending;with proper use of bending methods
and equipment,thinning due to bending does
not causea problem. Out-of-roundnessmust
also be kept within establisheddesign criteria, consistent with the capabilities of the
pipe shopequipment;generally,out of roundness cannot exceeda given percentagelimitation for a specificmaterial and application.
Machines for the cold bending of pipe
come in a wide variety of sizes and can be
manufacturedto suit customerspecifications
(seeFigure 4-51).For example,pipe-bending
machinescan be designedto be used with or
without numerical control consoles.One of
the most advancedmachinesis a numerically
controlled booster bending machine which
can bend Schedule 40 pipe of almost any
material to a two-diameter-bendradius. A
1.5-diameterbooster-bendingmachineis also
available.
l'ig. 4-51.Pipe bendingmachinewith numerical
control(courtesyTeledynePines).
neededto retain roundnessor to prevent collapse.As size,thickness,bend radius, and available equiprnent
perrnit,
the preferred
order of
exclusively
involvethemanufacture
of duct-
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
141
Fig.4-55.Pressbrakefor sheetmetalcuttingand
forming(courtesy
Famco).
Fig. 4-54.Sheetmetalcutterwith numericalcontrol (courtesyIngallsShipbuilding).
ing systemsfrom sheetmetal (seeFigure 4-53).
Other system components,such as blowers,
compressors,heat exchangers,dampers,and
diffusers, are generally not manufactured in
the shipyard. Sheet metal ducts are made
with riveted, welded, or hooked seams.Sections are joined by attaching flanges. The
major processesin the sheet metal shop are
therefore cutting (generally using saws,
shears, or punch presses)shaping, welding,
and riveting. Some shipyards use numerically controlled thermal cutting machines(see
Figure 4-54).Sheetmetal-shaping processes
involve the use ofa variety ofpresses.Every
presscontains a frame and bed, a ram or slide,
a drive for the ram, a power source, and a
transmission.Numeroustoolsand dies are also
employed for accomplishing specific metal-
142
SHIPPRODUCTION
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
Table4-6.Weapons
systems
components
of combatant
ships
. Command and Control
-Combat information center (CIC)
-External communications flag
. Sensors
-Radar
-Sonar
-Electronic warfare
o Weapons
-Guns
-Missile launchers
-Torpedo launchers
-Small arms
-Directors
-Handling
equipment
o Auiation
-Hangars
-Maintenance
-Stores
spaces
143
Combat systemsconsistprimarily of hydraulic and electronicequipment which is generally provided by the government. Much of
the installation is accomplishedby shipyard personnel,frequently with the assistance of representativesfrom the equipment
manufacturer.
A significant portion of the work involves
alignment and test. In the last decade,many
combatant program contracts have included
provision for land-basedtest facilities. These
may be operated by the shipbuilder or subcontractors and may or may not be located
within the shipyard. Completecombat suites
may be installed at the test site in the exact
configuration as the eventual shipboard installation. After testing of primary and auxiliary equipment, the complete package is
disassembled,shippedto the yard, and reinstalled aboard ship.
4. Material-Handling
Processes
As describedin the preceding two sections,
shipbuilding entails a large number of separate manufacturing and construction processes.Both raw materials and equipment are
deliveredto the shipyard.Various operations
are performed on these materials, and they
are combinedto producethe frnishedproduct,
a ship. Inherent in this production processis
the need to move material during all stages
ofconstruction,coveringa wide range ofsizes
and weights, within shops, between shops
and storage areas, and to and onto the erection site. This section will consider general
categories of material-handling equipment
applicableto shipyardsand then considerapplications of specificequipment to manufacturing and constmctionprocesses.
[13]
4.1. Material-Handling
Equipment
Material-handling equipment can be subdivided into four general categories:conveyors,
vehicles, and
144
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig. 4-58. Roller and chain conveyorin a subassembly line (courtesy Total Transportation Systems and Bath Iron Works).
mally floor mounted and wide enough to handle the widest panel to be manufactured on
the line. Work stations can include N/C burning and marking, plate butt welding, stiffener
fitting and welding, and web fitting and welding. Conveyors provide similar advantages in
semiautomated pipe shops, serving work stations such as saw cutting, plasma arc cutting,
end preparation, contour cutting, hole cutting, flange welding, pipe piece assembly,
bending, and weld testing. Conveyors facilitate the establishment of well-organized stations and superior material flow with much
less dependence on overhead cranes. They
also aid automation, including computer control, and can improve work flow. They may
require additional shop floor space, although
the overall improvement of work flow can
compensate for this requirement.
4.1 .2. Crane,s.Cranes are one of the most common types of material-handling equipment
employed in shipyards. There are four main
categories: bridge cranes, jib cranes, gantry
cranes, and mobile cranes. Bridge cranes are
common in shops, such as panel lines and
pipe and machine shops. They may also be
used in open locations. Bridge cranes require
support on both sides along their full length
of run. Top-running bridge cranes (see Figure 4-60) are supported by horizontal beams,
which in turn are supported by ground-mounted columns. These cranes commonly have capacities ofup to 300 or 400 tons, although a
few 800-ton and higher-capacity top-running
bridge cranes have been installed. The span
for these cranes can be as much as 130 feet
(40 m). Under-running bridge cranes, which
are roof supported, provide easier access to
large, square areas (see Figure 4-61). They
generally have maximum capacities of about
20 tons and are highly dependent on the roof
structure.
Bridgecranescanbe cabincontrolledor
Fig. 4-59. Conveyorin a pipe shop.
hand controlled (either pendant or radio controlled). Cabin-controlled bridse cranes can
METAL[/ANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
145
146
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig. 4-66.Mobilecrane(courtesyNationalSteel
and Shipbuilding).
anced,and generally cabin controlled.Unlike
jib cranes, hammerhead cranes are often
fixed, and therefore are most commonlyused
to servicepiers.
Mobile cranes come in many types and
sizes.They may be low-capacitywheeledvehicles, crawler tlpe vehicles,or floating cranes
(seeFigure 4-66).Although most mobile cranes
employed in shipyards are wheeled vehicles
for small lifts, floating barge-mountedcranes
with lifting capacitiesin excessof 500 tons
are available in many port areas.
Various types ofhand-operated hoists are
available and may be used for special situations in shipyards. Chain falls, blocks and
tackle, hydraulic jacks, and similar portable
lifting devicesare available(seeFigure 4-67).
Theseare commonlyof a 15- to 25-ton lifting
capacity,although somewhatlarger-capacity
hydraulic jacks are available.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
147
Fig.4-68,Flatbedtruckmovilga hoiler(corrrttn)
National Steel and Shipbuilding).
ttlllf
Fig{ i0.Heavy-lift
crulvlcr
vchido.
148
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.4-7l. Pallets(courtesy
TacomaBoatbuilding).
ure 4-71).Movement of containersby forklift
is most common,although cranesmay alsobe
used. Most containers are restricted to relatively small load capacities,rarely in excess
of one or two tons.
4.2. Material-Handling
SystemDesign
The choice or evaluation of a material-handling systemis basedon a number of factors.
Theseinclude the material, the type of move,
the method of movement, and physical restrictions on the meansof material handling.
Nearly all material handling in a shipyard is
unit or discontinuoushandling. The number
of pieces of material-handling equipment
can be determined from
n =
Zs.tle.nN.ra
Qr.ne.nN{Na
where:
= number of piecesof equipment
required
ea = maximum rate of material to be
transported, in piecesper hour
Zs = maximum equipment transport
rate capacity,in cyclesper hour
=
aver&goperation effrciency
ne
factor
Tlud = piece number effrciency factor
Qrvr = maximum rate of material to be
n
transported,
in weightperhour
Should only one piece of equipment be required, n = 1 and the required capacityofthe
singlepieceof equipmentmay be determined.
The general processinvolves initial qualitative equipment choice based on the factors
describedpreviously, followed by evaluation
of number and,/orcapacity required. qdor qM
representthe material-handling needsof the
system,Zs or Q1 is the maximum equipment
capacity,t1sis an operation efficiencyfactor
related to the type of equipment, and lya or
llyy is an efficiency factor based on the anticipated use of the equipment. Typical values of Is are 0.5 for a top-running bridge
crane,0.7 for a forklift, and 0.8 for an underrunning bridge crane.lya and llyyvalues indicate the percent of time the equipment is
used at or near capacityas opposedto partial
or light loads.
4.3.Rigging
Rigging involves the preparation of ship parbs
for movement by material-handling equipment. Technically this could include anything from the movement of the smallest individual pieces to the largest blocks being
erected at the building site. Practically, the
most important aspectof rigging is the movement of blocks,subassemblies,and outfit units
(seeFigure 4-72).Inchtdedis the turnover of
blocks.As is discussedin ChaptersIII and VI,
riggrng is a critical part of the shipbuilding
process.
Primary considerations for rigging design include shipyard material-handling capabilities, structural integrity ofobjectsto be
moved, required temporary and permanent
reinforcementfor blocks,subassemblies,and
outfit units, pick points for lifts, including
temporary and permanent lifting pads, and
proceduresfor turnover. The need or advis-
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
METALMANUFACTURING
149
Fig. 4-73.Staging(courtesyNationalSteeland
Shipbuilding).
stapngis ofitself
Buildingandremoving
4.4. Staging/Scaffolding
Temporary or moveablestructures are often
required to support workers, tools,and materials during the shipbuilding process(seeFigure 4-73). Accessto work locations must be
readily available and safe. Conventional staging is constructed employing wooden planks
laid acrosstower supports.The tower supports
are portable and fabricated from bolted or
clampedpipe sections,steel channel or angle
sections,or other materials. Numerous combinations and designs for portable staging
are employed.
150
SHIPPRODUCTION
work structures can be equipped with required tools and servicesfor the work processesto be carried out.
5. SurfacePreparation
andCoating
The marine environment is hard on nearly all
elementsof a ship. The problemsof corrosion
and deterioration are continual and are the
result of operationsin the saltwater environment, coupledwith the carriage of corrosive
substances(such as fuel oil and chemicals),
galvanic action, biologicalfouling, and abrasive action.[14,15]Table 4-7 presentsthe
factors present in the marine environment
that cause corrosionand deterioration, subdivided into chemical, physical, and biological categories.
The driving force in the corrosionof metals is the consequenceof their transient existence in the metallic form. In the natural
state, metals occur in chemical compounds
called ores.Energy is required to releasethe
metals from these compounds.This energy,
which can be consideredto be stored in the
metal, is releasedupon corrosion,which returns the metal to its natural state. Iron, for
example,is commonlyfound in nature as hematite, an oxide of iron. Rust, the most common
product of the corrosion of iron, contains the
same iron oxide plus water molecules.
The energy difference between metals
and their ores can be expressedin electrical
terms, related to the heats of formation of
the compoundsthat make up the ores. The
relative amount of energy is reflectedby the
location of a metal in the electromotiveseries
(see Table 4-8). Corrosion can take any of
several forms, but most marine corrosioninvolves someaspectof electrochemicalaction.
Electricity flows from one metal or area of a
metal to another, conductedby water. The
portion of the metal that corrodesis calledan
anode and the portion of the metal from
which the current returns to the corroding
metal is calledthe cathode.An electriccircuit
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
METALMANUFACTURING
151
Biological
Physical
Velocity(3)
Airbubbles
silt
Suspended
Biofouling(6)
Temperature(4)
PlantLife
Hard-shelltypes
Typeswithouthardshells
Mobileand semimobiletypes
Oxygengeneration
Carbondioxideconsumption
Salinity
pH
Carbonatesolubility
Pressure(5)
AnimalLife
Oxygenconsumption
Carbondioxidegeneration
trendsaretypical:
thefollowing
Usinglronas reference,
corrosion.
1. Oxygenis a majorfactorin promoting
increases
withhigherpH.
scale(carbonatetype)
2. Thetendency
to formprotective
velocity
corrosion.
tendsto promote
3. Increasing
increasetendsto accelerate
attack.
4. Temperature
mayaffectcorrosion.
5. Pressure
localcorrosion
cells.
6. Biofouling
canreduceattack,or promote
in installing a paint systemfor steel are allocated to surface preparation alone. Of the
remainder, at least two-thirds goesfor paint
application, leaving only about 10 to 15 percent for the actual paint material. This allocation will vary but it does illustrate the
importance of surfacepreparation. [16]
In the cleaning of new steel, one of the
most important requirements is the removal
of mill scale.This scale is formed in the hot
rolling operation at the steel mill. A layer of
iron oxide mill scaleonly a few thousands of
an inch thick is formed on the surfaceat high
temperatures.Its depth, composition,and tenacity depend on the thickness of the steel,
its subsequentrate of cooling, and the steel
composition. Figure 4-74 illustrates typical
layer composition and cracks in each layer.
During storage of steel, this scale tends to
Leastenergyrequiredto
convertore to metal
Potassium
Magnesium
Beryllium
Aluminum
Zinc
Chromium
lron
Nickel
Tin
Copper
Silver
Platinum
Gold
152
SHIPPRODUCTION
o 5_
- Fe-0,.
) +
IreO + Fe
Fig.4-74.Mill scalelayercomposition.
moisture, dirt, oily residues,salt, sharp edges,
and airborne contamination. For all anticorrosive services,thorough surfacepreparation
is required, particularly with modern coatings,
most of which will not properly adhere to an
uncleanedsurface.
Becausepaint life is dependentprimarily
upon surface preparation, this aspect of the
painting program should receive very thorough consideration.Although all paints will
fail eventually, most premature failure of
paint systems is due to loss of adhesion or
corrosion of the substrate. Therefore, contaminants such as chlorides, salts, sulfates,
oil, and greaseshould be removed,alongwith
rust and mill scale.
The choiceof surface preparation methods, specifications,and equipment for a complex structure suchas a ship is diffrcult. Some
of the factors involved are ship environment,
paint tolerance,profile, cost,safety,pollution,
availability for maintenance,equipment availability, and surfacecondition.
The application of a force is required to
accomplishsurfacepreparation. The forcemay
be mechanical,chemical,or energyradiation.
Mechanical forces are applied using pressure,
centrifugal action,abrasion,or direct contact.
The medium for surfacecleaningcan be nonmetallic, including sands, flint, slag, silicon
carbides,or aluminum oxides,or metallic,
including ferrous grit or shot, or zinc or aluminum shot. Direct-contact forces are applied
using rigid abrasive wheels, flexible abrasive-coatedmaterials, bundled wires, or cutters. Chemicalsurfacepreparationinvolvesthe
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
153
154
SHIPPRODUCTION
t-.
Fig. 4-79.Pushmowertypevacuumblaster.
methods.Someof the commontools are wire
brushes, scrapers, chisels, knives, chipping
hammers, and, in some instances,emery or
sandpaper.
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
155
Fig.4-80.Centrifugalflagellator.
range of 2 to 3 feet (60 to 90 cm) per minute,
which is about 1.5times slowerthan abrasive
blasting. This device is especiallysuited
for large flat surfacesbut is of limited use
around such obstaclesas bolts and corners.
For these rough or uneven areas,a needlegun
may be usedsatisfactorily.Needleguns,however, clean three times slower on flat areas
than the rotary peeningtool.
Although the peening wheel is technically a power tool, the surfaceresulting from
this treatment very closelyresemblesa brushoff or commercial blast, particularly for intact
mill scale.Exposuretests have shown surfaces
prepared by rotary flap to be adequate for
short-term exposurewith severalprimers. The
performanceofcoatings over roto-peenedsurfacescannot adequatelybe comparedto blastcleaned surfaces until these exposure tests
have run their course.
5.1.4. Other Suiace PreparationProcesses.
Other techniquesfor surface preparation that
are not commonlyused in shipyards include
wet blasting methods,chemicalmethods,and
energy radiation methods. All have limitations ofcost, operability, or final surfacecondition that have restricted their application. Wet blasting methods employ water,
ice, or steam only, at high pressure,or combine water and abrasive.Wet blasting methods with and without abrasives are used to
remove weed growth and similar fouling
from hull exteriors during dry-docking, to
prepare intact coatingsfor application ofantifouling paint.
---:r-----
156
SHIPPRODUCTION
Any primer is likely to entail some compromise betweenthese requirements, and a number are used. Most shop primers are zinc rich
with organic or inorganic binders. Zinc silicates predominate among the inorganic zinc
primers.
5.2.ShopPriming
5.3. CoatingSystems
o easeofapplication
o optimal handling time
. quick, hard, dry time (1 to 4 minutes)
r anticorrosivity (79 months)
o good adhesionto steel substrate
. high resistanceto solventsand
chemicals
. weldability (should not generatepits or
blowholes,nor affect strength of weld)
o underwater (bottom)
r waterline or boot topping
o topside
. superstructure and internal spaces
o weather deck
o tanks (including piping systems)
. equipment
Many painting systemsare availablefor each
ofthese locations.Adequatecoverageofcoating systemsis available in the technical lit-
157
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
Coating
5.4. Flame-Sprayed
The use of aluminum or zinc flame-sprayed
coatings has shown increasing promise in
Outfitting,Docking
Shot Cuilino
Outfitting Launching BetoreDelivery Outfitting Delivery
Blast Weldin-g BlockStage Erection,
SP
Bottom
SP
jl
AC
fiu) 2-3
Freshwaterwashing
jq'
\ tru) 2-3/
SP AC
Boottop
SP
tru) 2-3
Freshwaterwashing
.qL
1
.Ag .BT,
ru) 1
/ S P A C> l\
I <...> a
\ tru) 2-/
SP
Topside
SP
TS
AC
ru) 2-3
Freshwaterwashing
jgJq
ou) 1
(fi''lS)
RP
2
SuoerstructureSP
.AF,
tru) 1
\
/ S P> a A C
> l
l <
FC
2
I LRP,\
l \ 2 /
Deck
SP
RP
1
I
t
R
1
D
H
K
1
lI ll <n p> l r
r \ 2 /
SP
Tank
TKr
TK
1+
tz
tz
SP
1-2
tz
I
I
ou)
l
,
i (,5,)
paint
paint
AC: Anti-corrosive
AF: Anti-fouling
paint
paint
TS: Topside
FC: Finish
TK: Tankpaint
lZ: Inorganic
zincpaint
'): Otherprocesses
(.
Numbers:
number
e.g.i!' means2 or 3 coatsof antFfoulant.
of coats:
2-3
DK
1
158
SHIPPRODUCTION
6. QualityAssurance
Quality assurancegenerallyinvolvesindicating that a finished product satisfactorily
meets any of a set of contractually agreedupon requirements. In shipbuilding, this can
apply not only to the completed ship as a
whole, but also to parts and systemswithin
the ship. Quality assurance should not be
confusedwith accuracycontrol or statistical
quality control, which are discussedin Chapter VIII. Unlike accuracycontrol, which is an
ongoing processwithin a shipyard, quality
assuranceuses after-the-factverification.
Many quality assurancerequirements are
related to satisfying requirements of regulatory bodies such as the U.S. Coast Guard or
the U.S. Public Health Service,or classification societiessuch as ABS or Lloyd's. Additional customer requirements or U.S. Navy
requirements for naval ship constructionare
also addressed.Basically, quality assurance
indicates that the completed ship actually
performs as designed,both as a whole and
within individual systems.
The quality assurancefunction is likely
to be active throughout the entire shipbuilding process.The general breakdown ofquality assurancerequirements is similar to the
breakdown of the manufacturing and construction processes.For example, classification society rules apply to minimum standards ofquality for steelusedin the construc-
tion. Testing of steel quality may be performed at the steel mill. Similarly, equipment testing may be performedat the manufacturer'splant prior to shipment to the shipyard. Quality assuranceinspection will then
continue throughout the various shipbuilding processesuntil the completed vessel is
deliveredto the owner.
6.1. SteelProcessQualityAssurance
The primary testing required here is weld or
casting quality testing. The techniquesused
include X-ray, radioisotope,ultrasonic, and
magnetic particle procedures. Analysis of
these tests is used to verify that cracks or
imperfections are not present in welds or
castings. Specifrctesting requirements are
provided in regulatory body or classification
societyrules. The U.S. Navy also has established testing requirements to be applied to
naval ship construction.
In addition to basic weld and casting
quality testing, steel processquality assurance requirements generally include watertightness of compartments, alignment of
structural components,and flatness of side
and bottom shell plating and of decks and
bulkheads. Following the completion of the
constructionoftanks and other compartments,
watertightnessand hydrostatic tests are conducted.Thesemay be doneusing air pressure
METALMANUFACTURING
AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCESSES
7. TestandTrials
Dock trials, builder's trials, and sea trials
are the normal media for conductingtests on
major or shipwide systems for merchant
vessels.Dock trials are used to test major
outfrt systemsprior to completionof the ship.
Builder's trials are often conductedby the
shipyard to locate and solve problemsbefore
the offrcial sea trials are held. The sea trials
involve testing of the vesseland its systems
underway. For naval ship construction,a similar series of trials is conducted. These are
called builders' trials, acceptancetrials, underway trials, and final contract trials. The
specific items to be tested during sea trials
are generally included in the shipbuilding
contract. The following is a typical list of sea
trial activities. [5]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Depart shipyard.
Ballast to trial draft.
Adjust magnetic compasses.
Adjust radio direction finder.
Standardization runs.
160
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
8. VesselDeliveryCertificates
The following is a list of the cerbificatesgenerally provided to the owner upon delivery of
a merchant ship.[5]
ClassifrcationSociety
1. Seaworthy certificate
2. Load line certifrcate
3. Anchors, chains, and towlines
certificates
4. Hull classificationcertificate
5. Loading manual, as required
6. Machinery classificationcertificate
7. Safety construction certificate
U. S. CoastGuard
8 . Inspection cerbifrcates
9 . Stability letter
10.Safety equipment certificate
1 1 .Trim and stability book
L2.Certifi cate of admeasurement
1 3 .Official number certificate
t4. Home port certificate
1 5 .Panama and Suez Canals tonnage
certificates
References
1. Stout, R.D. and W.D. Doty, Weldability of
Steels,Welding ResearchCouncil,New
York, 1978.
2. American Bureau of Shipping,Rules for
Building and ClassingS/eel Vessels,New
York, 1978.
3. Masubuchi,K., Materials for OceanEngineerlnal,M.I.T. Press,Cambridge,Mass.,1970.
4. "HSLA SteelsEnter the Fleet," NauyDomestic TechnologyTransfer Fact Sheet,Yol.
9, No. 1, January 1984.
5. D'Arcangelo,E., Ship Design and Construction, Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers,New York, 1969.
6. Welding TechnologyHandbook,Vol. I, 8th
ed.American Welding Society,1991,p. 28.
7 . O p . c i t . ,p . 2 9 .
8. rbid.
9. Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo and S. Nakanishi,
Line H eating, National Shipbuilding
Research Program, Maritime Administration in cooperationwith Todd Pacific
Shipyards Corporation,November 1982.
CHAPTER V
SHIPYARD LAYOUT
1. Historical
Perspective
Chapter IV addressedshipbuilding manufacturing and constrrrctionprocesses.The linking ofthese processesinto a production system is addressedin this chapter.The physical
plant and production flow are emphasized,
but with some consideration given to labor
costs.Organizational aspectsofthe total ship
production system will also be consideredin
ChapterVII.
Through the 1970s, shipyard layout respondedprimarily to advancesin technology
and to requirementsfor new types and larger
sizesof ships. Changesin the layout of shipyards were, in most cases,piecemeal.Many
yards are a century old and have been extended and revisedwith little opportunity for
a complete redesign commensurate with a
total systemsapproach.
The history of shipyard layout can be
divided into three distinct periods: (1) prior
to World War II, (2) World War II to 1960,and
(3) from 1960 to the present. The movement
from the first to the secondperiod coincides
with the changeoverfrom riveting to welding
in the late 1930s.The introduction of flow
line techniques was primarily responsible
for the movement from the secondperiod to
the third. Superimposedon the latter was the
rapid growth in ship size after closure of the
Suez Canal. The characterizationofshipyards
built or substantially altered during these
161
162
SHIPPRODUCTION
MORE COMPLEX
HIGHLY COMPLEX
SCHEDULING
SCHEDULINGAND
AND ROUTING OF
ROUTING OF INDIVIDUAL
UNIIS AND ASSEMBLIES
COMPONENTS.
FORWARD LOADING OF
FORWARD LOADING
WORK AREAS
OF WORK STATIONS
SIMPLER THAN
PROCESS LESS NEED
FOR ROUIING
INSTRUCTIONS
S I M P L ES C H E D U L J N G
ROUTING FIXED
BY PLANT
+
I N C R E A S I NrG
f>
DECREASING
INCREASING'_2
EXTENTOF
DECREASING.>
L>
INCREASING
properties.
Fig. 5-1.Productionorganization
duce similar interim products and is a product type or group technology production organization. The categorization of shipyard
layout will be presentedin terms of the production organization classifrcationshown in
Figure 5-1.
1 . 1 .P r e - W o r lW
d a rl l
This period correspondedto the job shop or
craft type organization. Shipyards characteristically had limited storage and shop facilities and lift capacitiesin the five- to tenton range. Most of the ship componentswere
assembledon or immediately adjacentto the
shipway. Much of the planning was accomplished by highly skilled craftsmen as the
ship was erected. Shop requirements were
minimal and consistedof steel,pipe, and machine shops located near the shipways and
outfitting piers. Outfitting, including installation of power plants and auxiliary machinery, was accomplished,for the most part,
after launch. Riveting was the major process
employedfor joining steel plates and parts.
First-generation shipyards were characterized by a long, narrow layout, following along
the waterway, with comparatively little depth
back from the waterway (seeFigure 5-2). The
work was concentratedaround the shipway
and outfrt pier.
1.2.WorldWar ll-1960
This period was characterizedby adoption of
prefabrication of weldments away from the
shipwaysand developmentof more accurate,
high-technology steel cutting and welding.
The processproduction organization corresponds to the shipbuilding system of this
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
163
STEEL SHOPS
OUTFIT
SHOPS
PIER
OUTFIT
Fig. 5-2.First-generation
shipyardlayout.
period. Sections of the ship were built in
shopsand transported to the shipwayswhere
they were erected.Work areas were defined,
but with some flexibility, and more complex
schedulingand planning were required.Flexibility and required skill level were lower,
relative to the job shop organization, and
accuracyrequirements were greater.
This period was ushered in by Henry
Kaiser during the SecondWorld War, at shipyards in Portland, Oregon, and Richmond,
California. Other yards, responding to the
high demand resulting from the war effort,
adopted similar methods.However,with the
dismantling of much of the U. S. shipbuilding
industry after the war, due to the gr:eatly
decreased demand for ships, many of the
Kaiser advancesdisappearedin the United
States. Many of the management concepts
were adapted and more fully developedby
the Japanese and European shipbuilding
industries, but along different lines. The differenceswill be discussedmore fully in section 1.3. The basic ideas were combined
with technologicaladvancesdevelopedmostly in Europe, and most Western European
yards developed along the lines of process
organizations.
Important changesduring this period included fewer shipways and more space devoted to storage and shop facilities, as more
work was accomplishedaway from the erection site. Crane capacity was increased to
accommodatethe movement of larger weldments in the subassemblyand erectionareas.
The shipwaysbecameassemblyareas,rather
than fabrication areas, as they were in frrstgeneration shipyards. More accurate gas
cutting and high-capacity welding methods
were developed.Lofting improvements were
achieved,employing 1/10th-scaleoptical systems. Outfrtting techniqueschangedvery little, however, and outfrtting was still accomplished almost entirely after launch.
Figure 5-3 shows a typical second-generation shipyard. Comparedto the frrst-generation layout, there is a shrinking of the
length of the yard alongthe waterway, but an
increase in depth back from the waterway.
The number and size of fabrication shops
increasedsignificantly.
1.3. 1960-Present
Shipbuilding in the 1960s and 1970s was
particularly influenced by specialized ship
types, larger ships, and a move to seriespro-
164
SHIPPRODUCTION
LAUNCHING
WAYS
STEELSTOCKYARD
6-rL*4,
\)t-"-
4^\
r. -'a \
'o^ \
\\
f -
1\
r
I
f'%";s"^,
OUIF\I
P\EF
Fig. 5-3.Second-generation
shipyardlayout.
duction. European and someU.S. shipbuilders began to modify existing yards to accommodate this mass production type organization. Work stations were clearly defrned
and frxed.High technologywas introducedin
steel fabrication and transport. Scheduling
was complex, and planning was characterized by forward loading of work stations. Flow
of weldments and modules took on the appearance of an assembly line process in
some yards, with the attendant loss of
flexibility in product line and required quantity. For efficient production, these yards
required a standardized product and high
throughputs.
1.3.1. Ship Size, Typesof Ships,and Series
Production.Some yards specializedin new
types ofships, suchas:
o bulk carriers
. oil, bulk, ore carriers (OBO)
. roll-on/roll-offships (RO/RO)with
complexramps, doors,hatches,and
elevators,and high freeboard
. barge carriers
. cement and grain carriers equipped
withspeci
aliredunloading
systems
thaintogrilion
eree.?he
Spruance
class
sAips,
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
165
166
SHIPPRODUCTION
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
lill
tLt
u
IT
--E
ffi,ru
UT
[]T
B U I L D I N GD O C K
B U I L D I N GD O C K
TOOTGANTRYCRANE
5 O TJ I B C R A N E
1 5 TJ I B C R A N E
ASSEMBLYAREA
ASSEMBLYAREA
ROOM
S'STRUCTURE/ENGINE
PRE-OUTFITTING
SHOP
U N I TA S S E M B L YS H O P
PRE-OUTFITTING
SHOP
Fig. 5-7.Third-generation
shipyardlayout.
11 . B L O C KB U F F E RA R E A
1 2 .O U T F I T T I N G
S E R V I C EC E N T E R
1 3 .P I P ES H O P
14. FORE/AFTASSEMBLYSHOP
1 5 .P A N E LA S S E M B L YS H O P
1 6 .B L O C KP A I N T I N G
SHOP
1 7 .S U B A S S E M B LSYH O P
18.STEELSTOCKYARD
1 9 .H U L LP A R T SS H O P
2 0 . S T E E LU N L O A D I N G
PIER
167
168
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
quirements.Block sizeis optimized to accommodate zone outfitting and facilitate erection in order to maintain balancedwork flow.
Whereas the processtype yard requires series production and massivethroughputs for
efficiency,the product-orientedyards realize
the benefits of mass production for small numbers of similar ships and have the management flexibility to effectively build a wide
variety ofship types and sizes.
Figure 5-8 is an exampleof a fourth-generation shipyard. [3] The two building docks
(No. 1 and No. 3) are about 1,000feet (300m)
long and 200 feet (60 m) wide. Both docksare
servedby two 200-ton and two 80-ton capacity jib cranes and can accommodateships of
about 180,000dwt. At its peak the yard produced 12,000metric tons per month with an
employeecomplementof4,000.An additional
approximately 3,500 subcontractor personnel are dedicatedto production for this one
shipyard. The product line includesbulk carriers, product carriers, tankers, and containerships. The principles of the fourth-generation, product-orientedshipyard layout will
be discussedin detail in the remainder of
this chapter.
2. ShipyardFacilities
and Siting
With the exceptionof the Ingalls West Bank
Facility, there have been no completelynew
major shipyards built in the United States
since the Second World War. Some major
redesignshave been accomplishedand more
are likely. Several shipyards have begun longrange redesigns based on the application of
the principles of group technolory. When complete, some of these yards will be laid out essentially as new shipyards.
Regardlessof whether a proposedshipyard is to be built from scratch or as a modification to an existing yard, certain factors
should be considered.A thorough analysis of
potential markets, market shares, vendor/
subcontractor
markets,labormarkets,envi-
hasbeen
selected,
based
onthepreliminary
168
SHIPPRODUCTION
quirements.Block sizeis optimizedto accommodate zone outfitting and facilitate erection in order to maintain balancedwork flow.
Whereas the processtype yard requires series production and massivethroughputs for
efficiency,the product-orientedyards realize
the benefits of mass production for small numbers of similar ships and have the management flexibility to effectively build a wide
variety of ship types and sizes.
Figure 5-8 is an exampleof a fourth-generation shipyard. [3] The two building docks
(No. 1 and No. 3) are about 1,000feet (300m)
long and 200 feet (60 m) wide. Both docksare
servedby two 200-ton and two 80-ton capacity jib cranes and can accommodateships of
about 180,000dwt. At its peak the yard produced 12,000metric tons per month with an
employeecomplementof 4,000.An additional
approximately 3,500 subcontractor personnel are dedicatedto production for this one
shipyard. The product line includesbulk carriers, product carriers, tankers, and containerships. The principles of the fourth-generation, product-orientedshipyard layout will
be discussedin detail in the remainder of
this chapter.
2. ShipyardFacilities
and Siting
With the exceptionof the Ingalls West Bank
Facility, there have been no completelynew
major shipyards built in the United States
since the Second World War. Some major
redesignshave been accomplishedand more
are likely. Several shipyards have begun longrange redesignsbased on the application of
the principles of group technolory. When complete, some of these yards will be laid out essentially as new shipyards.
Regardlessof whether a proposedshipyard is to be built from scratch or as a modification to an existing yard, certain factors
should be considered.A thorough analysis of
potential markets, market shares, vendor/
subcontractor markets, labor markets, envi-
hasbeenselected,
based
on thepreliminary
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
169
STEELMAT'L
DELIVEFIY
vlv
i r-rur-rl
\L.
FABRICATION
i sHoPJ
NO. 5 ASSYSHOP
BLOCK
NO.6
ASSY STORAGE
YARD
u o .r l r u o, l * o . r i " o o YARD
"o"j ro" BAY BAY
l
j
SUB-ASSEMBLY
F I N I S H E' ' D
O'*'
I
FROM-_J
SUBcoNTRACTORS
I
N O .1
BUILDING
DOCK
<-
BLOCKSTORAGE
A N DP F E . E R E C T I O N
MAINOFFICE
Fig. 5-8.Fourth-generation
shipyardlayout.
market analyses,each of the yard facilities
must be sized accordingly.Just as a major
goal of PWBS is to balance the processflow
lanes,eachfacility in the yard shouldcontribute to a balanced flow of material and interim
products.Goals of facility layout which must
be consideredare:
. optimizing material and work-in-processinventory, which implies minimizing inventory subjectto someacceptable risk that a part or component
will not be available when needed
o minimizing buffer storage consistent
witha uniformflowthroughout
the
areOperated
asseparnte
rlelrartmentn,
Both
yard
170
SHIPPRODUCTION
-1-4-4/
-14/'1,
j4..L
z1/'.7/
J4-/t
zu
tr
tr
tr
1 . M A I NE N T R A N C E
2. MAINOFFICE
3. STAFFPARKINGLOT
4. VISITORS'PARKINGLOT
5. TRAFFICCONTROL
6. BUILDINGDOCK
7. GANTRYCRANE
8. STEELSTOCKYARD
9. SHOTBLAST
1 0 . P A I N TC E L L
1 1 . C U T T I N GS H O P S
1 2 . P A N E LL I N E
1 3 . W E BL I N E
14. STEELSHOP
1 5 . E N G I N ES H O P
1 6 . U N I TS H O P
1 7 . P I P ES H O P
18. VARIOUSSHOPSAND STORES
19. TRANSPORTROADS
20. PRE-OUTFITTING
AREAS
2 1 . O U T F I T T I NP
GI E R S
22. RESERVEMARSHALLING.
ETC..AREAS
ments, along with the boiler works, are supplied by the panel line, which is also a separate department.
2.1. GeneralYard Layout
The guiding principle is logical material flow.
This is facilitated by allowing adequateroad-
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
171
shipyards was specialization.When the demand for their highly specialized product
collapsed,the lack of flexibility made switching to other markets diffrcult. Repair and
overhaul provide a somewhat stable sourceof
work for shipyards,and thus the capability of
performing this type of work can add to longterm profitability. Consequently, repair and
overhaulcapabilitiesare likely to be included
in the fourth-generationshipyard. Additionally, diversification and the ability to adapt
to different product lines when the demand
for ships is slack is inherent in group technolory shipbuilding. In its planning, one U.S.
shipyard carries the philosophy of diversification further. Its long-range plan calls for:
(1) subcontractingpipe and heavy steel construction for petrochemical,power plant, and
other similar industries; and (2) other maritime construction,such as drilling rigs. [5J
2.2.BuildingPositions
The traditional building positionfor ships are
longitudinal sloped building ways or shipways (seeFigure 5-10).The vesselis built on
blocksand other supports.Just prior to launching, support is shifted to stationary ground
ways and sliding ways positioned abovethe
ground ways. Additional temporary supporting structures, called cradles and poppets,
are also installed. At launching, releasemechanisms are used,permitting the vesselto slide
172
SHIPPRODUCTION
down the ways into the water. Ships are commonly launched stern first on longitudinal
shipways. Detailed arrangements and computations are required to assure launches do
not damagethe new vessel.The disadvantages
of conventional sloped shipways, primarily in
terms of aligning blocks, were discussedpreviously. Alternatives include graving docks,
side-launchshipways,or erectingthe ship on
land-level building ways and moving it to a
floating dry dock or ship lift for launch.
Graving docksare permanent structures
totally excavated from existing land or built
up by dredging and depositingmaterial (sand,
rock, and concrete)along the sides ofthe dock
area (seeFigure 5-11). End gates are either
hinged or floating. The former are hinged at
the bottom and usually have a buoyant chamber at the top to facilitate opening and closing. When a ship is being launched,the dock
is flooded and the end gate is opened.The
buoyant chamber is also flooded,enabling it
to sink to the bottom in the open position to
permit the vesselto float out of the dock.The
floating or caissonend gate is buoyant.As the
dockis floodedduring launching,the end gate
is disconnected,deballasted,and floated free,
permitting the vesselto depart from the dock.
The proceduresare reversedfor securingthe
end gate prior to dewatering a graving dock.
Guillotine gates are generally used for intermediate positions to permit flooding of part
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
173
erection area, the landward wing wall is removed and the dock is supported by a gr"id
adjacent to the pier while the ship is being
movedonto it. The wing wall is then replaced
and the dock moved away from land to clear
the grid for launching. A system like this
(seeFigure 5-13)is employedat the shipyard
shown in Figures 5-4 and 5-5.
A similar dry dock (or a launch pontoon,
as it is commonly called) could also be nosed
into the pier, particularly in an area where
space and currents are not limiting factors.
This confrguration is shown in Figure 5-14.
As with the parallel launch pontoon,the end
ofthe floating dry dock could be rested on an
underwater sill or grid for stability while the
ship is moved on or off. One distinct advantage ofa floating dry dock is that it is considered to be a ship by most port managersand
can operate outside the shipyard area.
A similar concept but with a different
launch./dockingdevicehas beenusedby some
174
SHIPPRODUCTION
eas,located
closeto theerection
berths.
Fig.5-16(a)
F i g .5 - 1 6 ( b )
Large-capacity gantry cranes are commonly used to load outfrtted blocks into the
building berths. In addition to the use of
gantry cranes over building berths, gantry
and bridge cranes are used extensively in
steel stock areas,prefabrication and fabrication shops,and assemblyplatens.Steel stock
yards are normally served by a wide-span
gantry crane fitted with a magnetic fixture
for moving the material to storage or to a
conveyorsystem.The conveyorsystemmoves
steel through the panel line. A blast and
primer system is usually incorporated into
the conveyor system. This conveyor system
will then deliver material to the feed rolls of
the primary cutting machines.The material
will then progress through the cutting,
forming, and subassemblyareas of the shop,
emerging from the building onto the panel
line or main assemblyplatens.
The yard shown in Figure 5-8 has a simiIar arrangement ofgantry cranes and a conveyor feeding into the blast primer facility
and then into the parts fabrication shop.Gantry and bridge cranes, besidesbeing able to
move loads transversely as well as longitudinally along a processline, are particularly
weII suited for coveredwork areas.The percentageof coveredarea for each production
stageat this yard is shown in Table 5-1. t3l A
high percentageofcoveredarea even in temperate climatesis an apparent trend for modern shipyards,both in the United States and
abroad.
Fig. 5-16.Level building launch facilities. (a) Submarine launch facility (courtesyGeneralD1'namics,
2.4.WarehousingFacilities
shipyards,
ware(b)Smallshiptranslation In manygrouptechnology
Electric
BoatDivision).
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
175
Table5-1. Samplepercentage
of covered
areaby production
stagefora productorientedshipyard
Production
Stage
Steelstorage
Partsfabrication
Assembly
Outfitting
Warehousing
Launchways
Totalexcludingsteel
storageand launchways
Percent
Covered
0
100
65
35
65
0
62
rial control group.Pallet preparation is frequently performed in the shopsby shop personnel as a collateral function. However,the
material control group is still responsiblefor
the timely preparation and delivery of pallets.
Many sophisticated automated warehouse
storage and inventory systemsare in operation throughout the industry. However, of
thoseU.S. shipyard facilities plans reviewed,
no mention is made of adoptingsuchsystems.
The main point made in most facilities plans
is that warehousefacilities should be located
adjacentto the shopswhich use the material.
Dependingon distancesinvolved and assuming an adequate transportation network, a
central warehouse might also be desirable
(see Figure 5-17). However, with computers
handling storage and retrieval and accounting for inventory, several dispersed warehousescan be operatedas a singleintegrated
system. The primary consideration is that
tight control of inventory and delivery must
be maintained. In group technologyshipbuilding, the warehousinggroup plays a primary
role in executing the production schedule.
They must therefore have the tools to keep
track of both scheduleand material.
2.5. ProductionFacilities
Shipyard facilities layout cannot be considered independent of automation. However,
Fig. 5-17.Warehouse
facility (courtesyNewport
NewsShipbuilding).
automation and capital intensivenessare economic decisionswhich must dependon market analysesand companyobjectives.In general, the costof automation and capital intensiveness is the price that must be paid to
reduce required work area and to improve
accuracyand reducerework.
Capital intensiveness can often reduce
fl exibility. Third-generation processtype shipyards provideexamplesofthis. Atradeoffwhich
is made in gr:ouptechnologyshipyards with
considerablesuccessis the use of line heating
instead of mechanicalrolls and presses.Line
heating is more labor intensive;however,the
flexibility it provides often results in line
heating being a low-costalternative for many
applications,comparedto the purchase and
use of capital equipment.
2.5.1. Mold Loft and Marking.The advantages
of 1/10th-scalelofting and computer-assisted
lofting cited in Section1.3 ofthis chapter are
applicableto group technologyyards. Modern
computer-aideddesign (CAD) systems have
becomethe standard in nearly all modern
shipyards.Thesesystemsoften include automatic marking capability. Numerically controlled (N/C) plate marking is accomplished
176
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
177
CATEGORY
OF PIECES
Inlornals
Bun:Automatic
Lono'lCutlor
SlotHole:Somi-autdmatic
machin6
Manual
& semiautomatic
machine
Butt Manual
SlotHole:Semi-auto
machine
AutomaticLono'l
cuttinqmachin6
& sedi-automatic
Butt AulomalicLonq'lcuttsr
Slot Holo: Somi.autdmachin
Manual&
semiautomalic
machine
Butt Manual
SlotHolo:Somi-auto
machine
NCGasCuttsr
NC Marking--
Semi-automatic
machino
ManualMalking--
NCPlasma
Cuttsr
NC Marking--
NC PlasmaCutlor
NCGasCuttr
NC Marking--
NC Gas Cutler
2 Bscauso ol fsw
Semi-automatic
machrne
-EPM-Marking
-Photo-Marking
Marual-Ma*ing--
Floor& Lono'l
Bhd wih sdie
prepaftltron
NC Gas Cutter
NC Marking--
Semi-automatic
machine
-EPM-Mad<ing
-Photo-Marking
-Manual.Marking
SmallPisces
NC PlasmaCutter
NC Marking--
NC PlasmaCutler
NCGasCutter
NC Marking--
NC Gas Cutter
Somi-automatic
machin
-EPM-Markjng
-Photo-Marking
-._
Manual-Marking
Curusd
Plates
Floor& Lono'l
gtrOwiUrtittli
edgepreparation
ornoeoge
prepararDn
Smallpieces
which ars
usuallycut
out from
scrap
Panel
RECOMMENOED
SELECTION
METHOO
AutomaticLono'l
cuttingmachin6.
a semFaulomailc
machrne
Long'l
Flatbar
Curysd
Plates
EFFECTIVE
CUTTINGMACHINE
PanelPlate
NC Gas Cuttr
Semi-automadline
Automachinsis not
complotslyimplm6ntsd
Automachinsis not
cosl-etfecwedue lo
lowvolume.
l. Bscauseoltw
manhours.
accuftlcy.
Semi-automachine
Semi-aulomachine
Semi-automachine
NC Gas Cutter
Semi-automachine
Semi-aulomachine
SsmFautomachins
o
X
In U.S.,manualcutting
ls awKwald.
o
Smallpiecosars put in botweonbio Dieces.
Afterbig piecej are cut.Theyare ;anualy
0r automa0catry
cut.
Ssmi-ado
machine
-Manual-Marking
FlamePlaner
-Manual-MarkinE
EPM-ltilarking.:--Photo-Marking
Semi-automatic
machine
-Manual-Ma/krng
NCGasCutter
ln Jaoan.
O andX are
revsrs.
Butin U.S..NC
GasCutteris betterdue
toawlsardmanual
cutting
& lessinveslnent
Morespeedyand less
shrjnkags
lhan NC Gas
Somi-automachin
Somi-aulomacnrn
Semiaulo macntne
OpticalTracer
NCPlasma
Cunsr
mannours.
Somi-automachin
Planecufier
Plane cutter
Planecutting
Semi-automaChine
Manualmarkinobecause
of low manhouft.
x
O: Suitablo;
Fair;
Unsuitabl
178
SHIPPRODUCTION
i pLrrE-
i STAGING
i AREA'A'
ilia
i STAGING
:
A'B'
t 4LE4'!'
- - - iI
U
z>
t6
:>
I
t
6e
FORCURVED
PLATE
STORAGE
PLATE
STOMGEFORSHOP
ROLLS
& PRESSES
5(
rtXT,t*n
STOMGEFORSUB.ASSEMBLY
STAGING
AREAFOR
SUB.ASSEMBLY
STIFFE\R&
LOADOUT
o
=
E
F
f
oZ
bi
6?
=
U
6
PLATESTORAGE
PLATE
FITTING
&
MARKING
&
FITTING
STIFFENER
ONESIDEWELDING FINALEDGECUTTING
WELDING
STIFFENER
Fig. 5-19. Typical layout ofa steel curved panel shop and panel line.
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
179
Fig. 5-21(a).Large shipyard steel panel line in operation (courtesyTotal Tlansportation Systems).
Fig. 5-21(b). Larger shipyard steel panel line schematic(courtesyTotal Tlansportation Systems).
t
,, ,*,11i':'
!---1
r.
I
' . i j i ' 1 r ) t
'q
:l --
li s
iN:i
F, 1=:
i
i
i
---
fi--iifr
-3dt
,"..,'.. ,, , '-.'-,1-
:'' '
'
2.5.4.BlastingandPainting.
Mostblastingoperationsare carriedout in enclosed
spaces
in
order t0 complywith environmentalstandardsandto permitgrit recycling.Somepainting may also be done in enclosedspaces.
Surface preparation and coating are accomplished (1) prior to the parts fabrication stage,
(2) as a stage in on-unit outfrtting and onblock outfitting, and (3) during erection (onboard outfitting). Finish paintingis generally
180
S H I PP R o D U c T I o N
Fig. 5-23. Panel line blast and coat facility (courtesy Total Transportation Systems).
accomplished at the earliest stage consistent
with welding schedules.
o Parts Fabrication Shop: Matnrial to be
surface treated is generally transferred
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
1. HEATED
A I RU N I T
2. DUSTCOLLECTOR
3. CLEANSANDHOPPER
4. CLEANSANDCONVEYOR
5, SANDCOLLECTION
PIT
181
6, USEDSANDHOPPER
7. HEATEDAIR DUCT
8. EXHAUSTDUCT
9. HEATEDAIR UNIT
=f
Fig. 5-25.Erectionsitepainting(courtesy
Avondale
Shipyards).
vesselswith special painting requirements,
suchas gas or naptha product carriers or chemical tankers. The building shown consistsof four
separate rooms but has a sliding roof, so that
one of the rooms is always open. Such facilities commonly provide multiple capabilities,
including blast and coating equipment, special heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
equipment, and systems for delivering and
recycling or removing blast abrasives. The
ability to move large blocks is an important
aspectof such facilities.
182
SHIPPRODUCTION
G;;;I
&;>=t
MATERIAL
. AssemblyStage
Pipe robot
Flange robot
Flange bolt hole detector
Flange checkingmachine
. Welding System
Welding torches:two-point simultaneous
welding
The pipe can be assembled and welded to
lengths up to approximately three feet (one
meter) using the above equipment. Further
184
SHIPPRODUCTION
W E D G ED E V I C E S
WEDGE,a pieceof hardmaterial,
as woodor metal,
laperinglroma thickboardto a thin edgethatcan be
drivenor forcedintoa narrowopening.
wedge
Shipyard
conligurations
are usuallymadelrom one-inch-thick
steelplaleandaretypically
12 and17 inchesin length.
WELD-ONSADDLE,alsoknownas "U'-dogyokeand
hairpin,a "U"or "L" shapedmetaldeviceusedin conjunctionwitha wedgeto straddleand holdone partto
another.Shipyardusesincludeatlachment
of stiflenersto platematerial.
PULLDOWN,
a metaldeviceweldedor mechanically
f astened
lo the partat oneendandslottedal theother,
used in conjunction
with a wedgeand anchorclip to
pull one part towardanother.Shipyarduses include
pullingdeckor shellplatingandothercomponents
togelher.
G E A R . P U L L EDYE V I C E S
CHAINFALL,
alsoknownas chainhoist,a devicehavinggearsandpulley(s)
andoperated
by chainto obtain
mechanical
advantage
in lillingor pulling.
Shipyard
use
includesareaswherelongreachor slrokeis required
in pullingpartstogether.
gear-pulCOME-ALONG,
a devicehavinga ratcheting
leyarrangement
to changetheefleclivelengthol a chain
pullingparts
lor liltingor pulling.
Shipyard
usesincludes
andassemblies
together.
SHIPYARD
TAYOUT
THREADEDEVICES
PUSH-PULL
JACK,alsoknownas steamboat
jackand
ratchetjack,a devicehavinga ratcheting
sleevewith
oppositeinternal
threadsat eachend or withan Inrernal threadat one end and a swivelat the other.The
effective
lengthot the devicecan be changedby rotatinglhe sleeveor swivel.Shipyardusesincludeareas
whereshortreachor strokeis requiredin pullingparts
together.
2
./)
CLIPANDBOLT,a deviceconsisting
ot an anglesupportanda headless
bolt,and usedto pullpartsloward
eachother.The anglesupportandboltcan be welded
or mechanically
fastened.Shipyarduses includepull
bulkhead
andstilfener-to-plate
or deck.
H Y D R A U L ID
CE V I C E
HYDRAULIC
JACK,alsoknownas budajackandbottle
jack,a hydraulic
andgeareddevicehavinga singleor
doubleaclingcylindrical
pistonusedtor hoisting
or lifting. Shipyarduses includefairing,liftingand holding
partstogetherthatrequireshortreachor stroke.
Fig.5-2e(b)
185
186
SHIPPRODUCTION
P N E U M A T IDCE V I C E
V A C U U MS A D D L Ea, l s ok n o w na s v a c u u mj a c k i n g
clamp,an air operateddevicehavingsuctionpadslor
grippingrelatively
smoothsurfacesand a "U" or "L"
shapedmetalstruclure
for straddling
andholdingparts
Thisdeviceisusedinconiunction
logether.
witha screw
pushingforce.
andthreador hydraulic
ramlor applying
Shipyard
usesincludestiflener-to-plate
attachment.
PADEYES,
STAYSANDCABLES
PADEYE,alsoknownas a doughnut,
a metaldevice
for useas an anchor,supportand/orconnector
for lifting and applyingforce against.This devicecan be
welded,clampedor mechanically
lastened.Shipyard
pulling,
usesarenumerous
andincludelilting,pushing,
holding,
aligningandfairingpartsandcomponents.
Fig.5-2s(c)
SHIPYARD
LAYOUT
STRONGBACKS
STRONGBACK,
anynumberof devicesusedto relrain
appliedforcesancUorhold alignment.Thesedevices
maybe weldedor mechanically
fastenedandareused
withmanyolhertoolsfor applyingforcesto parts.Shipyardusesincludealigning,
relraining,
holdingandfairing platesand structuralcomponents.
M O C K SA N DF I X T U R E S
MOCK,a devicewhichimitates
the shapeof an object
for referenceor support.
Shipyard
usesincludeholding
hullshapeand supporting
units.
FIXTURE,
a deviceusedlo hold,positionand/oralign
a workpieceforanoperation
or process.
Shipyard
uses
includeassembly,
subassembly,
foundationand pan
labrication.
Fig.s-2s(d)
187
188
sHrPPRoDUcloN
Fig. 5-30.Adjustablemobilescaffolding.
Fig. 5-31.Erectionwork unit.
2.5.6. Platensand Jigs. Steel platens are used
throughout a shipyard. These are situated
according to the process lane plan for the
yard. Many jigs and frxtures have also been
developed.The pin jig is perhaps one of the
simplest but most effective pieces of equipment to be invented by modern shipbuilders.
A pin jig, shown in Figure 5-28, is simply a
series of vertical screwjacks which support
curved blocks during fabrication. The jacks
can be adjusted to attain the desired curvature. Prior to the invention and use of the pin
jig, solid-weldedsteel jigs were manufactured
for eachcurvature neededand scrappedafter
final use. The pin jig is an excellentexample
of a way to attain efficient production of individual ships. With weldedjigs, efficiencyis increasedby series production, which increases
utilization of eachjig.
Figure 5-29 shows someof the many jigs
and fixtures which have been developedor
are used by shipbuilders. [7]
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
189
Somestaging will always be required inside building docks, painting facilities, and
block assemblyareas.Cherry picker type mechanical work baskets have been used effectively in shipyards for many years. Adjustable mobile staging, such as the unit shown
in Figure 5-30,is also used,particularly where
more than one person needsto work in close
proximity on the same level.
Work units, such as the one shown in
Figure 5-31, are used for erection.The tower
type work unit is designedfor erectingpanels
for longitudinal bulkheads and side shell.
Safe walkways and all necessaryfitting and
welding machinery and serwicessuch as water
and gas lines are built into the unit.
3. ProcessLanes
Group technology shipbuilding systems are
based on the organization of work into distinct problem areas,using a product-oriented
work breakdown structure. The shipyard facility should reflect this organization. The
process lane concept marries the work organization and the physical plant. It also
contains aspectsof planning and scheduling,
design, material control, and personnel organization. This section will concentrateon
the reflection ofthe organization ofwork on
the facility.
The processlane conceptcan be defrned
as "the categorizationand separationof similar types ofwork, and the subsequentdevelopment of work centers specificallydesigned
to efficiently perform that kind ofwork." Chapter III presenteda work categorizationscheme
for shipbuilding (PWBS).Basedon thoseconcepts,work centers can be establishedto facilitate efficient production ofthe interim products. Keys to effective processlanes are planning, scheduling, and material flow. The goal
ofthe system is to establish individual process
lanes,eachproducingrepeatableinterim products, and each of which has a uniform work
flow, both for an individual shipbuilding project and for multiple projects. This uniform
work flow produces the least disruption of
work and shouldresult in a highly productive
work station. Although the goal of uniform
work flow at eachprocesslane is not likely to
be achieved,a number of strategies may be
employed to increase the benefits obtained
from the process lane organization. These
will be discussedsubsequently.
3.1. PhysicalProcessLanes
The choice of specific interim products and
work centers to produce them is highly dependent on the characteristicsofa particular
shipyard. Included in these considerations
are the product mix, existing facilities and
capital equipment,and size,flexibility, skills,
and training of the work force. The following
example shall be used to describea possible
choiceofphysical processlanes.
Figure 5-32 presentsthe layout of a U.S.
shipyard that adopted a processlane work
organization.l8] This existing shipyard was
reorganizedto apply this concept.Six major
block categorieswere chosen.Upon comple-
190
SHIP PRODUCTION
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191
SHIPYARDLAYOUT
CATEGORY
I N o . 1I
BLOCK
DESCRIPTION
MID PART
DOUBLEBOTTOM
S I D ES H E L L
LONG BHDS
\,/
SHAPE
ASSEMBLY
PLATEN
I " a l
t 24' ,
FLATPANELBLOCKS
( N o . 2)
PLATENSUPPLYING
FABRICATEDPAFTS
AFT AND
FORE PART
SIDE SHELLS
ra
q,
( N o . 3l
8 )
( s )
\--,/
lNo.a)
FORE PEAK
AFT PEAK
(No.5)
ENGINEROOM
INNER BOTTOMS
INo.6)
SPECIALBLOCKS
S K E G S ,R U D O E R S
LARGEAND
HEAVY
3 DIMENSION
BLOCKS
LARGE A}ID
HEAVY
INTRICATE
BLOCKS
BULBUOUS
SHAPES
STERN
CASTINGS
/z\
( 1 1)
\ _./
BLOCKS
6;)
( 1 6)
(,
( 1 6)
t 1 3)
\--'11
(307'
e,
@
@
Fig. 5-33.Platen/block
categories.
tion of the blocks contained within each of
these categories,the blocks are transported
to the building position for erection.The six
categoriesare (seeFigure 5-33):
.
.
.
.
.
.
The facility layout (seeFigure 5-32)identifies the physical processlanes used to assemblethe six categoriesof blocks.Category
(1), flat panel blocks, comprisesthe largest
number of blocks. These blocks are assembled on platen 20 (seeFigure 5-34).The basic
flow pattern ofsteel for flat blocks begins at
the steel storagearea, where steel plate and
structural sectionsare held following delivery to the shipyard. Next, steel goes to the
plate shop (location 907) for initial surface
preparation and coating,followedby cutting
of parts. These parts may then go directly
through the panel line in the plate shop,or be
palletizedfor subassemblyon platen 23 or 24.
The subassembliesbuilt on platen 23 or 24,
subassembliesfrom the panel line and other
pallets of parts, are then moved to platen 20
192
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.5-34(a)
Fig.5-3a(b)
are large, flat blocks, outfrtted primarily onblock.They are alsocommonlybuilt in layers.
Since they are in the processlane for long
periodsof time and are large and heavy upon
completion,these blocks are assembledclose
to the building position. Subassembliesfor
these blocks are also built on platen 16.
Large, heavy, three-dimensionalblocks,
such as the fore peak and aft peak, are category (4) blocksand are built on platens 7, 10,
and 13. Platen 16 supplies fabricated parts
for these blocks, but only a small number of
subassembliesare used, since these complicated blocks are primarily built piecemeal.
These three platens are used due to large
crane capacityand proximity to the building
positions.This processlane is characterized
by diflicult, intricate work, requiring the most
qualified mechanics.
Platen 14 is the location of the process
lane for assembling engine room innerbottoms, category (5). This location is in close
proximity to the plate shop and panel line,
and to platen 16, which provides fabricated
parts and beamline subassemblies.
Although
these blocks are flat blocks, they are contained in a separate category and process
lane becausethey are more complex,requrre
closer tolerances,and have more outfrtting
than category (1) flat blocks. These blocks
SHIPYABDLAYOUT
will stay in the processlane longer than category (1) blocks and, like category(4) blocks,
require the most qualifred mechanics.
The final block processlane, for category
(6) blocks, is platen 19. These blocks include
skegs,rudders, bilge keels, hatch coamings,
bulwarks, and other specialblocks.Fixedjigs
are employed on platen 19 to aid in the assembly of category(6) blocks.Following completion, these blocks are transported to the
blast and coat facility and then to the building position.
In addition to the block and steel subassembly processlanes, outfit material manufacture and installation are organizedusing
outfit processlanes. Outfrt parts are manufactured in shops, including the pipe shop,
machine shop,sheet metal shop,and electric
shop. Each of these shops is treated as a
separateprocesslane for parts manufacture.
These parts are then palletized for assembly
on-unit, on-block,or on-board.On-unit outfitting takes place on platen 21, in the area
adjacent to the pipe shop, or occasionallyin
one of the shops.These outfit units, assembled on one of these processlanes, are then
moved to the area adjacent to the blast and
paint facility for erection on-block,or to the
building position for erection on-blockor onboard.
This facility layout, although far from
the optimal U shape of the proposedfourthgeneration,group technologyshipyard, indicatesthe approachexisting shipyards must
employ in adopting group technology.The details of the existing facility must be taken
into account in reorganizing work locations.
Comparatively little capital investment is
required to alter an existing facility to adopt
the processlane approachto shipbuilding.
3.2. ProcessLane Loading
The goal of uniform work flow, either actual
or virtual, throughout the shipyard should be
sought
at eachworkstation.
Onlynasspr,o-
193
duction manufacturing processescan be expectedto completely achievethis goal. Consequently, processlane loading involves attempts to achieve uniform work flow in as
much of the shipbuilding system as is possible. The practical approachto loadingprocess
lanes thereforeentails the establishmentof a
hierarchy. This hierarchy is used to select
processlanes to be level loadedon a priority
basis. The hierarchy initially follows the hierarchy ofthe overall building process.Consequently,the erection processlane, i.e., the
work at the building position, is the first
processlane to be level loaded. The establishment of the master erection scheduleis
usedto perform this level loading.This schedule will be discussedin detail in Chapter VII.
The next processlanes to be loadedare at
the block assemblylevel. Here, shipyard-specific information must be used to establish
priorities within this manufacturing level. In
the example described above, flat blocks or
category(1) blockswere chosenas the top priority for level loading. These are the most
numerous and most easily built blocks.Consequently,level loadingthis processlane, platen
20 in the example, is a high priority in order to achievea high degreeoflevel loading
throughout the shipyard. Processlanes that
support platen 20 also receiveconsiderableattention in order to provide uniform work flows.
The secondprocesslane priority for level
loading is for categoryQ) blocks, platen 12.
The concept is to first load platen 20 uniformly at or near capacity.Next platen 1Z is
loaded as uniformly and as closeto capacity
as possible. The processthen continues to
lower-priority process lanes, attempting to
provide the maximum overall uniformity of
work levels, subject to not disturbing uniformity achieved at higher-priority process
lanes. Work loading proceedsdown the hierarchy, both at the b\ock assembly manufacturing level and at lower (subassembly,outfit
unit, and parts fabrication) manufacturing
194
SHIPPRODUCTION
tionally, design and engineering must respond to work load leveling requirements.
For example,if platen 20 is underutilized at
a particular time, blocks may be designedor
block breakdownsaltered to permit their construction as flat blocks. Coordinating planning, scheduling, design, and material
controlto achieveuniform loading ofprocess
lanes is a key to successfulgroup technology shipbuilding.
References
1. McNeill, D.C., "Shipyard Layout-Lecture
Notes," University of Strathclyde,Glasgow,
1980.
2. Marsh, A.J., "The Constraints Imposedon
Design and Technical Activities by Shipbuilding ProductionTechnology,"International Conferenceon Structural Design and
Fabrication in Shipbuilding, Royal Institute
ofNaval Architects, London, 1976.
3. Facilities and.Industrial Engirwering,
Volume 1-Report, The Shipbuilding
Technology Transfer Program, Maritime
Administration, in cooperationwith Levingston Shipbuilding Company and Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries, April 1981.
4. Larson, B., "Aspectsof Different Shipyard
Layouts," Key Topics in Ship Production,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow,September 1980.
CHAPTER VI
1. Introduction
Precedingchaptershave discussedthe theory
of shipbuilding based on the application of
group technology in shipyards. Application of
these principles requires an alteration in the
ship design and engineering process.This
chapter will provide a description of the design and engineeringprocessassociatedwith
group technology shipbuilding, rather than
the specificsof ship design, which are adequately covered in other texts. Information
will also be provided concerningtechniques
not commonly applied in traditional ship design that have applicationsfor shipyardsemployinggroup technology.Finally, designand
engineeringfor production is discussed.
1 . 1 .D e s i g nC y c l e
The outputs ofthe designcyclerequired by a
group technology shipbuilder are different
from those of conventional shipbuilders.
Rather than a set of detailed plans suitable
for use by any shipyard, the group technology
shipbuilder requires work instruction packagesthat provide specifrcinformation for construction organized by the problem areas defined for the individual shipyard. Additionally, the design cycle must permit timely
identification of material and production requirements to enablethe shipyard to proceed
with procurement,planning, and scheduling
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S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
197
198
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
DESIGNSUPPLIESINFORMATION
:
WORK INSTRUCTION
DRAWINGS
PLANNING
SUPPLIES
DATES& CODES
DETAILDESIGN
NO.6-20-rU
SUBASSEMBLY
NO.6-20-tu
Or
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SUBASSEMBLY
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THEORY
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SUBASSEMBLY> t r
a)
PRODUCTION
RECEIVES
THE BUCKETAT THE
PROPERTIME,
SUPPLIESLABOR
AND FACILIW
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
199
HULL SIRUCTURAL
DNAWINGWITH ALOCX
DEFINIIION
MATERIALLIST
W I T H P U R C H A S EO F D E A
S P E C I F I C A T I O NO F
DBAWING
.OUTFINING
BEOUIAEMENT
(REINFORCEMEN]
AND HOLE)
PBOCUFEMENT
LEAD DAY
HULL ALOCK
OEFINITION
.HULL
CONSTFUCTION
PRODUCTION
HULL
STRUCTURAL
OFAWING
.PALLET
DEFINITION
OUTFINING
PRODUCTION
.OUTFINING
.PALLET
NEED OAIE
INSTRUCTION
DRAWING
ISSUE DATE
MATERIAL
PROCUREMENT
DFAWING
ISSUEDATE
NEED DATE
PALIET
DEFINITION
HULL ELOCK
NEED DATE
-PALLET
NEED
OUTFITTING
DEPARTMENT
practice
apartofthewolkoflheengineering
depart- beertcorttrtton
is required.
2OO
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
Comparison
of intensity
of engineering
effort
]aO]qO-t.
TOra rargecommerctalvesselconstructionproject
TotalEngineering
Man-hours
Conventional
Construction
GroupTechnology
Construction
350,000
500,000
PercentCompleteat Construction
Startup
60
80
14
12
15,000
33,000
2. DesignStages
As previously described,the shipbuilding
design cyclecan be subdividedinto four stages:
basic design, functional design, transition
design, and work instruction design.Each of
these design stages is directly related to
stagesofthe shipbuilding process.In describing the four design stages,the achievement
of specific,predeterminedmilestonesrelated
to each must be kept in mind. Figure 6-5
shows a breakdown of the complete design
cycle,indicating milestonesto be achievedat
the end of each stage. The use of formal
meetings with set agendasat the conclusion
of design stages can be a means of verifying
progressand communicating the results not
only within the design group but also to all
affectedshipyard organizations.
2.1.BasicDesign
Contract plans are producedduring the basic
design stage. These plans provide a general
general arrangement
lines
midship section
machinery arrangement
cabin plans
diagrammatics of major outfit
systems
o electric one line diagram
r contract specifications
As a part of the basic design process,normal naval architectural calculationsare performed. Among these are:
. weight estimate
. longitudinal strength
. hydrostatics
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
201
MONTHSAFTERCONTRACT
Fig. 6-4. Intensity ofgroup technology engineering effort.
. tank capacities
. Bonjean curves
o intact trim and stability data
. loading conditions
. damagedstability evaluation
. wake survey
o resistanceand self-propelledtests
. electric load analvsis
. HVAC analysis
r piping systemsanalysis
. propeller design
. shafting arrangement
shipyardexpeTience.
Thedeveiopment
0f a
organizing
workflowsand,asmuch
202
SHIPPRODUCTION
E N G I N E E R I N GP R O C E D U R EA T A S I
{A)
CONTRACTSPECIFICATION
S H I PP R O P O R T I O N S
DRAWINGS
LINES
GENERAL
A R R A N G E M E NOTF H U L L A N D M A C H I N E R Y
R S T R U C T UERA N D O U A R T E
SUPE
R SA R R A N G E M E N T S
M ID S H I P
SECTION
SCATITLING
SECTIONS
P R F L I M T N A RSYH E L LE X P A N S I O N
C A R G OO IL S Y S T E M
D I A G R A M{ 3 )
I N E R TG A S ,D E H U M I D I F I C A T I O
A N D C A R G OV E N TD I A C R A M S
I3)
_ 43TANI'S
E N G I N E R E L A T E DA N D O T H E RP I P I N G
DIAGRAMS
_ D I A G .M A I N E N G I N EL U S EO I L S Y S T E M
- D I A G .M A I NE N G I N EC Y L I N D E RL U B EO I L S Y S T E M
_ D I A G .L U B EO I L F I L L I N G ST, R A N S F E A
RN DP U R I F I E R
SYSTEM
_ D I A G .S T E R NN J E EL U E EO I L S Y S T E M
_ PIPING
M A T E R I A LS C H E O U L E
_ O I A G .E N C I N ER O O MB I L G E& B A L L A S TS Y S T E M
. D I A G ,S E G R G A T EEDA L L A S TS Y S T E M
_ D I A G .F E E DA N OC O N D E N S A TSY S T E M
. DIAG FIREMAIN
- E N G I N ER O O M
D I A C .F IR E M A I N_ A C C O M M O D A T I O N S
- , O I A G .F I F E M A I NA N D F O A MS Y S T E M M A I N D E C K
OIAGC
. E N T R A LF R E S HW A T E RC O O L I N G
SYSTEM
_ OIAGM
. A I NE N G I N E
J A C K E TW A T E RC O O L I N G
SYSTEM
D I A G .M A I NE N G I N EP I S T O N
COOLING
W A T E RS Y S T E M
- D I A G .M A I N N G I N EF U E LV A L V EC O O L I N G
W A T E RS Y S T E M
, D I A G .M A I NS E A W A T E R
COOLING
SYSTEM
_ D IA G .A U X IL I A R YS A W A T ER C O O L I N G
SYSTEM
_ D IA G ,V E N T SS, O U ND I N GT U E E SA ND O V ER FL O W S
OIAGS
, T E A MS Y S T M
- DIAG.SHIP'SSERVICE,START
A INNDCC O N T R O L A I R
SYSTEM
_ D I A G ,F U E LO I L S E R V I C S
EYSTEM
. D I A G .F U E LO I L F I L L I N GT, R A N S F E RA,N OP U R I F I C A T I OSNY S T E M
D I A G .D I E S E LO I L S Y S T E M
- OIAGF
. U E L ,S L U D G E
A N D M A I N E N G I N EC L E A N I N C
SYSTEMS
D I A G .T A N K H E A T I N G
C O IL S
_ C A L C U L A T I OO
NR O T H E RT E C H N I C AD
LATA
W E I G H TE S T I M A T E
L O N G I T U O I N ASLT R E N G T H
HYDROSTATICS
TANK CAPACITIES
B O N J A NC
SU R V S
I N T A C TT RI M A N OS T A BLI I T Y D A T A
LOADING
CONDITIONS
OAMAGED
S T A ELI I T Y E V A L U A T I O N
W A K ES U R V E Y
R E S I S T A N CAEN D S E L F . P R O P E L LTEEDS T S
ELECTRIC
L O A DA N A L Y S I S
E L E C T B IO
C N EL I N ED I A G R A M
V E N TS Y S T E M
D V E L O P M E NATN O D U C TO P E N I N G
M A I NP R O P U L S I OENN G I N E S
D I E S E LG E N E R A T O R S
C A R G OO I L P U M P S
BALLASTPU[IIIS
W A S T EH E A TS O I L E R
ANCHORWINDLASS
MOORING
WINCHES
I N E R TG A SS Y S T E M
DEHUMIDIFICATIO
UN I T S
L U B EO I L ,F U LO I L ,A N D D I E S E LO I L P U R I F I E R S
P L A T EH E A TE X C H A N G E R S
E N G I N ER O O MC O N S O L E
CARGOSYSTEMCONSOLE
ELECTRICMOTORSFORCARGOPUMP
BOWTHRUSTER
S T E E N I N GE A R
BLENDING
UNII
A U X I L I A R YO I L F I R E DB O I L E R
F U E LO I L P U M P/ H E A T E SS E T S
- oJ!!-!_E!q!!!!
!_qAIA
/ I N I T I A LR E G U L A T O REYO D YR E V I E W
/ P N E L I M I N A RU
YN I TD E F I N I T I O N
/ IDENTIFICATION
OF CONSTSUCTION
MTHOD
/ ESTABLISH
OUTFITTINGZONESFORPURCHASING
/ STUDYAND PRELIMINARYASSIGNPACKAGEUNIIS
ON.BOANA
ON OO N U N I TM A T E N I A L
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
203
E N G I N E E R I N GP R O C E D U R EA T A S I
MONTH
PREPARATION STAGE
(8I - FAIREDLINESI8Y STATIONS)
F A I B E D L I N E S( B Y F R A M E S I - .
3 MONTHS
_ P R O P E L L E RD E S I G N
- FINALIZEO APPLICATION OF PACKAGE UNITS.
ON.UNIT AND ON.EOARD INSTALLATION OF MATERIAL
_ O U T F I T M I L E S T O N ES C H E D U L ER E V I E W
_ TORSION ANALYSIS
- S H A F T I N GA R R A N G E M E N T
1 MONTH_
I MONTH
A F T , P E A KA N D E . B .
SUPERSTRUCTUNE
F O R EB O D Y
F W O ,O F C A R G OB L O C K
o bow thruster
o steering gear
. auxiliary oil-frred boiler
. fuel oil pumplheater sets
Finally, basic design should enable preliminary regulatory body reviews to begin.
In somecases,part of basic designcan be
completed prior to contract signing. It should
204
SHIPPRODUCTION
ENGINEERING
PROCEDURE
AT ASI
4 MONTHS
E N G I N E E R I N GD R A W I N G SS T A G E S
_ S T R U C T U R ED E T A I L I N G S
- PENETRATION CUT.OUT
_ P I E C EN A M E
_ STEEL PLATE TAKE.OF F
_ UNIT PARTS LIST
_ D E F I N I T I O NO F E D G EP R E P A R A T I O N
ANO EXCESS
- SET UP OF PARTS OATA EASE
_ S U B . U N I TB R E A K D O W N
_ HULL CASTING
- R U D D E RS U P P O R T
S Y S T E MA N D R U O O E R
_ CLOSURES(DOOR ANO WINDOW LIST)
_ ANCHOR HANDLING SYSTM
_ M O O f i I N GA R R A N G E M E N T
- CARGO HANDLING SYSTEM
- SEA CHEST
_ CARGO CONTAINMENT
_ U N I T O U T F I T D R A W I N G SO E V E L O P M E N T
ANO PALLETL/M
_ S T A R T W E E K L YO U T F I T M E E T I N G S_ E N G I N E E R T N G
AND PROOUCTION
I S S U O F E N G I N E E B I ND
GR A W I N G S T o M o L D
LoFT
3 MONTHS
4 MONTHS
1 MONTH
TEMPLATE
UNIT CONTNOLMANUAL
ISSUEWORX
A N D M A T E R I A LT O
F A B .S H O P
_ J I GD R A W I N G S
ONTHS
S C H E D U L EI S
SSUEO
U N I TO U T F I TM A T E R I A I -
1 MONTH
1 MONTH
1 MONTH
PRE_FAB &
ASSEMBLE
FAB
F A BW O R KO R D E R
3 MONTHS
S T A R TO N U N I T
OUTFIT
ISSUEON EOARO
O U T F I TS C H E D
INCLUDING
PKG.
UNITS
Y L EO F D R A W I N G :
STAGEAY STAGE& WORKAY WORK
G R A P f lI I O , P T - ] O
Fig. 6-5(e). The design and engineering cycle, ML meeting to keel laying.
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
205
Fig. 6-6.Preliminaryblockplan.
. prepare manufacturing drawings for
long-lead-timeitems identified during
functional design
. obtain owner and regulatory approvals
o approvevendors'drawings
The information developed during basic design is refined during functional design, and
the amount of detail is greatly expanded.The
initial key plans developedinclude:
. hull scantlings
. block weight (approximate)and preliminary block arrangement
. midship sectionand typical transverse
bulkhead
o stern frame and rudder
. main engine and equipment foundations
. welding plan
. machinery arrangement
. piping diagram
206
SHIPPRODUCTION
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-elevations
-frame sectionsand transversebulkheads
superstructure construction
setup of mold loft data base
approval ofregulatory body and owner
final block arrangement and list
75 percent steel billed-buy steel as
needed
. final outfrt milestone schedule
r frnal pallet list
r
.
.
.
.
Additionally, detailed naval architectural calculations are performed during functional design.
Theseinclude:
. calculation of midship structure
. calculation oftransverse strength of
shell plate
. calculation ofbuckling strength of
shell plate
. calculation of strength of transverse
and longitudinal bulkheads
. calculation of plating sheer diagrams
. calculation oflocal vibrations
. calculation of scantlingsbeyondmidship area
. calculation of steel weight of the hull
. calculation for main foundations
2.2.1. System Diagrammaticsand Key Plans.
An immediate concernduring preparation of
key plans is to optimize ship's functions consistent with regard for operationaland maintenanceaspects.Typical structural key plans
are shownas Figures6-8,6-9,6-10,and 6-11.
Typical diagrammatic and system plans are
shown in Figures 6-12 and 6-13,respectively.
Each diagrammatic shows subdivisions,
except for electrical systems, to the extent
that it was prepared by more than one of the
outfit specialtygroups (hull, machinery, and
superstructure).It is further subdivided,including electrical systems, by each outfit
specialty group into a few material-ordering
zones (see Figure 6-14). These reflect the
erection sequence,so that purchasing and
207
SHIPPRODUCTION
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sure that material descriptions include specifications and drawings as necessaryfor both
in-house manufacture and outside procurement. Such descriptions are in accordance
with material requisition and control classifications as well as material codes.The full
description for each material item listed in
MLS includes:
. material code
isbogun.
coss
I piece
number
Since MLSs initiate a massive procurement effort, functional designers must en-
212
SHIP PRODUCTIOI..
QTY
10
PO NO.
BEO NO 6247F
(1) SHIP
OUANTITY
DESCRIPTION
UNIT
& OT
lPs
000180876
43
S L E E V ES T L W E L D E OS L I P O N T Y P EA S I M E C I
000180877
30
S L E V E S T L W E L D E OS L I P O N T Y P E A S I M E C H
000180879
42
S L E E V ES T ! W E L D E OS L I P O N T Y P E A S I M E C H
STO NO 10
I 1i2
sTo No 10
sTo No 10
000180881
S L E E V ES T L W E L D E DS L I P O N T Y P EA S I M E C H
STD NO 10
0 0 0 1 8 11 5 9
IOTAL
V E N T A N T I S I P H O N I CP V C B O O Y M O N E L S C R E E N
M I N V A C U U MT O V E N T I " W A T E R
M I N P F E S S U R ET O S E A L 1 ' W A T E R
3/4 FPT
m018161?
21
101m0284
2
N U T S T E E LG A L V A V Y H E X M I 1 . 8 . 8 5 7 A5
asTM 4307 ANS| 818 2 2
1 0 1 0 1I 1 0 9
OB
A V O N D A L ES H I P Y A B D S I N C
PO.BOX5O28O NEWORLEANS LA 70150
TITLE
PLUMAING
& INT DK DBNS
"C'DK
OTBS
AABOVEUM
coDE0613
t8 |uNc 28
NO OF VESSELS
CUSIOMER
O D G E N M A B I N E .I N C
JOB NO.
C8-0750
DWG NO
4608 141
O A T E2 , 1 7 / 8 1
REV 2
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
213
214
SHIPPRODUCTION
xlrigsPls=8.
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S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
-9ai-'
NERT AAS
215
216
SHIPPRODUCTION
-accessibility
-proximity of hull structure
-orientations of pipelines (such as
neededslopesof scupperdrains,
elimination of U-bends,and
placementof bilge suctions)
. for productivity:
-how to facilitate manufacturing and
fitting
-rigidity and compactnessof outfrt
components
-usage of hull structural members
for outfrtting
- minimizing on-boardoutfrtting
-maximizing the use of straight pipe
piecesto minimize bending work
-limiting pipe bends to g0 degrees
and, when other bends are necessarv.
to 45 degr:eesas much as possible
-arranging pipe lines in parallel so
that they can share commonpipe
supports
-avoiding arrangementswhich follow
hull curvature
-maximizing pipe piecelengths to
minimize the number of pipe joints
-obserwing weight and size limitations
for outfrtting on-unit and on-block
(such as crane capacitiesand shop
door sizes)
-avoiding the location of components
on or near erectionbutts and seams
-avoiding the location of outfit units
astride erectionbutts and seams
-providing for adjustablepipe pieces
to be fitted on-board
2.3.3. CompositeArrangements.Compositearrangementsportray exact positionsand identities of outfit componentsand pipe, ventilation duct, and wireway paths in accordance
with compositedrafts or otherwise, directly
in accordancewith the pallet list. Considerations include sizes and weights of fittings
and nature of the work involved as well as
SHIP
DESIGN
ANDENGINEERING 217
the considerationslisted for compositedrafts.
Items which are defrnedinclude:
. three-dimensionallocationsof certain
components,such as machinery, other
equipment, foundations,ladders, access
ways, handrails, and pipe, vent duct,
and electric cablewaypaths
o piecenumbersfor the separablecomponents, lessthosefor distributive systems
. pipe, duct, and wiring system codes
o instructions for locating flanges that
affect functional aspectsofpipe and
duct systems,such as flanges necessary
for maintenance
o instmctions for locating flanges relative
to erectionbutts and seams
Beyonddivision by outfit specialty,composite
arrangements are further subdivided in accordancewith a practical schemesuch as the
one below:
. hull group
-forward upper deck
-middle upper deck
-after upper deck
-forepeak tank
-cargo hold or cargotank (bottom,
transverse bulkhead, and longitudinal bulkhead)
-pump room (tankers only)
-steering gear room
-afterpeak tank
. machinery group (engineroom, casing
and funnel only)
-tank top
-second deck flat
-upper deck
-engine casing
-funnel
. superstructure group
-A-deck (upper deck)
-B-deck
-C-deck
-D-deck
COi,4PONENT
AUXILIARY.
VALVE.ETC
P I P E P I E C EA N D S U P P O R T
ACCESSFLOOqPLATEANDLADDER
VENTILATION
DUCTANDSUPPORT
OTHERCOMPONENT
LINING
FURNITURE
ELECTRIC
WIRE
CABLECONDUIT
WIREWAY.SUPPORT
ANDSEAT
ELECTRIC
EOUIPMENT
a (E)
a (E)
a (E)
o (E)
a (E)
a (E)
a (E)
a (E)
lr
l
218
SHIPPBODUCTION
SHIPDESIGN
ANDENGINEERING
i i
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219
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220
SHIPPRODUCTION
//
M
TERIAL
STRAINEF
LIST
OF
F.O.
SYSTE{
MA-I
rood as-tP
sK-rOOo es-tv
NRG
si-looe
BS-2v
GLGE '
ALLM@TH
PIFING
loo0
as-2P
EELLMOUTH
z
I
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
WAREHOUSE
LET
PAR_
oN)
Ie-'if:
PIPE
SHOP
U NI T
OUTFITTING
STAGE
l-l
l
t
T
#
r r-r
l
ofi-BLocK
OUTFITTING
STAGE
-------.T-
221
2.4.3. Manufacturing Work lnstruction Drawrngs.Items listed on MLF which must be custom manufactured are described in manufacturing work instructions in sufficient detail
to permit either in-house or outside manufacture. Major items, such as masts, booms,and
unique tanks, which require long lead times
for procurement of raw materials or for manufacture, are identified during the functional
design processand treated as exceptions.
In addition to the major items, each pallet generally containsvarious pieceparts, including pipe pieces,ventilation duct pieces,
ladders, accessway pieces,handrail pieces,
and supports. Manufacturing drawings are
prepared for eachcomponentby pallet by kind
of item, in accordancewith the grouping of
componentsin pallets on fitting drawings.
Thus, all of the manufacturing drawings for
componentsof one kind within a pallet are
grouped so that they can be assigned for
manufacture by pallet regardless of where
they are to be manufactured.
Components,other than pipe pieces,of
one kind are almost always of the samemanufacturing family and require the same lead
times. Thus, all such componentscan be included in a single manufacturing drawing.
Drawings by kind of item by pallet facilitate
issuing work orders and just-in-time manufacture of the required items.
Usually, the pipe pieceswithin a pallet
represent different manufacturing families
MLFdateerocomperod
within.
tesk.Thoso
rndhrvcdifforont
lordtimos.Thus,pipo
Il K )
\___j
I
ON SOARO OU t | T t *
Fig.6-22.Stagesfor outfittingcomponents.
. material code
o piecenumber
o material cost classificationnumber
. material listing classification
. material requisition classification
. material control classification
o material purchasing classification
. parenVchild sign
. weight
o quantity
. MLF zone
. drawing number correspondingto
procurement and fitting work
222
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
function of the loft may be considerably expanded from traditional lofting. The computer capability available in the mold loft
makes it an obvious location for the production of work instructions, material lists, pallet lists, schedules,etc.Theseresponsibilities
are in addition to the standard loft work of
steel parts programming, development of N/C
burning data, and development of templates.
Many of these are based on information generated elsewhere and simply provided in hard
copy by the mold loft computer. The outputs
of the mold loft may include:
. key plans (seeFigure 6-23)
o yard plans (seeFigure 6-24)
. work instructions (seeFigures 6-2b and
6-26)
. material lists (seeFigure 6-27)
o material lists by pallet (seeFigure 6-28)
. schedules(seeFigure 6-29)
Additionally, the mold loft may produce
templates for line heating (Chapter fV), pin
jig settings (ChapterV), and accuracycontrol
check sheets(Chapter VIII). In general, this
information should be provided in the form
of booklets or manuals that permit routing
of pertinent pages only to the workstation
where it is needed(seeFigure G-80).
3. DesignandEngineering
for Production
The inputs of engineers to the ship production process take many forms. Perhaps the
simplest way to subdivide these are in terms
of design and engineering. Design includes
the system-oriented outputs of the basic and
functional design stages.Engineering is then
the detailed breakdown of the design into
product-oriented yard plans and work instructions,or the descriptionof preciselyhow
the ship will be built. In either application,
the principles of desigrr/engineeringfor production are similar. Although gooddesign/engineering should always take into account
223
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
ItY ro ott.tr^.
t -
D E YJ O D T I ' ? A '
tfo I lrl tNDs
, 1
Itv to Dft.?^'
;ro 1 lft tf,0s (rrPl
^"-.r..--.--B8llo
Pil lt^Pit;ili'
ASI
T
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P A R T SL I S I
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r0
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t- t -Po-t I
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II
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iarDl
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I
II
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;
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I
I
t
AIING I SIIffIIITR
. I . F I O 0 R F R .t 0
RROI.
ASI DrG N0
P S Ul 9 - t - 2 0
224
SHIPPRODUCTION
UNIT #105
( C A T E G O R Y# 1 )
WGT. (TONS)
D A T E : A 3/ 0 9 / 8 2
REV. #1
89.
A.
B.
D. UNIT #105
WORK CENTER _ PLATEN #20 _ PRE OUTFIT STAGE
PRE_OUTFIT TF REQ'D THEN MOVE TT TO PLATEN #20 FINAL ASSEMBLY
STAGE
E. UNIT #105
WORK CENTER , PLATEN #20 _ FINAL ASSEMBLY STAGE
CALL OUT FOR A.S.I.
O W N E R S T R U C T U R A LT N S P E C T I O N , C O M P L E T E P I C K U P
WORK, THEN SEND TO BLAST AND PAINT.
H O R KS T A T I O N
PLANNED/NTXT
0005rdt3
0 0 06 2 2 0 6
C L T A NT X T T R N A L
C L T A NI N T T R N A L
0 00 62 2 0 6
sl 0Nt sAlt -
?.?
I "
"
CLI=5.6775
lt t/2")
c L 2 = 5 . 6 7 7 "5
tt t/?")
CLl.l7L5{57 "
14")
D R Y H T = 2 1 6 . 2I 0 6
lltT llT = 109.0618
t7.c
4 . 1
0006
r1r3
sar cuI 2"
{"
8-R
90'
EtNDtR (C0NRAC)
0 0 0 7 0| r 3
00074608
00t27604
00rJ02t3
C LI . C L ?
SU8 ASSTHELY
GALVANIZIN6
PALLETIZING
SIORACE
t5 5/6"
9.5
16.2
r 3 .I
t t _I
1 0 0 0 l6l l l
booe
aa o e
I
p 0 0 7 0| r l
looorreoo
t 0 0r 2 7 5 0 4
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
(1) SHIP
QUANTITY
LISTOF MATERIAL
C. MK.
r
l
I QTY. I
225
REQ.NO.
DESCRIPTION
VALVEHOSEANGLEBRz FLG150#MONEL
STEMWI,IOLDEDCOMPOSITION
WBRZ
DISCHOLDER
FURNISHED
WBRZSLOTTED
0017034
1 1/2 gNM
CAP & CHAIN
APPLIESTO HULL 1 ONLY'*'"
PALLETCODE FOR THIS ITEM = 0603 901 1R
0040225
+ 314
SUB.ALLOCATION
NO.
GROUP QTY/SHIP PALLET
CODE VES
1
2
1
0602901 1
2
1
2
06119011
HULLNO(S)
1 ONLY
1 ONLY
0056027
0060826
21'
38'
1
006131
EXXONINT CO
AVONDALESHIPYARDS,INC.
P.O.BOXs0280
I
I
I
16
NEWORLEANS.
I.A71050
TITLE
MV.DK.
RACK
PIPING
STBD.
SIDE
FR.7r73 PACKAGE
UNITUtvt
| ,togtto. c1-oo1s
I
91618 016
:I DWG,NO
226
SHIPPRODUCTION
M A T E R I A LL I S T( Q U A N T I T I EFSO R O N E S H I P )
TEM OUANTITY
DESCRIPTION
|\/ATERIAL
NA
rC4?t 9 ' 24
2?
"
SPEC ORD
DATA
(1ip HosE^oRrsERl
UNIT WEIGHT
ASI SYD
PT NO.
67 tTP sa a
REMARKS
MSED
P A T T E R NF I O O R P L f f i R S O N
B O L T . H E X H D 3 4 . 1 O U N C . 2 A 2 1 1 4 'I G
8a
LMKWASB
a2
101m,52-83
NUT.HEX3/4".1OUNC.2B
aMq
F 2 1D
X 2 112" X 11A
?-43p!1s
725LF
291 st tF
FIAIBAA2lD
O5L/F
3 83 PER L/F
\112"
2-436{35
to
sotlARFAAAl/r'
ULtr
101m-30-10
2 ]3 PER L/F
t7/2
TLeuf
//-
2-AS-905
C H A N N E LC B X 1 O5
C. ,t2,
10 5 PER L/F
@m&107
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t3
TeaD,
t/t
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SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
227
le\
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I
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M,iT'L Sct/souLE
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Plflilot
nl
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asl i_lllll_2_335 JUN2srss2
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?16
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l'
A5I HUII. NO
NA ^t OF VESSET
AVONDALE
SHIPYARDSINC
| .!\t I
lr.-\' I
P O BOX 50280
AsrroBNo
cl -l5
NEw onLEANS, LA
L:J
DRAWN BY
P , <P
CHECXEDBY
70150
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^[1'**,iEt27'
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228
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig. 6-31.Improveddesigrrapproach.
rected toward more productive designs,begrnning with basic design. Figure 6-32 indicates
typical design and production information
used to improve design at each design stage.
For new or unusual designs,or for shipyards without suffrcient information to formulate and analyze designsusing a formal,
quantitative model for comparison,the qualitative principles provided above form a basis
for evaluating designand engineering.In applnng these principles, the following steps
may be taken: [5]
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
PBODUCTION
INFORMATION
229
DESIGN
INFORMATION
ESTIMATES
BASED
ONPASTDATA
Fig. 6-32. Design and production information useful for improving design at various stages.
SHIPPRODUCTION
RAWMATERIAL
BASICCOMPONENTS
STANDARD
FITTINGS
STANDARD
UNITS
DESIGNSTANDARDS
PRODUCTION
ENGINEERING
STANDARDS
SHIPBUILDING
STANDARDS
INSPECTION
STANDARDS
SDl MACHINERY
STANDARD
DRAWING
sD2 PRACTICEDRAWING
sD3 COMPONENTS
& FITTINGSTANDARD
DRAWING
sD4 STANDARDDIAGRAMS
sDs DESIGNMANUALS
sD6 PRODUCTION
MANUALS
Fig. 6-33. Classificationof standards.
lz-\
tv s ] s tv 1 0 . ) P
l
/)''
\ o /
UPPERLAYER
LEVEL
LOWERLAYER
LEVEL
3 )P
/
---
l
I
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
FLA'
NAI
MAIN FLOOR
231
D 1V I S I O N
FL2- 4J
GRIASI EXIRACIM
, lI l l
NO 2 ORAIN PUMP
-fl
}|i
l
rl rl
:-----.]
NO I DRAIN PUMP
-qI
NO 2 L.O.PUMP
-.1:
)rrl
*11
NO I L_O.PUr'rP
42
-tl
44
DIV ISION
MAIN FLOOR
F 42- L7
GREASEEXIRACIOR
DRA]N
NO 2 DRAIN PUMP
lTr
l l | l | | l l
l l l
NO 2 L.O.PUMP
NO ] L.O.PUMP
42
44
( B ) I . 4 O D I F I E DM O D U L E
232
SHIPPRODUCTION
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
233
sw.roa['l
--\
fl
Fig. 6-38.Useof geographical
arrangement
of material.
such as around a main engine or ship's
serwicegenerator, or in doublebottoms
and living quarters (seeFigures 6-39
and 6-40)
. aligning pipe runs parallel to the ship's
X, Y, and Z axes,as shown in Figure
6-41, to achieveconsolidationof pipe
piecesfor efEcientassemblyon-unit
instead of "tangled spaghetti" pipe
runs that must be assembledpieceby
pieceon-board
. detailing commonsupporbsfor multiple
pipe runs on work instructions (see
Figure 6-42)
234
SHIPPRODUCTION
PIPE PASSAGE
PIPE PASSAGE
outfitmeasures
applied
gqptls
to reduce
nnd
make work easier:
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
235
IMPROVED
IMPROVEO
Fig.6-43.r,0" r"00";";""
*--""
"ur*.
6-44),to fan\itateparkagrng
in urrits
suppofts
236
SHIP PRODUCTIOI..
CONVENTIONAL
IMPROVED
I
I
II
---t
I
I
I
I
II
II
I
I
II
I
I
I
I
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
ting, and painting. No one type of work proceedswithout an evaluation of its cost impact
on another. Sometimes additional structural
weight or hull construction man-hours can
result in outfrt savings which more than offset the additional costs.Consequently,many
hull features and block boundaries may be
determined in consideration of outfrt convenience.For example:
. blockjoints for engine room doublebottom blocks are locatedabovethe grating level, so that fitting can progress
in this normally congestedregion to the
fullest extent before hull erection, and
spacedoesnot have to be reserved
237
238
sHIPPRoDUcTIoN
POSITION FOfilUTFITTING
Fig. 6-48. Blocks are designed to be stable right side up and upside down.
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
B
MEETING
PRODUCTION
239
240
SHIPPRODUCTION
ofwhatis specified
{requent\ye\co\\ter d,es\gn
rhanges.T\.rese
may be due to revised requirements or to
approval comments by an owner, classifica_
tion society,or other regulatory body, or due
to a revised build strategy or insufficient design department study and developmentwork.
The numbersof such changescan be reduced
and the impact of the remainder can be
minimized by specificallyorganized preparations and countermeasures.Changes
in naval ship constructionare also common,
due to similar causesplus the desire to incorporate the latest technologyin combat systems. In fact, an extensivesystemto deal with
changeorders is in existenceand is a major
considerationin naval ship constructioncontracts.
3.4.1. Sources.Somecausesof designchanges
are suggestedby the following:
. owner
- different thinking and preferences
-market changes
-different practices
-specialty
r classificationsocietyand other regulatory bodies
-application of new rules and regulations
-application of recommendations
-different interpretations of rules
and regulations
o production department
-revised fitting stages
-revised pipe joint locations,etc.
-revised fitting positions of outfit
components
-revised manufacturing processes
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
STEAM
241
WINOLASS
LOAO I
RA'
RATEO
SPEO
SKETCH
COOE I
HEC\Y
wceH
(SYMMT RI C }
TYPE,
GAPACITYi
ANO
OUANITY
a
z
9
F
o
F
a
z
c H A r Nr Y P E
srcwr
dF
L:6t
q^wsEt
dia-
lf--luq
| \, trt .r u. rq ^i _
mo
U-3
Kater
dia. xl
mo
oFUM llmd(Crmcdlatc
TYPs lflansea
shacl
dia x
Y.' /N;l I
lm
I ct',"o.
}lff^"
I p--^'.
Opcntba,
Remore-lYc.Iol
lMmul/Hvdro
Oomtron.
MHE
PIITE
E o g i i s hh ii .. |
J a o a o s e l ,,ll E
N o r t c a F o R s r s o A R o I "r ' i t t s o
No. in oa oa this ogy and
MAOIINRY eeerOvSO i
r N AovANcE
I aii er tnts 2ur@se order couirmed.
cuaRlNra-
'J
lnln
lZ mon(N
| s;Y,lT,l
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nrD's o
:iilerv
arter ue
li,e
a lter
return rt Emedtately
SPARE
PARTS
H | 03
S P E C T F T C A T T O NF O R
STEAM W I NDLASS
BOX NO.
^PgrrcL
"!I::'=
I euncHnse oRDER
I
acc6g
rica , 3pare
provisim
oa STAr\DA-
242
SHIPPRODUCTION
243
SHIPDESIGNAND ENGINEERING
(v
FSEARCH
OF AUYERS
PNACTICES
t t ,
T.l
\,2
T,EGENDS
E :. . . .
Bold
Iine
bSIe
documents
i_-_t...
Blo.ks
for
blocks
line
en
of
offi
are
preventive
^mlasstsd
activities
or
t t . . . .r r d i n a r y
I rnc
octivities
&a
are
bl ocks
by
cial
for
activi
ries
preparation.
harn
docunants
1 , 1 . ,k s
dr.
docuenb.
of
irne rrF
(.ounter-
f(,r ol.iindr),
or
244
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
the effects of the change, and sometimes request that other groups stop design work
wherever there is to be impact.
The study phase conductedby each concerned group typically includes preparation
of sketches,examination of technical possibilities, preparation of a cost estimate, ascertaining impact on the design schedule,and
presentation of frndings to the engineer in
charge ofthe group having lead responsi-
bility. The consolidation phase includes review ofthe concernedgroups'inputs, a decision to proceed,if possible,without other than
shipyard approval, a decisionand submittal
with cost adjustment as appropriate for owner
and./orclassifrcationsociety approvals, and
informing the concernedgroups when to initiate revisions of plans. Changeswhich are
small in scopemay require some or none of
the foregoing,dependingon their natures.
4. CAD/CAM
The use of computers in the shipbuilding
industry began in the early 1950s and has
progressedsteadily sincethat time. Used initially as accounting tools, computer applications have expanded to include many of the
standard naval architectural computations.
The many current or potential uses of the
computer in shipyards are not all strictly
covered by the CAD/CAM terminolory. For
example, a list of computer-aidedfunctions
could include:
. computer-aideddesign (CAD)
. computer-aided drafting
. computer-aided engineering (CAE )
. computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
o computer-aided material definition
o computer-aidedprocessplanning
(CAPP)
Applications of the computer in shipbuilding
include:
o estimating
. design
. engineering
. drafting
o planning
o scheduling
o accounting
. purchasing
. material control
. numerically controlled (N/C) operations
r robotics
. accuracy control
. quality assurance
o inventory control
o evaluating
Additionally, the use of computer simulation
and virtual reality is becoming more common
in design and manufacturing applications and
may also find increasing use in the shipbuilding industry. Consequently, the term CAD/
CAM must be expanded.The resulting processis oft,enreferred to as computer-integrated
manufacturinC (CIM).
ACAD/CAM orCIM systemis a combination of hardware and software. The ultimate
goalof sucha systemis depictedin Figure 6-53.
[7] The user interacts with the computer via
a graphicsterminal, designingand manufacturing a part from start to finish, while coordinating with the complete shipbuilding system. Information from the design and manufacturing functions is available and transmitted via a common central data base. which
may include a complete 3-D product model.
Applying the CAD features, the designer
may construct a geometric model, perform
required engineering analyses,perform kinematic studies, and produce plans and work
instructions. Employing the CAM functions,
the user creates N/C instructions, controls
robots, performs process planning for the
entire construction process,and coordinates
with a shipyard management system. Pur-
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
chasing and material control are also coordinated through the common data base.While
many systems have the CAD functions interfaced, with the exception of some N/C programming capability, most systems do not
have CAM interfaces.The major problemfacing shipbuilders in the application of CIM is
the lack of a unified shipbuilding data base
that provides the capability of interfacing
with all the applicationsmentioned above.
4.1. Hardwareand Software
CAD/CAM systems have been developedin
two ways: hardware alone or hardware/software combinations.While numeroussystems
ofboth types are available,there is no industry standard. Computer hardware changes
rapidly and computer systems evolve based
on the latest hardware availability. There
G E O M E T R IM
CO D E L I N G
N U M E R I C ACLO N T R O L
AUTOMATED
FACTORY
P R O C E S SP L A N N I N G
AUTOMATED
DRAFTING
245
F A C T O RM
Y ANAGEMENT
246
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
4.2. CADOutouts
The eventual outputs of a CAD system that
is part of an integrated CAD/CAM system
will be both hard copy materials, including
plans, lists, and work instructions, and computer data transmitted to workstations, such
as N/C burners, pipe-bendingmachines,and
robots. Systems that completely bypass the
hard copy stage and simply transmit data to
be stored and retrieved by computerson the
ship, in the owner'soffice,at the classifrcation
societyand regulatory body offices,and at the
machines or workstations within the shipyard are under development. Current systems employhard copyoutputs that are used
to perform the necessaryfunctions. As described in Section 2.5., many shipyards employ the computer capability housed within
the mold loft to producethe various types of
outputs required.
Application of a CAD/CAM system permits the evaluationof additional designoptions
as well as consideration of alternate build
strategies. Computer-generatedplans, lists,
and work instructions [12]|may be used for
the various designcyclestagesas well as shipbuilding managementfunctions, including:
. general arrangements;basic design
. key plans; functional design(seeFigure
6-54)
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
247
OENERAL IOTES
]]Fi
i
@l
( EY P r A N
Fig.6-54.CAD-generated
keyplan.
o yard plans; transition design
. work instructions; work instruction
design(seeFigure 6-55)
. schedulereviews(seeFigure 6-56)
. material lists
. purchaselists
Many other types of computer-generatedoutputs can be used.
4.3. CAD/CAMPotential
The ultimate goal of a CAD/CAM systemis improvementin shipbuilding productivity.Among
the advantagesofsuch a systemare:
. the ability to produce concept and
feasibility ship design studies more
SHIPPRODUCTION
C ftf:
PA6.
R E P : P R . e S E .2 . 0 : F L S . 2 3
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Fig. 6-55.CAD-generated
work instruction.
. the ability to transfer data in digital
form to shipyard design offrcesand
manufacturing facilities
. the ability to establish and employ
shipyard standards
. the ability to assembleand "lock-in"
successfulbuild strategies and
procedures
5. Models
The designcycledescribedin Section2 has as
a major feature the transition from systemto
zone during transition design. The composites produced during this design stage are
critically important. Since they reflect the
way the ship will be built, the composites
directly affect the productivity of the shipbuilding project.They also are the basisupon
which engineersperforming work instruction
design do their work. The use of designmodels has provento be an effectivetechniquefor
S H I PD E S I G NA N D E N G I N E E R I N G
249
SCHEEIJLE
REVIEW
FEPORT
wgqLr
M0.
Ewrv:
HRS.6/4
MNDAYS &'4IIIITIAIISSI.E UAiISAYS AFTER
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1.96
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91 0101
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2.0
8.9
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1.11
WEEKTY
HRS. EOUlV,
WEEKLYO.T, EOUIV.
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H8S,
EQUIV,
WEEKLYOJ,
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O,T.
HRS,8/4
MAI,IWEEKS
8/4INITIAL
IgSUE MANWEEKSAFIERINIT1AL
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ISSUEMANWEEKS
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132.4
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TOTAL
#OFDRAWINGS 8
TOTAT
WNHNOHOUR$
f OFDflAWINGS
SPENT
Fig. 6-56. CAD-generated schedule review.
PRODUCTION
EFFORTS
PROCESS
LANES
CONSTRUCTION
UNIT/ZONE
OUTFITTING
Fig. 6-57.CAD/CAMfuture.
ern computer systemsnow permit the use of
3-D solid computer modelsfor design.Design
using inclusive virtual reality may also be
employedto improve both the designand the
pttrdu$tr\\ytrttht produr\\on
etfort.
groupthinking
dimensions
f aci\rtates
250
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
D E S I G NE N G I N E E R I N G
Design
Analysis
'
Resource
Requirement
/
/
MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING
Fig. 6-58. CAD/CAM network.
.
.
.
.
.
.
r
S H I PD E S I G NA N DE N G I N E E R I N G
251
CHAPTER VII
P L A N N I N G , S C H E D U L I N G ,A N D
P R O D U C T I O NC O N T R O L
1. Introduction
The managementof any large industrial project, such as new ship construction and ship
repair, overhaul, or conversion,requires the
use of the related techniques of planning,
scheduling,and production control. The productivity ofthe project is dependenton the coordination of material, manpower, facilities,
capital, and information. Managing these resourcesis the key to effrcient production.
Figure 7-1 shows the basic management
cycle.The planning phase ofa project is the
Iisting of all jobs that must be performed in
order to completethe project.As part of planning, any required ordering of the jobs must
be determined,as well as grossrequirements
for material, manpower,and facilities. Additionally, estimates of costs and job durations are developedas a part ofthe planning
process.[1]
Schedulingis the laying-out of the actual
time order in which jobs are to be performed
in order to completethe project.Material and
manpower requirements neededat each stage
of production are determined, as well as start
and frnish times for eachjob.
Production control is the monitoring of
the differencebetween actual and scheduled
performance.The analysis of and responseto
this difference is the primary aspect of pro252
PLANNING.
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
ESTtiiI ATING
I
U
F
o
a
F
6
a,
+ rPLAI
r r NIilG
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6
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EXECI,TION
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253
254
SHIPPRODUCTION
OPERATIONA
CLO N D I T I O N S
. R E S O U R CC
EAPABILITY
. RESOURCEAVAILABILITY
. FACILITYCAPABILITY
. FACILITYUTILIZATION
. BUILDING
PROGRAM
. WORKINGPRACTICES
& SUBCONTRACT
POLICY
. I N D U S T R I AELN V I B O N M E N&I I N F R A S T R U C T U R E
. CLIMATIC
ENVIBONMENT
. OFGANIZATION
STRUCTURE
. C O R P O R A TR
EE O U I R E M E N T S
.I\.,|ATERIAL
SUPPLY
. STANDAFDS
. RELATED
EXPEBIENCE
.
.
.
.
.
HAZARDOUS
PRECISION
MACHINE
MANUAL
CLIMATICALLY
SENSITIVE
. TESTAND TRIALS
. HOT
. HEAVY
. POSITIONAL
. JIGGED
. MATEFIALQUANTIFICATION
. MATERIALWEIGHTS
. DIRECTLABORHOURS
. S E F V I C EL A B O RH O U R S
CONTRACT
REQUIREMENTS
PRODUCTION
PHASES
SPECIFICATION
. QUALITY
. QUANTITY
. COMPONENT
MANUFACTUFE
. FIRST.STAGE
ASSEMBLY
. SECOND.STAGE
ASSEMBLY
. INTEGRATED
ASSEMBLY
.ON BLOCKINSTALLATION
. ON-BOAFDINSTALLATION
. COMPARTMENT
COMPLETION
. PAINTING
. ELECTRICCABLEINSTALLATION
. MtssroN
REQUIREMENTS
. STANDARDS
CONTBACT
. T I M EC O N S T R A I N T S
. CASHFLOW
. PENALTIES
DRAWINGS
. CONFIGURATION
. S Y S T E M SR E L A T I O N S H I P
STRATEGY
PRIMARL
YE V E L
1 . PFODUCTZONE IDENTIFICATION
2 . SUBCONTFACT
WORKCONTENT
3 . B U I L DS E O U E N C E
4 . KEY DATEPROGFAM_ PRODUCTION
5 . KEY DATEPROGFAM_ PRFPRODUCTION
L E O U I R E M E NDTA T E S
6 . M A T E R I AF
7 . RESOURCEALLOCATION
8 . RESOURCEUTILIZATION
L FESOURCE
P R O J E C T EP
DE R F O R M A N C E
1 0 .SPECIALCONTFACTREOUIREMENTS
1 1 D E V E L O P M E NNI E E D S
7'
i
I
CONTRACTBUDGET
D E P A F T M E NBTU D G E T S
PRODUCTION
INFORMATION
SCHEDULE
PRODUCTION
WORKCONTENTESTIMATES
DEPARTMENTAL
PRODUCTPFOGRA|\,llS
M A T E R I AP
LURCHASR
E EOUISITIONS
WOFKSTATION
LOADING
WORKSTATION
SCHEDULES
MATERIALKIT LISTS
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
9.El!'r
Mr\roNtsEDrREMEi.Ts
'^'JblF;;5:fi".L-+:"
s r e B uL o , r o" o r c v
()
lI " I- "
I+ II
::!xi\
DETAILED
B U I L DS T R A T E G Y
255
iFar"l
1
lI
l
,-*,
pE<cN_l
I rI It
F.l^"^,
I
NIEFFEFENCE
FFEE
ARFANGEMENTS
INTEFFEFENCE
F F E EA F F A N G E M E N I S
& FEGULATOFY
APPFOVAL
256
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
e
f
g
h
Activity
Description
lmmediate
Predecessors
Determining
steelplateorder
Shipping
steelplateto a shipyard
Preparing
N/Ctapesforcuttingplate
parts
Cutting
forsubassembly
1
parts
Cutting
forsubassembly
2
Assembling
subassembly
1
Assembling
subassembly
2
Transporting
subassembly
1 to block
assembly
site
Transporting
subassembly
2 to block
assembly
site
Assembling
block1-2
Duration
(Days)
?
10
b,c
b,c
g
h,i
1
3
purerfiy,sf,emrs
in plA0e.
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
1.4. ActivityDurations
Estimating activity durations is a critical
aspect of planning and scheduling.Two primary techniques may be employed:productivity indices based on historical data, and
engineeredlabor standards.
1.4.1. Productivitylndices.Productivity indices
are determined by collecting man-hour expenditures for workstations operating within a specificproblem area at each manufacturing level. Statistical analysis of historical
data is usedto determine the best correlation
between a problem area and an associated
index. Figure 7-5 provides typical examples
of productivity indices presented by problem area and manufacturing level. Although
the actual values of the indices would be
shipyard specifrc,their general form should
be applicableto many shipyards.[3J
1.4.2.EngineeredLabor Standards.In the absenceofhistorical data by problem area, es-
257
2. Planning
Overview
Shipyard planning can be viewed from two
perspectives:the total yard overview and individual constructionor repairjobs. The yard
overview is essentially the sum of all individual projects, but it involves longer-term
considerations, including market forecasting, work load forecasting,employmentforecasting, and facility improvement forecasting. Individual project planning begins with
the developmentof a build strategy and then
proceedsto greater levels of detail for a specifrc project.
Some degree of planning is inherently
incorporated in each shipyard function such
as design, material control, industrial relations, and quality assurance.By organizing
some of these functions and subfunctionsin
terms of commonprocesses,the formal planning, which provides the framework for communication, can be simplified. As illustrated
258
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
MANPOWER
EXPENDITURE
INDEX
m
tr
z
tr
f
(n
z.
o
J
J
f
-o
=
U
U)
.Jt
=
Y
t
3
r
U
c
PRODUCTION
PROGRESS
INDEX
PRODUCTIVIW
INDEX
FABRICATED
WT/UT
MHRS/FAERICATED
WT
cou
) <1,
a@
SUBASSEMBLY
WTruT
SUBASSEMBLY
WofuT
MHRS/SUBASSEMBLY
WT
SUEASSEMBLY
Wo/MHR
U
a)
g)
ASSEMBLY
WT/UT
ASSEMBLY
Wp/UT
MHRgASSEMBLY
WT
ASSEMBLY
Wo/MHR
r
U
t
UJ
ERECTED
WTruT
ERECTED
WpfuT
MHRS/ERECTED
WT
ERECTED
WO/MHR
MANUFACTURED
WT/UT
MANUFACTURED
PIECES/UT
MHRSiI\,IANUFACTURED
WT
MHRS/MANUFACTURED
PIECES
tr
MHRS/UT
r
c
:a
o
U
PARAMETRIC-COMPON
ENTWTruT
MHRS/PAMMETRIC.COMPONENT
WT
PAMMETRIC-COMPONENT
WTruT
MHRS/PARAMETRIC-COMPONENT
WT
PARAMETRIC-COMPON
ENTWTruT
MHRS/PARAMETRIC.COMPONENT
WT
ru
tr
LAIDCABLE
LENGTH/UT
CONNECTED
CABLE
PIECES/UT
PARAMETRIC-COMPONENT
WT/UT
MHRSAAID
CABLE
LENGTH
MHRS/CONNECTED
CABLE
PIECES
MHRSiPARAMETRIC-COMPONENT
WT
COATED
SQUARE
METERS/UT
z
F
tr
F
l
z.
g)
@
U
at)
U)
MHRS/COATED
SOUARE
METER
MHR: man-hour; UT: unit time; WT: weight; Wp: a parametnclengthfor weldingwhichtakes into accountweld stze,type, and position
traditional projects,including offshorestructures and nonmarine work. Basedon the projected market, a review of long-term facility
and labor needsshould be undertaken. Typical parameters,such as actual and projected
throughputs in tons per squarefoot, dry dock
utilization, and building site needs, can be
used to assessfacility improvement needs.
Planning should also addresswork flow
for current work and proposednew bids to
serve as a guide for yard capabilities in the
faceofactual and projectedcontracts.Figure
7-7, indicating a period of interrupted work
flow, should be avoided.Figure 7-8 shows a
better planned, smooth work flow, resulting
from the blending of new contracts with existing contracts. Such a plan provides guid-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
259
STRATEGIC
PLANNING:
_ PROFITPLAN
- SALESPLAN
_ KEYEVENTSSCHEDULE
TACTICAL
PLANNING:
_ PRINCIPAL
EVENTS
SCHEDULE
- BLOCK
ERECTION
SCHEDULE
- PRELIMINARY
PALLET
SCHEDULE
OPERATIONAL
PLANNING:
_ PALLET
SCHEDULE
_ DRAWING
SCHEDULE
IMPLEMENTATION
- SHOP
SCHEDULES
260
SHIPPRODUCTION
TIME+
Fig. 7-7. Intermpted work flow.
T|ME_>
Fig. 7-8.Levelwork flow.
. developdesign details zoneby zone,
regardlessof systemsrepresented,in
a sequencewhich anticipates how each
ship will be assembled
At the same time, there will be requirements
for standardizing and modularizing designers'contributions to pallets. Through such
efforts, parb of a diagram, the corresponding
portion of a composite,and the pertinent MLF
can be used as is or adapted for use on future
ships ofdifferent types and sizes.This reuse
of previously performed design work will ultimately reduce the design workload.
2.2.1. GeneralPlanning.Ships of various types
and sizeshave many similarities. The degrees
of sameness are particularly evident when
comparisons are made in the context of zonel
problem area./stageclassifications. For example, many detail design differencescan be accommodated without changing the zonelproblem area./stageclassifications of a pallet. Thus,
pallets should be general enoughto be adopted
r-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
261
SHIPPRODUCTION
CONTRACT
SPECIFICATIONS
D E S I G NA N D
N,4ATERID
AL
EFINITION
D E S I G N S C H E D U L I N GA N D C O N T R O L
MATEBIAL
LISTS
MAJOR
MILESTONES
5.BASIC
DESIGN
N
?
HULL
CONSTRUCTION
OUTFITTING
MILESTONES
A rrrullsrcrr
iln Eruc
A trusr
A ACTSSDG
A oogxrnns
A SEAIRIALS
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
263
B Y E A C H D E S I G NG R O U P
a
c
< ;
o
z
D E S I G ND E P A R I M E N T
MASTER SCHEDULE
D E S I G NG R O U P
M A S T E R S C H E D U L ES
( R EF E R E N C E )
SHIPDESIGN
MASTER SCHEDULE
SHIPDESIGN
GROUP SCHEDULE
9
o
G
264
SHIPPRODUCTION
- L+/
,"'
"'")'t'
rt'/
/r
Fig. 7-12.Desig:n
departmentmasterschedule.
schedule,serve for planning the designwork
load for all ships on, or expectedto be on, order.
This combination of schedules composesa
significant part of the design strategy to
be implemented upon each contract award.
Upon receiving a set of contract plans and specifications, the ship design department and
each group then prepare the additional schedules shown in Figure 7-11. These schedules
addressthe specifrcship to be built.
Ship Design Master Schedule.A ship design master scheduleis made by integrating
the production schedules for outfrtting work
with the design work load imposed by the
contract plans and specifrcationsfor a specific
ship. As shown in typical bar charbformat in
Figure 7-L3, a ship design master schedule
indicates starting and other significant dates
and assigneddurations related to the preparation of such documentsas:
. diagrammatics
o compositearrangements
. purchasespecifications
o fitting drawings
. componentmanufacturing drawings
r material lists (MLS, MLF, MLP, and
MLC)
Two inputs from productionpeopleare essential for preparation of the ship designmaster
schedule.These are the outfrtting milestone
scheduleand a hull fabrication start date.
Each ship designgroup scheduleconsists
of separate parts for the key and yard plan
efforts and is in accordancewith the ship
design master schedule. The design group
schedule(seeFigure 7-14) is further broken
down by milestone dates and time limits
for issue dates. The milestonesincluded are
start and completion dates, interface meet-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
266
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
14 O
BULK
CARR IER
SHIP
OESIGN
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FITTING
GROUP
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APPROVAL FOR
VENDOR-5 DRAW
D SPECIFICAT
srEERlrc
MMRING
GEA
WINCH
LECEND
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TMELMIT
o
I
S T A N D A t s CT E I J
N O N S T A N D A A DP E F
V E N O O FS D F A f I I N G
L
l
N O NS T A N D A F O
P5F
S B P Y A A DS D R A W N G
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z
9
o
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M6R
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ACCESS
f+
PLAN
HATCts COVR
i
A
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
267
l \ , tL ( A )
IESUI DA?E
DlAt I x3
lt6ut
tctSDULt
MONTs
? r ? L r
Savrnq
P lan
K 2 7 2 0 1 3 1
Lrfc
K2E30l3r
Vantrlatron Draqram
( A c c o m .)
K 29 0 0 I 3 I
P r p r n q D r a { r a m( A c c o m . )
K3500t31
K3a0033r
K3500332
Fig. 7-15.Drawingissueschedule.
issue schedulesis sometimesused to record
authorizeddistributions and receiptsfor each
drawing issue, purchasespecification,etc.
Design PersonnelSchedules.Design personnel schedulesare prepared in accordance
with drawing issue schedulesin order to incorporatedata such as issue dates and budgeted man-hours for each drawing. Further,
they identify and serve the specific people
and engineersin charge having responsibilities for each drawing (seeFigure 7-16).
This last of the schedulehierarchy presentedin Figure 7-11completesthe description of monitoring and controlling issues at
three managerial levels:
o the department manager with the
design ship master schedule
. eachgroup manager with a designship
group schedule
. each engineerin chargewith a drawing
issuescheduleand a designpersonnel
schedule
Besidescheckingprogressofdrawing preparation, tracking is performed for issue and
268
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig. 7-16.Designpersonnelschedule.
budget for allocating man-hours to eachoutfit
specialty group. Separately, each group manager maintains a history of standard manhour costsin terms of pertinent indices,such
as design man-hours per electric cable unit
length, per piping unit length, or per unit
area of decks in living areas. These indices
are also used to estimate the work load imposed by a particular ship design requirement. When these estimates differ from
the proposedbudget allocations,the department and group managers reconcile the differencesbefore the design man-hour budget
is issued.
Onceman-hourbudgets are assigned,each
group manager is responsiblefor controlling
the man-hour expenditure rate, in addition
to progress.Before design work starts, each
group manager plans expenditures relative
to time in accordancewith an S-curve. If a
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
269
/-='
$7
270
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
AN
NO N T R O L
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
, D P R O D U C T I OC
271
BLOCKERECTION
MASTERSCHEDULE
FITTING
ON-BOARD
MASTERSCHEDULE
the hull, machinery, and superstructure sections and fabrication shops. This process is
illustratedin Figures7-19and 7-20.In turn,
these schedulesare used to support even
more detailed schedules,such as monthly
and weekly schedules,as illustrated in Figures 7-21andT-22.
3 . P l a n ningand Scheduling
The specifics of the planning and scheduling
functions are addressed in this section. The
planning and scheduling process is presented
in stages directly related to the design cycle
(see Figures 7-23 and 6-1). These stages include basic planning, major detail planning,
working detail planning, and work instruction planning. Basic planning parallels basic
design. Major detail planning and part of
working detail planning correspond to functional design. The transition from system to
|l
272
SHIPPRODUCTION
IN EACHOF THEOUTFITTING
SECTIONS
_ PLOTDATESOF KEEL,LAUNCH,
DELIVERY
- PLOTDELIVERY
TIMEOF MAJORMACHINERY
& EQUIPMENT
_ PLOTDATESOF HULLERECTION
_ ARRANGEOTHERMILESTONES
TAKINGINTO
CONSIDEMTION
THESEOUENCE
TOACHIEVE
MILESTONES
MILESTONE
SCHEDULES
AREPREPARED
BYA STAFF
ANDAPPROVED
BYTHEMANAGER
OF EACHSECTION
INTHEOUTFITTING
OEPT.
_ DISCUSS
ANDADJUSTMILESTONE
SCHEDULE
OF
EACHSECTION,
ANOFINALLY
DETERMINE
MITESTONE
SCHEDULE
OFTHEOUTFITTING
DEPT,
IN SHIPYARD
_ THEMILESTONE
SCHEDULE
PROPOSED
BYTHE
OUTFITTING
DEPT.IS DISCUSSED
ANDFINALLY
DETERi4tNED
By MANAGERS
OF THEOUTF|TTING,
HULLCONSTRUCTION.
ANDPAINTING
DEPTS.,
AND
MATERIAL
CONTROL
MILESTONE
SCHEDULE
(WHOLEOUTFITTING
DEPT.)
(EACHOUTFITTING
SECTION/
SHOP)
TO: HULLCONSTRUCTION
DEPT
PAINTING
DEPT,
OUTFITTING
DEPT.
_ OUTFITTING
WEIGHTAND
SIMILARITIES
IO OTHERSHIPS
- STUDYOF DESIGN
AND
EQUIPMENT
_ MANPOWER
AVAILABLE
- STANOARDS
_ SETDATESOF MILESTONES
ACCOROING
TO
MILESTONE
LIST
- ARRANGEDATESOF ALL MAJORACTIVITIES
REFERRING
TOTHESCHEOULES
OF SIMILAR
SHIPS
_ ADJUSTTHE DATESREFERRING
TO MANPO\I/ER
AVAILABLE,
IF NECESSARY
_ SECTIONMASTERSCHEDULEIS PBEPAREO
BY
STAFFANDAPPROVEO
BY EACHSECTION
MANAGER
SECTION
MASTER
SCHEDULE
(oN-uNtT,
oN-BLOCK,
ON-BOARD
OUTFITTING)
ERECTION
OFSUPERSTRUCTURE
Fig. 7-20.Outfittingmasterschedule.
building process.Consequently,
hull construction planning and scheduling take the lead
responsibility. Hull constmction planning and
schedulingwill be discussedfirst, followed
by the overall planning and schedulingcycle. Although hull constructionplanning and
scheduling take the lead, considerationsof
outfitting and painting are continually addressed throughout the entire process,In
fact, structured incorporation of these con-
In adrlition
totheneed
t0accommodatc
out
fitting and painting, severalother factors in-
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
273
- CHECKMONTHLY
PROGRESS
OFWORKIN
THEPREVIOUS
MONTH
_ ARRANGE
ALLMAJORACTIVITIES
OF THE
TWOMONTHSACCORDING
SUBSEQUENT
TOTHERESULT
OFTHEREVIEW
- ASSIGNPALLETCODETO EACHACTIVITY
- MONTHLY
SCHEDULE
IS PREPARED
BY
STAFF
ANDTHEOPEMTIONANDCONTROL
SCHEDULE
IS PERFORMED
OF MONTHLY
BYA FOREMAN
- DETERMINE
ACTIVITIES
TOBEWORKED
DAILY
FROMTHEMONTHLY
SCHEDULE
_ DESIGNATE
PALLET
CODEFOREACHACTIVITY
_ DETERMINE
WEIGHT
OFMATERIALS
- ALLOCATEWORKTOTHEACTIVITIES
ANDASK
FROMOTHER
IF
SUPPORT
SECTIONS/SHOPS
NECESSARY
- PREPARATION
OFTHEWEEKLYSCHEDULEIS BY
ANASSISTANT
FOREMAN
- ACTIVITIES
FORTWOWEEKS
AREDEFINED
ON
WEEKLYSCHEDULE
WHICHIS UPDATED
WEEKLY
SECTION
/SHOPCONCERNED
SHOPMANAGER
STAFF
FOREMEN
Ftg.7-22.Weeklyschedule.
fluence the planning of hull construction
methods. They include timely completion of
key and yard plans, which implies timely
transition from systemto zone(interim product) orientation. The speedwith which these
processesare executeddepends,along with
other factors, on:
. the degreeto which the hull constmction planning group is organizedto
communicate"how to build" to the
design peopleresponsiblefor describing
"what to build" in key and yard plans
274
SHIPPRODUCTION
HUII
CONSIFUCTTOI
OEPARTMEIT
z
2
2
;
z
EA'B
PROC55
YAAO
CONTROL
AND PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING,
PLANNING,
275
that the structure of work packages is consistent for hull construction, outfitting, and
painting. Forecasting work loads by stages
ensures that the volumes of block assembly
work classifred by problem area/stage are determined and leveled. Also, for each work package classifred by problem area./stage, checks
are made to confirm sufficiently available
facilities and space and to determine the effect of previously scheduled work. In addition,
a schedule tracking system is necessary to
create feedback needed to keep work flows
leveled and to guide future production engineering developments.
3.1 .2. Process Lanes. Effective process lanes
must be organized independent ofhow a contemplated hull is to be subdivided for designation of blocks, subassemblies, outfit units,
and parts. System and zone are characterizations of a ship design. Problem area and
stage are categories of the work process. As
much as possible, zones are contrived so that
they require the right kinds and amounts of
work to match preferred problem area classifrcations.
Effective, integrated process flows require
both flexibility and the balancing of considerations of the facility, production organization, design, planning, and material control.
The complete portion of a process flow within
a manufacturing level is dedicated to manufacturing one family of interim products and
is subdivided into stages, each of which is
specialized for the performance of one or more
tasks. For example, stages in a process flow
for assembling a large quantity of similarly
sized sub-blocks are laying out, fitting, welding, and distortion removal. The stages, including outfrtting and painting stages, are
arranged in accordance with a sequence by
process flow and to feed interim products
where they are needed next in another process flow. For example, egg-box framing for a
flat panel block is completed near the site
where flat panel blocks are assembled.
276
SHIPPRODUCTION
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
is needed so that hull construction, outfitting, and painting field engineerscan monitor progressofwork packages.
Block definition is establishedin coordination with outfitting and painting requirements in order to minimize on-board work.
For outfitting and painting that cannot be
done on-unit, discussioncenterson modifications to block boundariesthat facilitate outfitting and painting on-block and on-board.
On-block work is favored, to minimize onboard work. The block assembly processes
are explainedto outfitting production groups
to facilitate their advanceplanning for effective on-blockand on-boardoutfitting and their
engineering of required outfrtting processes.
Their results are fed back to the hull construction planning group. The needto understand each other's responsibilities makes it
important that the block assembly process
and processlanes for block assemblybe the
subjectsof written descriptions.
Separate process lanes are needed for
each block category.The most obvious such
classifrcationis the flat panel block,for which
real work flow is effective.Another is curved
SHIPDESIGNDEPARTMENT
HULLSTRUCTURAL
DESGN GROUP
i
OUTFITTING
DEPABTMENI
277
278
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
A ,N D P R O D U C T I OC
NO N T R O L
-designation
of required interim
product manufacturing levels
. work instruction symbols standard
for designers prepared by process
engineers in the hull construction
department
-block names
-edge preparations
-amounts of excess
-welding processes,etc.
. work instruction symbols standard for
shops prepared by process engineers
in the hull construction department
-work instruction plans
-welding control parameters
-mold loft data
o parts fabrication and assembly process
standards
-edge preparation for each welding
process
-conduct of each welding process
-conduct of each parts fabrication
and assembly process
-correction of parts fabrication and
assembly errors
The following are examples of controlled standards for planning and engineering hull construction:
. design standards
-shell plate widths and thicknesses
to minimize the number of seams
-type of shape for longitudinals, e.g.,
built-up tees or unequal leg angles
-open or tight fit type cutouts for
passage of longitudinals
. accuracy performance standards
-welding and distortion removal
shrinkage factors for parts fabrication and assembly processes
-locations of frnish cuts and margins
for erection seams and butts
-criteria
for cutting and assembly
workmanship
279
-standard
280
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
. specifrcapplication of scaffolding
methods and specialwork units for
erection
. specificapplication of automatic welding processesfor erection
The hull erection master schedulenetwork
is the responsibility ofa production engineer
assignedto the erection shop.It must coordinate with counterparts in the outfitting shops,
the on-board outfitting schedules.The block
predefinition plan provides the principal
guidancefor this schedule.Particular attention is given to large machinery items, such
as diesel generators, which are separately
landed before additional blocks enclosethe
machinery space.This processrequires each
such outfit item to be scheduledfor erection
just as if it were a block.
The budget control work volume is prepared using the midship sectionand the block
predefinition plan. A hull construction production engineer allocates man-hours by
using parameters basedon normal past performances that relate man-hours to factors
such as:
. hull weight by mild and high-tensile
steel, block weight, and sub-block
weight
. welding length for subassemblyand
block assembly
r parametric welding length for erection
(by eachweld sizeand position)
. quantities of blocks by hull region (hold
and engine room)
. quantities of scaffoldplanks by hull
region (aft body, fore body, and engine
room)
The shipbuilding activity timing scheduleis
developedusirrgthe block predefinition plan,
the erection master schedule,the basic outfitting and painting plans, and the outfitting
master scheduleprepared by production engineers in the outfitting department. This
schedule is produced in bar chart form bv a
281
282
SHIPPRODUCTION
Fig.7-26.Typicalwork unit.
-ease and safetv of block assemblv
work
-accuracy required during block
assembly
-size and weight limitations of
assembly facilities
-consistency of deck, bulkhead, and
shell plate thicknesses within subblocks and blocks
. straking is established considering
the maximum utilization of standard
width plates
. block lengths are determined as a
function of frame spacing (fl and whole
number of frames (n) in accordance
with:
-maximum
length (f x n) < limiting
length imposed by block assembly
facilities, or considering a cargo
compartment
-maximum
length (length of cargo
compartment/n) < limiting length
imposed by block assembly facilities
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
, D P R O D U C T I OC
AN
NO N T R O L
-requesting
283
284
SHIPPRODUCTION
FLOOR
PLATES
Fig.7-27(a)
Fig.7-27(bl
Fig.7-27(c)
Fig.7-27(d)
r fewerstaysanrlfihorefi
needed
rchednle,:
whichfacilitate
thelatcrprcpa-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
6
14
285
ia
286
SHIPPRODUCTION
,
F
:
I
6
n
, l
ili
t < l
i;
\7
I .9
I
is:f
el
3
9;
<f
tr
tr
tr
a
I
E
^i
N
ano!9
rvanllnsls
Nctslo
llnH
t\
rir
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
287
planning flow shown in Figure 7-29.Both reflect flows through four distinct stages:basic,
major detail, working detail, and work instruction. Both provide for outfrtting deparbment
concernswhich include painting.
3.3.1. Major DetailPlanningand Scheduting.
Major Detail Planning. Among the items addressedin the first detail planning stage are
some which influence key plans that are developedsimultaneously.These are:
.
r
"
.
.
.
288
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
semblythat were calculatedduring basic planning. This scheduledisplays the duration required for assemblyof eachblock for all ships
by each processflow. For example, flat- and
curved-blockassembliesare shown separately.
It is also a master schedulefor shopactivities
for subassembly,fabrication of parts, material requisitioning, and mold loft activities.
Next, with additional inputs from the
outfitting department, specificallyoutfitting
shop master schedulesand block need periodsfor on-blockoutfitting, an integrated schedule is produced while small adjustments are
made in the various shop schedulesas necessary to ensure their coordination.The shop
schedules,so refined, "look forward" for six
months and are updated every two months,
together with the assemblymaster schedule,
by substituting more accurately determined
welding lengths for those estimated during
basic planning.
3.3.2. WorkingDetail Planningand Scheduling.
Worhing Detail Planning. Plans which are
made after key plan approvals are:
. block assemblyguidance
o frllet weld on-blockair test
. work accessholes
. work instruction master
. frnish cut and marking process
. working piecetreatments
. accuracy control
o parts fabrication processlanes
. rough cutting and steel requisition
. block arrangement handbook
. mold loft and work instruction guidance
. accuracycontrol check
The block assembly guidance plan is a hnalization of block assembly preguidance, and
takes into accountthe impact of the approval
comments.
The fillet weld on-block air test plan is
superimposedon a copy of a key plan pre-
289
tory bodies. The specifictest details are included for pressurizing beneath frllet welds,
including positionsof air fittings and air stop
welds. Thesetests are implementedon-block
so as to eliminate the need to test the same
fillet welds during hydrostatic or pneumatic
tests on-board.
The work accessholes plan shows hoies
allowed for temporary accesson a copyof the
samekey plan used to developthe fillet weld
on-block air test plan. Its preparation involves coordinationwith engineersassigned
to the outfrtting and painting shops as well
as the assemblyand erection shops.
The work instruction master plan is the
means by which common work instructions
for the various work stages are provided to
the hull structural designgroup for inclusion
in the yard plans. A work instruction master
plan addressessuch things as:
. block code
. semiblockcode
o erection sequencemarks for the direction of blocks,the keel-laying block,
and insert blocks
. hull parts assemblysequencefor the
subassemblyand assemblystages
. excessallowancesand edgepreparations
o parts-marking techniques,such as
electrophoto(EPM) or size lists
. vital dimensionsneededfor assembling
blocks
The finish cut and marking processplan contains instructions for achieving the overall
and layout dimensions for the panels on
which the blocks are assembled.It specifrcally addresses dimensions for cutting each
panel to finish size,and layout dimensionsfor
longitudinal and transversemembers.
The working piece treatments plan provides instructions regarding disposition of
working pieces(padeyes,staginglugs, receiv-
paredfor approval
hytheownerandre,gula- inggiirle,s,
0[c,),
It norma]ly
isprocesscd
for
290
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
able. Because of this need to employ estimates, the designationof standard sizesnormally favors oversizingsomehull construction
materials. Size standards are established
beforehand, and designers are urged to refrain from designatingalternatives in order
to minimize the percentageof scrap,maximize interchangeabilityof materials, and minimize storagerequirements.
The requisitions of lots required by month
pertain to various materials needed for a
number of blocksfor which there are different
required dates.The requisitions are grouped
into lots per month, with prime consideration given to the parts fabrication sequence.
This ensuressustainedwork flows without the
disruptive need to rearrange jigs or change
machinery settings.Considerationis alsogiven
to subassemblyand assemblyschedulesand
storage areas. Requisitions for steel materials are made with referenceto rough cutting
plans and stockson hand. Their issueauthorizes the purchasing section to combine requirements and place orders with steel mills.
Further, the planning performed is used as
guidance for all marking and cutting plans
which are the basis for steel material allocation sheets.Thesesheetsare commonlyused
for steel material issue orders as well.
The material in the block arrangement
handbookis extracted from a number of key
plans. It conveys the whole ship structure
and block definition. Copies are distributed
mainly to managers and production engineers
in the erection shop.
The mold loft and work instmction guidance plan is compiled by extracting information from many documented plans and
instructions that are prepared by hull structural designersand production engineers.The
information is selectedand edited specifically
to serve the mold loft and the stage plan
sectionfor their work instruction planning.
Formal accuracycontrol checkand report
sheetsare preparedfor eachinterim product
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
291
292
SHIPPRODUCTION
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
293
S H I P ' SP A R T I C U L A R S( A )
A r - S H t PT Y P E
42 - DEADWETGHT
4 3 - C L A S S ( A B Se, t c . )
44 _ HULL WEIGHT
S T R A T EG I C
C U R R E N TC O N T B O L P A R A M E T E R S
BY A,/A,/A,/A" (b )
H I S T O R I C A LC U R V E S
OF MAN.HOUR/TON
(c)
BY Ar /A2
b l - A S S E M B L YW E L O L E N G T H
b2 - sug.Ass'Y wELD LENGTH
b3 - ERECT'NPARAMETRTC
WELD LENGTH
b4 - HULL WEIGHT FOR FA
PANEL PLATE
I N T E R N A LS T R U C T U R E
BUILT.UP LONG'L
SHAPE
b s - B L O C K N U M B E R SF O R
CRANE OPERATION
H U L L W E I G H TC U R V E S
OF MAN.HOUR/TON
BY Ar /A2lA3
{d}
E S T I M A T I O NO F
M A N . H O U R S / T O NB Y A l / A 2
U S I N GC U R R E N T
PRODUCTIVITY
{c')
T O T A L E S T I M A T E DM A N .
H O U R SU S I N GC U R R E N T
PRODUCTIVITY
C=c'xAc
TOTAL MAN.HOURSUSING
C U R R E N TC O N T R O L
PARAMETERS
TOTAL MAN.HOURS
BY Al /A2lA3
D=dxAc
TOTAL MAN.HOURS
TARGET(E)
B=XbnxEfficincyn
S H O PB U D G E T E D
M A N , H O U R(Sf n )
Fig. 7-31.Man-hourbudgetdetermination
system.
As the design develops,more accurateinformation is constantly substituted for previously assessedcharacteristics such as assembly
welding length, on which the control parameters are employed.
294
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
advanceculvesare employed.These.S-curves,
plotted by number of sheets of yard plans
versus time, are scheduleswhich show the
progressofyard plan receiptsand processing
by the loft. Expediting requires awareness
that:
. overexpeditingmay causeloft errors
which could snowball in succeeding
work processes
r insuffrcient expediting could seriously
disrupt compliancewith coordinated
schedulesfor integrated production
Accuracy Control. Most of the problems
causing loft errors and accuracy variations
are those which remain undetected until
block assemblyand erection.There, becauseof
such problems,rework activities are greatly
magnifred.In a well-managedmold loft, processvariations are usually too small to justify
the application of classical accuracycontrol
theory (see Chapter VIII). However, loft errors (mistakes,omissions,etc.) are of great
concern,because they can be sleepers for
untimely disruption. Error prevention measures such as the followine are of utmost importance:
o a counterchecksystem by senior loftsmen following self-checksby loftsmen
performing the work
o routine educationand training
. clear mold loft instructions and work
instruction plans preparedby production engineers
r written proceduresfor checking,
recording,classi$ring,and statistically
analyzing errors
'o
maintenanceof loft defectlists and
posting graphic representationsof
frequericy of occurrence
3.4.2. Parts Fabrication Shop. Scheduling.
The parts fabrication shop scheduleis drawn
by processlane with referenceto the erection
and assemblymaster schedules.Start dates
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
, D P R O D U C T I OC
AN
NO N T R O L
295
3.4.3. Subassembly Section. Separation of subassembly work from assembly work makes
sense,because subassemblies and blocks have
significantly different work contents. This
makes process flows impractical. Addressing
subassemblies separately enables work to be
considered in small increments that are very
effective for work load leveling (providing
constant rates of work). Other benefits include:
. improved productivity, because layingout, fitting, welding, and distortion
removal work is more accessible
r better welding quality, because more
welding is performed downhand
.less material handling and administrative work during assembly, as fewer
material items and less scaffolding
are then required
. large facilities, such as heavy-capacity
cranes and buildings with high ceilings
and large doors needed for assemblins
blocks, are not occupied with work
that can be performed elsewhere
. more opportunity to apply labor-saving
devices (conveyors, automatic welders,
and robots)
296
SHIPPRODUCTION
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
297
laying for the same ship, as well as for accumulating blocks before keel laying of additional ships. Other factors that production
engineersmust considerare the bulk of each
block and actual block assemblyprogressas
related to assemblyschedules.
Material Control. Most subassembliesare
of sufficient size to be readily located.However, becauseof their bulk, it is important
to ensure delivery of subassembliesto the
particular stages of the block assembly
processlanesin plannedassemblysequences.
This transfer effort requires meticulous
crane schedules and skilled material handlers to ensure that the schedulesare faithfully implemented. Sufficient, not excessive,
storageareas next to the stages where subassembliesare neededenhanceefficiency.
Progressand Productiuity. Welding dominates assemblyjust as it dominates subassembly. Assessmentof the lengths to be
welded is neededbeforehandto allocate the
required number of weldersper day commensurate with scheduleadherence.Just enough
material handlers, frtters, and crane operators are allocatedto avoid disruptinguniform
welding work flow. Thus, continuing to improve block assemblyproductivity is dependent on continuous improvement of welding
productivity and on providing the necessary
support services,while minimizing the number of support workers.
Particularly regarding processflows organized for flat and curved block assembly,
every effort is needed to avoid disrupting
influences.Ifthe assemblyof oneblock stalls,
work for all succeedingblocks and possibly
for erection is adverselyaffected.Disruptive
influencesinclude:
. changeorders
o failure to exploit statistical control of
manufacturing
o manufacturing errors
. errors in allocating required durations,
particularly for outfitting and painting
298
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
4. Production
Control
Production control is responsible for monitoring cost and schedule adherence while
work is in progress. The production control
organization is generally responsible for issuing man-hour budgets to be used to control
the shipbuilding process and upon which progress will be judged. Progress relates actual
work completed and actual man-hours spent.
Consequently, there is need for evaluation
which involves sorting, analyzing, and reorganizing performance data. These data are
collected by control groups in order to monitor expended man-hours, production progress,
and productivity, and to feed back system-oriented data for estimating future shipbuilding
projects. For these purposes, it is sufficient to
address only manpower among the product
resources. This is because material is identified both by system and zone, and facilities
and expenses are charged as overhead on direct material and manpower accounts. Thus,
practical indices (see Figure 7-5) for monitor-
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
299
-o
I
a
tr
l
f"
*-""i..c
u-
F
I
E
B
4.3. Productivity
Indices
Productivity indices (see Figure 7-5) utilize
both man-hours expendedand the measures
used for monitoring production progress
(weight, welding parameters, laid cable
length, etc.). Typical plots of such data are
shown in Figures 7-38 throughT-42 relative
to establishedstandardsofefficiency.Each of
SHIPPRODUCTION
ORGANIZATION
COOE
rano | {L$o!'
FABRICATION
SHOP
OR ASSEMBLY
TEAM
REOUIRED
TRADES
PBODUCTASPECTSiLEVEL
PROCESS
EREAKDOWN
STAGE
AREA
SHIPBREAKDOWN
ZONE
ORGANIZATION
COOE + PROOUCT
ASPeCT9LEVEL= COSTCENTER
PRODUCT-ORIENTEO
WORKBREAKOOWN
STRUCTUBE
Fig. 7-37.Typicalcostcenters.
t-
SYSIEM
HH
SHIPPRODUCTION
ORGANIZATION
CODE
YARD
I
WPE OF
WORK
WORKFR
FABRICATION
SHOP
OR ASSEMBLY
TEAM
IDFNTIFICATION
NIJMRFR
REOUIRED
TRADES
PROOUCT
ASPECTS/LEVEL
PROCESS
AREAKDOWN
STAGE
AREA
SHIPBREAKDOWN
ZONE
SYSTEM
HH
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
301
E
l
I
WEIGHT
EFFIC ENCY
OUTSTANOING
WELD]NG
(I
l
+
z
cc
l
PARAMETRIC.COMPONENT WEIGHT
(I
l
+
z
P A R A M E T R I CC O M P O N E N T W E I G H T
302
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
=
=
=
=
total
total
total
Ieivi
man-hours
parametric man-hours
nonparametric man-hours
= elvl + eZVz+
where
e
v
5. MaterialControl
The relationship between design, planning,
scheduling, and material control functions
has beendiscussedpreviouslyin this chapter.
Also, Chapter VI indicated the need for and
requirements of material definition during
the designstages.The information developed
by designers provides the framework upon
which other shipyard peoplebuild necessary
PLANNING,
AND PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING,
CONTROL
------l+
f
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| >
I LtrvtrL
I
PRODUCTIVITYINDEX
PROGRESSINDEX
MANPOWERINDEX
l+
303
tr
T
t---l+
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PRODUCTIVITYINDEX
oN-BLOCK|
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MANPOWERINDEX
t+
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PRODUCTIVITYINDEX
P R O G R E S SI N D E X
MANPOWERINDEX
LtrVtrL
'
> P R O G R E S SI N D E X
>
Fig. 7-43.Productivitycontrolgroup.
is most important, becausematerial orders
must be placedstrategicallyto facilitate justin-time production.
Material control is one of the most important functions in applying and controlling
group technologyshipbuilding. In describing
the pallet concept(seeChapterVI and Figure
6-2), the importance of material is stressed.
The pallet is the entity that organizesdetail
planning and scheduling and is the driving
force in production and production control.
Since actual production work requires material, problems and delays in obtaining the
proper material, at the proper time, in the
proper location, present significant roadblocks to productivity. This realization motivates the emphasis on early material definition in the designcycle(seeFigure 6-1), on
the need for shipyard standardization in design and work processes,and on the use of
the pallet conceptto coordinateall aspectsof
the shipbuilding system. Control of material
is the means of controlling production.
Material control includes authority for
material requisitioning and direction over
purchasing, expediting,warehousing,palletizing, and delivery to the work site. Material
control convertsdesigndata, which is by ship/
system/stage,into terms of material by ma-
PARAN4
ETFIC-COMPONENT WEIGHT
meeting
schedule areassisned:
terialanddelivery,
to ensure
304
SHIPPRODUCTION
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PLANNING,
AND PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING,
CONTROL
305
306
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
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307
-r:"i
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C L A S S IF I C A T I O N
MATERIAL
EXAMPLES
ALLOCATED MATERIAL
MACHINERY,
S P E CA
I L
EOUIPMENT
& FITTINGS
AS
VALVE,
EXPANSION
JOINT
STOCK MATERIAL
FLANGE,
E LBOW,
NUTS,&
AOLTS
STANOAROIZATION
USAGE RATE
O U A N T I T YT O 8 E O R D E R E D
VARIAALE
B A S E OO N O U A N T I T Y R E O U I R E O
B Y D E S I G NO E P A R T M E N T .
YES
VARIABL
B A S E DO N O U A N T I T Y R O U I R E D
B Y O S I G ND E P A R T M E N TW I I H
S O M EM A R G I N .
YES
CONSTANT
GENERALLY
NO
308
SHIPPRODUCTION
r
I
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
M A ] E R I A LI D E N T I F I C A T I O N
F O R D E S I G N&
PRODUCTION
M A T E R I A LI D E N T I F I C A T I OFNO R P R O C U R E M E N T
WORK
TYPE
COMMONNESS
REQUISIION
;TANDARDIZATIOI'
ILASSIFICATIOI.
z
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309
S Y S T E M / F U LOLE S C R I P T I O N
NIL
S Y S T E M / F U LDLE S C R I P T I O N
S Y S T E M / F A M I LDYE S C RPI I I O N
SHIP/SYSTM/PART
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COMPONENC
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S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
'1OXX
PIPE
STRUCTURE
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STEET
(EXCL
PIPE)
PIPING
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(co & BALLAST)
4OXX
PIPELINE
PIPELINE
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BATTEN
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H0LD)
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EQUIP
BAfLAST)
!c!j
32XXREMOIE
CONT,
(99 &BALLAST)
41XX
IVAIN
ENGINE
51XXPRIMARY
EIECIR.SOURCE
42XX
BOILER
52XXSECONOARY
ELECTR.
SOURCE
33XX
REFRIGERATOR
43XXPROPELLER
&SHAFTING
53XXELECTR.
LIGHTING
& SIGNAL
34XXJOINERY
(LIVINGQUAHTERS)
44XX
AUX,MACHINERY
54XXNAV& COM.
(ELECTR.)
35XXOTHER
(tIVINGQUARTERS)
45XX
FUNNEL
& UPTAKE
55XX
WIRINGFITTINGS
26XXCARGOGEAR
& HATCHCOVER
DECKMACHINERY
46XX
PIPE
FITTING
56XX
CABLE
27XXDECKEQUIP
(EXCI 24,25,&26)
37XX
MISCELLANEOUS
47XXMEASURING
INSTRUMENT
22XX
DECK
COVERING
13XX
NON-FERROUS
14XX
WELDING
24XXNAV,
& COM.
l!g!lLEgIlr
25XXANCHORING
& MOORING
16XX
CASTING
& FORGING
17XX
MISCELLANEOUS
28XX
AIRCOND,
& VENI
1gXXFACILITIES
50xx
2OXX
PIPELINE
(EXCLC0 & BALLAST)
igxxrectrrres
& EXPENSES
57XX
MISCELLANEOUS
48XX
MISCELLANEOUS
58XX
WIRELESS
49XXFACILITIES
& EXPENSES
59XXFACTUTTES
& EXPENSES
PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
U
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S H I PP B O D U C T I O N
notonly
cltion
ofthocompononts
which
can shows
r nisthodology
furclussilyirig
s[uri-
r-
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
A ,N D P R O D U C T I OCNO N T R O L
Classif
icationof Standards
Material
Standards
SO
rs
Common
componenls
Hullfinings
Machinery
fittings
Electric
fitlings
Sub-total
Designprocess
standard
process
Prod.engineering
standards
SOT Insoection
orocess
standard
SD
Nos
600
600
200
200
1,600
t,100
100
200
Sub-total
1.400
Machinery
drawings
Component
andfitting,standard
drawings
Olherguidance
drawings
1,200
350
Sub-total
|,900
Grandtotal
15n
4.900
Fig. 7-51.Typicalclassification
standards.
dards. The quantities shown are from a corporation which operatesfive yards for building ships of various types and sizes from
15,000dwt to 500,000dwt. This organization
facilitates the catalogingand coordinationof
various types. Basic standards (IS) are those
that must be closely followed by design and
production.Standard drawings (SD) serveas
guidance,allowing someflexibility to meet individual requirements. Standards also provide opportunitiesfor savingman-hours,maintaining high quality, and simplifying computerization.
Someshipbuildershave extendedthe use
of standards to modules of arrangements of
various components.These"designmodules"
are intentionally general in nature so that
they may be reapplied in different ship sizes
and types. They also anticipate different customer needs and therefore allow some flexibility in application.
Further refinements have produced interim productsfor which the bulk of the planning data on file is immediately available for
reuse.This includes diagrammatics,composites, MLP, MLC, MLF, material detail design, and work instruction drawings.
Another iinportant aspectis the incorporation of machinery selectedfrom manufac-
313
314
SHIPPRODUCTION
uled to create a basic outfit sequence for preparation of diagrammatics and their material lists (MLS). As planning continues, detail design drawings and the breakdown of
work to pallets proceed simultaneously. A
specific work stage and a specific work zone
are depicted on each work instruction drawing (see Figure 7-53). Subsequently pallets
are scheduled. This process is a refinement of
the overall schedule, because the planning
addresses smaller increments. Since the material requirements are contained first in an
MLS, and then in material lists by pallet
(MLF), the procurement data are refined as
well. If the shipyard is building a vessel which
is very similar in configuration to previously
built vessels, pallets will be defined almost
simultaneously with the new zone definitions.
This enhances both the speed and accuracy
of informational support needed for overlapping design, material control, and production.
Thus, the total shipbuilding system incorporates similar concepts applied to work organization, design, planning and scheduling, and
material control.
5 . 3 . W a r e h o u s i n ga n d P a l l e t i z i n g
The warehousing function is directed by material control. It receives and stores material
until an order is issued for its palletizing and
delivery to the work site. The flow of information for warehousing and palletizing is
illustrated in Figure 7-54. Tt'e goals of warehousing are to maintain accurate count and
physical control of materials while minimizing handling and storage costs. The inventory
process is aided by the identifrcation codes
utilized for materials definition in the design
stage. Coding and standardization of materials permits the same commodities for
different contracts and hulls to be stored in
common locations. This is a recognized costsaving measure in warehousing, provided
there is adequate record keeping. There has
to be clear assignment of responsibilities for
all warehouse transactions. Accurate inven-
MAIEIIAL
O'iAIL
OESION
Fig. 7-52.Relationship
of materiallists to design
andprocurement.
tory recordsare essentialfor support of zone
outfrtting.
Warehousingalso includes the combining of materials,storedby material codenumber, into pallets for delivery to the work site.
Palletizing is the act of collecting a group of
materials together to match an MLF. When
a pallet issueorder is received,material must
be taken from storageto a kitting center where
it is placedin one or more containersfor delivery as a pallet (seeFigure 7-55).The kitting
centerand the palletsthemselvesmay be conceptual,in that a large item may be delivered
directly from a subcontractor'sshop,while several other componentsassigned to the same
pallet may be separatelytransported to the
work site in one or more containers (see
Figure 7-56).It is also commonpractice to
locate the kitting center adjacentto or within the physical perimeter of the shop which
suppliesthe material being palletized. For
example,pipe piece kitting is usually accomplished within the pipe shop by pipe
shop personnel.The essential point is that
final responsibility for palletizing be given to
a singleorganization(the warehousedivision).
P L A N N I N GS,C H E D U L I N G
A ,N D P R O D U C T I OCNO N T R O L
315
1 . O N B L O C KO U T F I T T I N G
F O FM A T E R I A L S
P R E - A S S E M B L EI N
D T OA U N I TA F T E RA
S T E E LB L O C KI S T U R N E DO V E R .
2, ON,ELOCKOUTFITTINGFOR MATERIALPRE
ASSEN,4BLED
INTOA UNIT.
F O BN 4 A T E F I A L
3 . O N B O A R DO U T F I T T I N G
PRE ASSEI,,4BLED
INTOA UNIT.
4. ON.BLOCKOUTFITTINGFOF N4ATERIAL
TC
B I I N S T A L L TPDI E C FB Y P I F C F
5.ON-BLOCK
OUTFITTINF
GO B M A T E F I A LT O
AE
F T E FA
PIECE-BY,PIEC
BEINSTALLED
S T E E TB L O C KI S T U B N E DO V E F ,
6 . O N B O A R DO U T F I T T I N P
GR I O RT O A N A R E A
C L O S U R EB Y A N O V E R H E A D
BLOCK.
7.ON,BOARD
P R I O RT O
OUTFITTING
SYSTEMSTESTS(OR OTHERKEY EVENTS
ASStLtCltDr.
P R I O RT O L A U N C H
8 . O N B O A R DO U T F I T T I N G
9 . O N - B O A B DO U T F I T T I N A
GF T E RL A U N C H
ONEINTERIM
PRODUCT
O N E G R O U PO F R E Q U I R E D
MATERIALS
ONE WORKACTIVITY
I NS C H E D U L I N G
people
pr0cilrement
is
thatexpediting
action
duction
effort.
Nominal
overcapacity
ofsuch
316
SHIPPRODUCTION
ili'i'i's
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PLANNING,
SCHEDULING,
AND PRODUCTION
CONTROL
317
:Et:':I
Fig.7-55(a)
Fis.7-55(b)
Fig. 7-55(a).Pallets stored outdoors.Fig. 7-55(b).
Pallets stored outdoors.Fig. 7-56. Subcontractor
deliveriestreated like pallets.
Fig.7-56
WAREHOUSE
l
I
MA|N
l
I
,o,*,
%d
TO PURCHASING
N F O R M A TION
I O N AEOUT
M A T E R ] A L SHORTAGES
SH(
dd
./
m W Z m w a
---
,,r'"o
t dd
. / \
,u"*,rr",
]
I
ad
L A D O E R .T A N K . H A N D R A ] L
MACHINERYSEAT. ETC
318
SHIPPRODUCTION
References
1. Okayama,Y., and L.D. Chirillo, Product
Worh Breakdown Structure, National
Shipbuilding ResearchProgram, Maritime
Administration in cooperationwith Todd
Pacific Shipyards Corp.,revised December
1982.
2. Lamb, T., and A&P Appledore,Inc.,Build
StrategyDeuelopment,National Shipbuilding
ResearchProgram, U.S. Department of the
Nary in cooperationwith Newport News
Shipbuilding, February 1994.
3. Jonson,C.S.,and L.D. Chirillo, Outfit
Planning, National Shipbuilding Research
Program, Maritime Administration in
cooperationwith Todd Pacific Shipyards
Corp.,December1979.
CHAPTER VIIl
A C C U R A C YC O N T R O L
1. Introduction
A shipbuilding system based on group technology,using a product-orientedwork breakdown structure and integrated hull construction, outfitting, and painting, requires that
accuracy be controlled. Otherwise, work in
succeedingstagesof production is adversely
affectedby inaccurateinterim products.Consequently, a system is neededto control the
accuracy of interim products. Although the
justification for such a system may initially
be the need to monitor the construction of
interim products to minimize delays and rework during erection, an accuracycontrol system is considerably more than this. When
fully operational, accuracy control forms a
major part of the total shipbuilding system.
It involves the regulation of accuracy as a
managementtechnique for improving the productivity of the entire shipbuilding system
by focusing attention on individual areas
where improvements offer significant benefits. It also providesthe meansfor monitoring work by individual work processor problem
area.Additionally, a fully implementedaccuracy control system establishesa quantitative
feedback loop between production and planning, design,and engineering.
Accuracy control is defined as "the use of
statistical techniquesto monitor, control and
continuously improve shipbuilding design de-
319
320
SHIPPRODUCTION
[tntgsthgy000u1,,
uppt,dxihta["
, rur*ul dirtribution (see Figure 8-1). Two parameters
N(x',
ACCURACYCONTROL
N(iz, oz)
321
/\
322
SHIPPRODUCTION
]ESIGN
!A M E
HUI!
NO
Tq'-a>
FOCESS
\11
fu\trf,1/-
STAGEOF
cotISTR
; AR.Ts
MEASUREO
\,Z
P L A T E <- / l/t
IHK
MEASUREMENT
0 E S C R I P T T O NC , /
N A M E
eA.r
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|
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t>rM6Nst6{
Dr{r AS IARGET
DlM
M E A SO
(T)
\,/\7-\
\,/
\nn
' -6 'Zl
Xmax'+o.OG
FORMULAS:
i . : xN
: x , -d.3<
rrmpl. rir.--______
N.
.v.
A, -O A1
v l r l a t l o n- - -
- - - -
rrngo___________
R ' X m r n- X m s x
Fig.8-5.Random
sample
datato beentered
0nant andR control
chart,
4:
_R' A.Z7 u.
ACOURACYcoNTRoL
r
n . K
U C L = i + AzR
L C L - x = -Azn
and the R chart values are:
CL _ E -
IR
K
UCL = D + R
LCL = D s R
323
z(t, o) ._,/-.\
./'
\
324
SHIPPRODUCTION
325
ACCURACYCONTROL
S T A N D A F DR A N G E
UPPER
TOLEFANCE
LIMIT
LOWER
TOLERANCE
LIMIT
AccEPr
> REWORK
ii
I
I
ACCEPT/INVESTIGATE
I
I
I
I
> ACCEPT/INVESTIGATE
B U IL O U P
._VA
\
YA/
)Y/x
)
B A C K I N "G' ' ' l
Fig. 8-8.Erectionjointgapreworktypes.
Margins to be trimmed at an erection
site are commitments to rework, so their
use shouldbeminimized. Statistical methods
could be used to anticipate normal dimensional variations and to provide compensation, such as specific allowancesfor excess.
Thus excessis applied to dimensions to account for shrinkage that is predicted by statistical analysis, while margins are applied
where shrinkage cannot be predicted. Most
of the edges of parts, subassemblies,and
blocks are finish-cut accordingly.
A,/Cstarbswith statistical analysis of variations generated at each of the prerequisite
work processesfor hull erection, including
work processesduring block assembly,subassembly, parts fabrication, lofting, and design. Measurements recorded for any work
_-/
326
SHIPPRODUCTION
-welding
-fitting of reverseside members and
welding
. erection
-positioning
-welding
As shown in Figure 8-9, any A./Cactivity can
be classifiedinto one of three basic management functions that are inherent in any industrial enterprise.Theseare planning, executing (field work), and evaluating (analysesand feedback).Thus, A./Cresponsibilities
can readily and effectively be incorporated
into any existing organization provided:
. one manager has responsibilitiesfor
all, not just A,/C,planning, executing,
and evaluating of operations
o planning includes design and material
definition
r within organizationssuch as a hull
structural designsection,production
planning group,or subassemblysection,
peoplewith pertinent engineering
qualifications are assignedspecific
and substantial A/C responsibilities
Effective A/C is critically dependenton unified operations, organized information, and
qualified incumbents. A special A./Corganization is not a prerequisite.In fact, involving
all aspectsof the shipbuilding organization
with A/C is preferred. The specific people
throughout a shipyard who are assignedA,/C
responsibilitiesmust at least function as a de
facto A./Cgroup. The person who maintains
the principal A/C overview for an operations
manager is a key individual.
2. Planning
Accuracycontrol planning is essentialto the
proper functioning of the system.The work is
closely associatedwith regular design, engi-
ACCURACYCONTROL
EVALUATING
EXECUTING
PRELIMINARY
PLANNING
327
STANDARDIZING
WORKPqOCESSES
ACCURACIES
SI-]FINKAGES
CHECK
P O I N T S& L
CHECK
METHODS
WORK INSTRUCTIONS
M A K I N GG R A P H S
ASSEMBLY
PROCEDURES
RESEARCHFIEASON
FOR VARIATIONS
CHECK
SHEETS
q o
DATA ANALYSIS
COUNTERMEASURES
FOR VAFiATIONS
! O
WORK PRACTICES
SHRINKAGE
ALLOWANCES
TOLEBANCES
l"-*.-*T
-fi
illl
DESIGN
,,PFODUCTION
WORKINSTFUCTIONS
MOLDLOFT
PROCESS
PLAN(FA8/SU8/ASSY/ERE)
NC DAIA, TEMPLATES
PRODUCTION
E N G I NE E R I N G ' '
328
SHIPPRODUCTION
2.1. Preliminary
Planning
Preliminary planning addressessuch matters as block divisions,hull straking, and assembly procedures.Necessarily,preliminary
5 T A { O A R OASG T I C Y
H U L LY I T A L P O I I T S / 8 A S I L I f l E 5
L o c A i l o n t A c c u Rc Y
S P T C I A L' U 5 I O T I R O R
O P i R AI' N
I GR I C U I R T H T N T :
T I I S T I N GP R O P R I E T A R Y
S T A I O A N DO5R T S I J T A I T S
x c t S sp L A N
A C A I A L T S I SO F I O R I A L L Y
A C H I T V IA
OC C U M C Y
8 L 0 C KF A 8 . / t R t C T t o {
PRODUT'IIOfl
PLAIiNIilG:
| O R K P R O C T SPSt A i l N I J { G
STRUCTURAL
s E c rI o i l s
:l..#fl+++*r+*!!%P"
3i3
i?l;:
I O C A I I O NI A C C U R A C Y
I I I S T I N GP R O P R I T T A R Y
STAIIOAFOS
CR tSIII{ATtS
gC ANALYSISOF NORMALLY
AJHIEVEOACCURACY
BLOCK FAB.,RECTION
P R O O U C T IP
OLi A f l I i I I G :
IORX PROCESS
PLAIITIIIIG
ASSEFBI-Y
STQUTIiCE
PLANI.IIfl6
SUA-BLOCKVARIATIONMERGINGEON'S
SUBASSEMBLYVITAL PTS/BASEUNES
LOCATIONAND ACCURACY
II]5IIilG PROPRIEIARY
STAilDAROS/E5I I IiATTS
E X C I S SD I5 T RI
P R O O U C T IP
OTI iA N N I N G
I O R KP R O C T SPSL A N I 1 I N G
ASSEI{BLY
PLATI
SEOUENCt
X/C LOFT:
A D OR T F I R T N C E
LII{t5 TO h/C IAPS
SUEASSEMBLYVAFIJATION
MERG.EON'S
PART VITAL PTS/RFERENCELINS
LOCATION
ACCURACYCONTROL
329
Fig.8-11.Sources
ofvariationby stageofconstruction.
. shapeblocks that are spaciousand
open,to facilitate zoneoutfitting
To carry out such studies systematically,
planners must have accessto drawings, such
as a general arrangement, midship section
and lines plan, and proposed schemes for
block divisions and shell straking. The planners, who are assignedat the hull construction department level and to the parts fabrication shop, subassemblysection,block
assemblysection,and erection section,are
furnished these drawings by the design department. As a routine matter, the same
information is available to the planners
who have been assigned A/C responsibilities. They use the variation-merging
equations, based upon statistically obtained assessmentsof normal performance
at workstations, and proposeoptimum design details, assembly and erection sequences,tolerances,etc.,accordingly.The
final schemeis fed back to designers,who
then developkey plans, such as a shell expansion, a block plan, and ultimately work
instructions, all of which containA./C-derived
requirements.
2.2. Delail Planning
Accuracycontrol considerationsin detail planning are really processanalyses from an A,/C
viewpoint. Through such analyses,problems
which can be solved by regulating certain
dimensionsare revealedin advance.In other
words, to obtain required accuracyfor a final
process,it is necessaryto identify the specific precedingprocessesthat are significantly
contributing to a final or merged variation.
Thus, A,/Canalysesidentify on a quantitative
basisboth the work processesand the design
details which should be improved.
Of course, such determinations are not
made solely from an A./C viewpoint. Accuracy control techniques are analybicalmanagement tools that contribute to processanalyses.They are the means for a shipyard as an
330
SHIPPRODUCTION
M I N I M A LE R E C - T I OW
NO R K
BLOCKALIGNt\4ENT
IN S T R U C T I O N S
FOR SI-IIPWFIGHTS
B L O C K SW H I C H M I N l M I Z E
R E W O R K 8 Y G A S C U T T I N G&
B A C K . S T R l PW E L D l N G
D U R I N GE R E C T I O N
] N S T R U C T 1 O NT
SO
F I N I S HA B L O C K
O U R I N GA S S E M B L Y
AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE
T O L E R A N C EL I N 4 I T S
AJC PLANNING
VITAL POINTS
VITAL DIMENSIONS
BASE LINES
R E F E F E N C EL I N E S
S T A N D A H D SF O R :
WORK PROCESSES
ACCURACY
STRAIGHTNESS
FLATNESS
PLUMB
LEVEL
SQUARENESS
TOLERANCES
ETC.
o
U
a
a
Y
(J
o
U
(r
W E L D I N GI N T E R N A L
It,4EMBERS
P A N E LF I N I S H
CUTTING
P A N E LM A R K I N G
P A N E LA S S E M B L Y
U
a
o
W E L D I N GI N T E F N A L
MEMBEFS
P A N E LF I N I S H
CUTTING
P A N E LM A R K I N G
o
i
J
PANEL ASSEMBLY
T O L E R A N C EL I I t , 4 I T S
ACCURACYCONTROL
Dimensions
relatedto
operatrng
requirements
Examples
Characteristic
hull
drmenslons
Outfil
component
Interseclrons
at butl joints
satistyregulatorybodies
establishcapacity/tonnage
qualrtyassuranceto customer
leedback to yard-fuC analysis
leedbackto standardsorganizationsmodify standards
6. affect erectionproductivity
2 . locatron/alignment
ol specialcomponenlsroll-on/roll-off
ramps,gun mounts,etc.
'1.
shellplaleotfsetsai butt
2 . chineotlsets
3 . localionsof majorbulkheads
largestructuralfoundations-location,
tlatness
't.
WhyTheseMeasurements
Are lmportant
straightness
and levelot hullbaseline
length,draft,breadthof variouspoints
hullvolumFoffsets at chineor bilges
tonnage/tankage
measurements
3 . specialcustomerrequirements
Major
structural
intersections
at butl jornts
2 . machinerycomponentsmatingto component
on anotherunit
3 . pipe penetrationlocalions
1. affectstrength,reworkrequirements,
detormationduringf abrication
2. leedback to yard-AJC analysis
leedback
3.
to standardsagency
4. alfect labricationproductivity
1. alfeclproperoperationof machinery
2. atfecl productivityot zone outfitting
3. leedback to yard-tuC analysis
4. leedback to standardsagency
Process
related
measurements
1. fit-upgaps
2. weldingshrinkage
3. weldingdistortion
4. bendingaccuracy
5. line heating
6. cutting,markingaccuracy
7. curvatureot componenislabricaledon pin jig
'1.
assistdetermination
of processaccuracy
2. affect productivityol subsequent
processes
3. feedbackto yard process evaluation
4. feedbackto standardsagency
Measurements
to lacilitate
tabrication
1. platenlevel
2. jig alignmenuaccuracy
3. buildingdock baselinealignment
4. baselineson parts,blocksto tacilitate
measurements,
alrgnment,
assembly,
outtit. painting and erection
1. assistlabrication
2. atlect productivity
3. teedbackto yard-fuC analysisof
alternativemethods/processes
331
332
SHIPPRODUCTION
Assembly Procedure:
1. Fit the flange on the web shifted by
(fwd end of longitudinal).
2. Fit the flange on the web shifted by
(aft end of penetrating piece).
3. After the plates are welded together
create the bottom panel, incorporate
variation
Z t
Zz
ZB
Za
Sr
Sz
to
a
assembly, panel marking, panel frnish cutting, and internal member welding to predict the normal distribution for blocks being
planned.The sametechniqueis employedfor
subassemblyand for parts fabrication. This
enablesA/C planners to advise designersof
specificA/C matters that are to be included
in work instructions.
2.3. Standardization
Standardization is an important feature of
group technology shipbuilding, as was discussed in Chapters VI and VII. Standards
related to accuracycontrol can be discussed
in terms of work standards and accuracy
standards.
= A z - ( A : +
= Zt + [(Sr
= lE2 - (Pz
= Zt + [(Sr'
ACCURACYCONTROL 333
ESTIMATED MERGED VARIATION (Z)
Samplesize
e
n
s
Mean value
i
o
n
P1
126
+0.4
0.91
P2
50
+0.5
0.79
6,, 61
156
0.51
Perpendicularity
of bottomlongitudinaland penetratingpiece
enos.
51
140
+1.1
0.61
Fittingpositionol bottomlongitudinalflange.
Si
140
+0.5
1.61
52
50
4.4
0.81
52
50
+0.6
1.82
A1
36
+2.9
1.38
Lengthol boftompanelafterfinishcut.
A2
83
1.64
Fittingpositionof bottomlongitudinal.
A3
70
+1.6
-O.8
2.02
Fittingpositionof penetratingpiece.
E1
42
4.4
2.43
E2
44
+1.9
4.60
+0.5
+2.0
+ 1. 0
+1.0
8.26
10.70
13.79
18.22
Variance
n
x
c
6i,6i
EstimatedGap
Zj
Z?
z3
z4
' 17"k
' 14"k
' 170/"
' Estimated
occurrenceof gaps which are 5 or more mm wide; back-stripweldingis required.
Samplesize
n
Mean value
t
Variance
o2
Aclualoccurrence
of back-stripwelding
21
Z2
Z3
Zo
85
82
78
72
+0.8
+2.3
+ 1. 1
+2.2
7.61
9.71
10.02
13.75
4"k
12Y"
6%
13o/"
Fig.8-1a(b).
2.3.1. Work Standards.Any work processcan
be performed with varying degreesof accuracy. When it is controlled so that it is always
performed the same way, variations will be
normally distributed and can be analyzed
statistically. Without such controlled work
processes,statistical analysis is not valid.
Thus a crucial part of A/C is to ensure that
accuracyvariations remain random and are
not the result of arbitrarily introduced bias.
Standardization of work processesand monitoring to ensure complianceare fundamental
334
SHIPPRODUCTION
excess
shrinkage allowance
baselines and match marks
checking procedures
parts fabrication and assembly
schemes
. A"/C information in work instructions
At the startup of A/C planning, the following
questions are asked to determine standards
for excess:
.
.
.
.
A"/Cscrutinyshrinksmarginsuntil most
of them becomejust the excessallowances
neededto compensate
for variations.Excess
rI
I
I
I
i
ACCURACYCONTROL
335
applied to every work process. The more demanding standard range is used as the accuracy standard for each particular work process in order to ensure control of the merged
variation at erection. By definition, standard
range is associatedwith high probability ri +
2o or 95 percent).
Of the few remaining variations, those
outside the standard range which do not require rework during the next work stage, nor
spoil end product accuracy, are acceptable
and are regarded as being within a tolerance
limit. This is a tolerance limit because it
applies to fewer cases and includes some
added allowance for acceptance. However,
such limits must be achievable with normal
production capabilities and must not impair
structural integrity ofthe end product.
This approach recognizes basic realities
in any industrial enterprise. While more demanding accuracy standards are applied to
normal operations, some allowance is made
for the effect on accuracy ofon-the-job trainees, newly developed machines, etc. The concept of a standard range with a tolerance
limit encourages managers to react to trends
away from normally achieved accuracy before
rework is required.
3. Executing
Accuracy control execution is concerned with
two tasks:
. define when, what, and how to measure
. take measurements and record data
Before looking into the various aspects of the
execution phase, it is useful to review the
purpose of this effort. The objectives of an
accuracy control program are to determine
that work processes are in a state of statistical control, to maintain that state of control,
and to provide information to management to
facilitate process analysis and improvement.
The frrst two are important both in the short
and long terms. Production workers can monitor the work processeswith the aid of control
charts and make adjustments when necessary to maintain the desired state of control.
This has obvious short-term benefrts in decreasing product variability and hence improving productivity. Maintaining processes
in control has the additional purpose of ensuring the validity ofa statistical analysis of
thoseprocesses.This processanalysisto continuously improve productivity is the third
objective.It is this analysisthat providesthe
principal motivation and benefit of an accuracy control program.
336
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
3.1. Self-Check
Accuracycontrol includesa self-checksystem
that workers and their immediate leaders
execute.Self-checksare crucial. Workers (or
work groups) have not completeda job until
they have checkedtheir work to assurecompliance with written accuracy instructions.
Thus, self-checksshould be regarded as production work just as much as any other
work task. Subsequently,work leaders, one
for every work group (approximately eight
workers),checkthe samework and recordthe
pertinent final data. Very important checkpoints and lines, often called control items,
are again checkedand recordedby the next
higher level of supervision. If such data are
unreliable or not available, an A/C svstem is
ineffective.
3.2. Whenand Whatto Check
Start and finish date schedulesare usually
postedat each control station for parts fab-
ACCURACYCONTROL
337
fied accuracystandards.Becausemeasuring
every dimensionof every part is impractical,
random sampling is employed to monitor
accuracy tendencies.Special or large structural parts, such as girder or transverseweb
assemblies,are exceptions.Each should be
measuredin accordancewith checksheet instructions,with particular attention to deformation. When cutting machines,suchas N/C,
are employed,their maintenanceis a significant factor in the uniform working circumstances which are the bases for a valid
random sampling. Maintenancecheckson cutting machinesshould be frequent and regular.
The accuracyofbent parts is critical for
achievingthe accuraciesspecifredfor assemblies. Inaccurately bent parts are frequently
forced to frt and are the sourcesof internal
stresseswhich causedeformationwhen welding. Thus, all curved shell parts should be
checked,using sightline templates and other
information providedby loftsmento establish
for each plate as required:
. degreesofinclination for setting the
templates
. matchesof the plate edgeswith seam
marks on the templates
. clearancesbetweenthe template edges
and plate surfaces
r transverse and longitudinal curvatures
o twisting
o straightness of the sightline (seeFigure
8-17)
Analogous techniques and checks apply to
other parts, such as twisted longitudinals.
3.3.2. Subassembly.Typically, the fit of stiffeners,brackets, and faceplates,such as on a
web plate, and how to prevent and,/ordeal
with deformation and shrinkage caused by
welding, are important for A,/Cof subassemblies. Therefore, measuring activity during
subassemblyshould concentrateon checking
frtting dimensions,checkingfor deformation
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
MA
<)
rr
11()Nr
fl:,
DeC-{-
-\
\,
c><' ,.,
o
uJ
Fig. 8-16.Accuracycontrolchecksheet.
f<,t,s
ACCURACYCONTROL
339
*';rl
',1'1".,/
3.3.3. Block Assembly. Achieving specified accuracy in an assembled block is most important, because the block assembly process
offers the last opportunity to deal with variations that otherwise have to be considered
during erection. Regardless of their shapes,
blocks are categorized by the panel (flat or
curved) on which they are assembled. Typically, the former are assembled on flat platens and the latter on pin jigs. Measurement
methods for the two types are necessarily
different. Flat block check sheets should include the following requirements:
. measurements of width, length, and
diagonals to be made just after the
base panel is assembled
o twisting
o locations of subassemblies and internal
parts fitted after the base panel is
completed
. special measurements to check unique
aspects offlat blocks which incorporate
some curved shell (see Fizure 8-18)
340
SHIPPRODUCTION
MEASUREMENT
,,1
I
WxH
BOTTOM
Tlme
Temp.
DATE
N o v .1 8
N o v .17
9 : 3 0a . m
16"C
+ts)
200 mm betow
boltom line
(203)
-3
l2o7)
-7
(212')
-2
(20s)
-5
length, and straightness.A,/Cpersonnelmonitor vital points and dimensions by measuring and recording periodically, based on
4. Evaluating
SystematizedA/C analysis and feedbackensures that experiencesand lessonslearned
are acquired by the organization and translated into improved productivity. As work
progresses,all results from checksheetsand
reported accuracyproblemsare analyzedbefore they are sent to cognizantorganizational
divisions. The evaluations include analysis
and recommendationswhich, as shown in
Figure 8-20, are performed on either a regular or an urgent basis.
4.'1.RegularAnalysis
If an analysisdiscloses
an apparent
areafor
improvement, an NC engineer pursues one
or more typical options as follows:
leaders.
Propcrly
collcctod
drta,evonif all
measurements are within accuracy stand_
ards, are used to identify the characteristrcs
ACCURACYCONTROL
341
CHECK
SHEET
VARTATION
REPORT
MAKE
SKETCH
O A T AA N A L Y S I S
C A L L U R G E N TM E T I N G
I N V E S T I G A TC
EA U S E
OF VARIATION
. M A K G R A P HF O R
E A C HS H O P
. I S S U EA N A L Y S I SR P O R T :
PART FAB & SUB.BLK
ASSEM (MONTHLY);8LK
A S S E M & E R E C T( A T E N O )
METHOD
IMPROVE'T
MONTHLY
VARIATION
REPORT
D E C I D EC O U N I E R i , , I E A S U R E
F O R V A R I A T I O NA N D
I T ST F E N D
Fig. 8-20.Accuracycontrolinformationflows.
and tendenciesofvariations. Suchknowledge
Ieads to further improvement in production
processes.
Feedbackof analyzedA,/Cdata is vital becauseit encouragesplanners to review items
such as:
. whether schemesfor amounts of excess,
vital points,and dimensions,etc.,were
satisfactory
. whether block divisions and shell
straking were optimum
. whether work processstandardswere
suitable
342
SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
ACCURACYCONTROL
4.1.4. Modifying Distributions. Consider traditional rework for adjusting erection gaps.
Cutting dominates, because costs for cutting
are generally less per lineal foot than for back
strip welding. The mean value of the pertinent distribution ofgap variations favors the
lower tolerance limit accordingly. Figure 8-23
shows this intentional bias and also shows
the impact of shifting the mean value toward
the upper tolerance limit. Because of the
nature of normal distributions, the nominal
increase in back strip welding is overwhelmingly offset by the substantial decrease in
cutting required. Further, the prospects for
exceeding the lower tolerance limit are reduced. Thus, analytically derived goals proposed by A/C engineers are based on actual
data as collected and analyzed.
When an A,/C system is implemented,
operations managers benefit from detailed
reports of productivity during hull erection.
The reports relate total lengths ofgas cutting
and back strip welding to the total lengths of
erection gaps. In a typical report for erection
of a 167,000 DWT bulk carrier (see Figure
8-24), rework was required only for 32.6 percent oftotal gap lengths. The data specifying
rework at erection are sufficiently detailed to
permit the initiation of process analysis.
4.1.5. Sequence for Analysis. Ongoing review
ofaccuracy standards data is very important.
The following procedure for analysis of data
obtained during flat block assembly is typical:
. prepare separate histograms of variations for each characteristic, such as
length, width, etc. (see Figure 8-25)
. c a l c u l a t et h e m e a n v a l u e ,i , a n d s t a n dard deviation, o, for each characteristic
. use each standard deviation to determine how the data conform to the
pertinent standard range (define
standard range as i t 2or
. when the data for a characteristic d<-r
not conform with the standard range
343
ca = initialgap
Gn = gap afler reworkby gas cutling
Gw = gap alter reworkby back slrip welding
STANDARD
I
l.<+l
I
FIANGE I
Gn = lowerlolerancelimit
Gw = uppertolerancelimit
4.2.UrgentAnalysis
In shipbuilding, it is not possible to completely eliminate variations which require rework. Moreover, no one can predict exactly
when they will occur.Disruption is caused
by the effectsof such things as errors, accidents,and weather abnormalities,which dif-
344
SHIPPRODUCTION
XO
UPPER
TOLERANCE
LIMIT
X1
Fig. 8-23. Shifting an erectionjoint gap distribution to control the type ofrework required.
Controls which assure that achieved accuracy conformswith an A/C plan for construction are important. They are classifiedas regular or special.
Becauseof the many different parts and
subassembliesrequired, regular controls are
applied to repetitive work processes.Typical
regular control items in an ongoingA/C program, including their measurementfrequencies, sample sizes, and standard deviations,
are listed in Figure 8-26. Control charts for
such regular usage were shown in Figure
8-3. Such charts are maintained bv A/C
ANALYSIS
REPORTFORHULLERECTION
EreclionGap
Lenglh(M)
"k
1,548.2
3 1i
797.8
lo
324.0
431.8
4.0
103
7.O
30.7
5.5
B a c k r n gs l n p w e l d r n g
14
54.8
1.453.7
Gas cuttrng
/+5
32.1
5.2
4,883.7
10
ry!94f/.)
t
desrgnatesgap ot 10mm over 4 m tength
2 / o
rnorcators
j?6
Gas cut
Len9th............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. .8. 1
.M. . . . .
Breadth...........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8. .M
.......
Oepth..............
.............2
. .8. ...2. M
...
D e a dW e i g h t . .
. . . . . . . 1. .6. 7 , 5 0T0o n s
L a u n c nIn 9 . . . . . .
. . . . . . .A. .p t n1 2 , 1 9 7 7
Fig. 8-24(a).Hull erectionrework analysis and report (continuedin Fig. 8-24(b)through (d))
345
ACCURACYCONTROL
BOTTOMAND SIDESHELL
rll
A9
a?
+6
le4
l=5
DOUBLEBOTTOM
DC33
DC32
o c3 l
D
\,1
tr'io R-94(ht
3/
*J
0l
.\
0s3l
{.
zE!
-+a
i,
0s 32
A9
z
r
2/
3\
346
sHrPPRoDUCTToN
EG
r
?.
E9
EG
l
t1
EG
EG
r
+!
l
F.g1 ",
t.
rrt
f
t : 6
s9
s7
s5
+,
I
E6r
EG
r
s G 6/
1 V
-?
sG8 /'
+3
.+3
t.5
i,',
+r
3'
;.1i /
t23
P t
0
+5
br{
2/
/ B C or ' .
E2
or.
\ 7
1
T
t.7
BC3
a\
\ '
/o
tJVJ
^ 3 r
+3
t.5
o/l
,.
6s'
BCt oro.
3.
3.'
o'
3\
,o
d o/
o,
,:3
8C5
a
\ttr
t /
t.2
^" B C 6
5/
+3
^ A
ina
1 o :
o-.
s4
EU
+3
t.3
pf
\ 8 :
/:45
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347
ACCURACYCONTROL
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348
SHIPPRODUCTION
11 =
i =
o =
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4 2 0
o
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5 2 0
E
146
-0.33
1.86
20: -4.05- +3.39
N =
i =
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N =
I =
o =
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1.09
20:3.79
.150
10
N = .150
i = 4.43
o = 3.05
i + 2o:10.53
ACCURACYCONTROL
349
5. Applications
5 . 1 .D e s i g n
The hull block construction method developed naturally following the introduction of
welding. Some shipbuilders changedtheir
organizationofstructural drawings to suit.
Appropriate drawing titles evolved,such as
block erectionplan, block assemblyplan, subassemblyplan, and parts cutting plan. These
are more than traditional detail designdrawings, becausethey associateclassifrcationsof
parts and assemblieswith specifrcmanufacturing levelsin production.They are, to some
degree,work instruction drawings.
Design and material defrnition should be
regarded as aspectsof planning, and drawings should be further developedas virtually
complete work instructions, including A/C
work. Checking and recording should be
clearly delineatedas productionwork, just as
much as marking, cutting, fitting, etc. By
including A"/Crequirements, particularly vital points and dimensions and excessallow-
ances,excessesare adequatelyconsideredand
are consistentlyapplied,and the potential for
human error is reduced.Loft, parts fabrication, and assemblyworkers no longer have
to refer to separately prepared A./Crequirements or dependupon recollections.
5.2. Mold Loft
Strictly speaking, loft processesshould be
subject to the same A,/Cscrutiny as marking
and cutting in a parts fabrication shop.However, mold loft process variations are too
small to significantly affect merged variation
during parts fabrication.But loft errors (mistakes, omissions,etc.) are ofconcernbecause
they disrupt the A,/Ccycle.
Errors cannot be treated with classical
A/C theory, since they do not enter into variation-merging equations.Therefore,for A./C
purposes,written proceduresshould be developedto addressthe classificationoferrors
and methodsfor checking,recording,and ana-
350
SHIPPRODUCTION
Conlrol llem
T e m pl at e
Production
Part
Fabrication
Sub-Block
A s s e mb l y
Block
Assembly
Day
ACCURACYCONTROL
351
P - DD I A G R A M
10
8
6
4
2
0
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-6
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
,8
352
SHIPPRODUCTION
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ACCURACYCONTROL
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353
354
SHIPPRODUCTION
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A C C U M U L A T EFDR E O U E N C Y
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FREQUENCY
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ACCURACYCONTROL
35s
M e a s u r e da l t e r g a s
cuttrng
11:i""J:Ll^1"'
Fig. 8-31. Weld shrinkage analysis based on work
sequences.
356
sHrPPRoDUcloN
.WELDLONGITUDINALS
TO PANELFIRST'WORKSEQUENCE
1. PanelAssembly(E)
2. PanelMarking
3. Longitudinals
to PanelWelding(A)
4. Other-inlernalsWelding
(A,a,b,e)
5. Line Heating(B) if necessary
ACCURACYCONTROL
EXCESS
DISTRIBUTION
O n l yA t P a n e l
Edges
ASSEMBLY
SEQUENCE
Egg-crate
W e l d L o n g i t u d i n a lTso
P a n e lF i r s t
Proportionally
Throughout
Egg-crate
W e l d L o n g i t u d i n a lTso
P a n e lF i r s t
Fig.8-33.Excessdistributionmustbedetermined
for eachalternativeassembly
sequence.
Shrinkage allowanceis also required to compensate for welding and line heating other
miscellaneous interim products, including
parts, blocksofspecialshape,etc.
5.9.3. Ways to DistributeExcess.There are two
practical ways to predict the excessneeded
to offset shrinkage as describedin the foregoing:
o provide excessamounts only at edges
ofa block without regard for apportioning excessbetweenblock internals,
causing the final positions of the internals to be different from the specified
design (the dimensionsneededfor
layout are readily obtained from
design drawings)
o distribute excessproportionally, taking
into accountshrinkage rates expected
to be causedby each work processand
the relative spacingofblock internals
from eachother and panel edges,which
requires recalculating the dimensions
neededfor layout, but producesfinal
positions of internals that more
accurately conform with design
5.9.4.Standardsfor Work Processesand lnformationFlow.To establisheffectivestandards,
the role of each parts fabrication shop and
assembly section must be carefully reviewed
rII
t
I
I
357
358
SHIPPRODUCTION
5.10.Measuring
Somevariations are inevitable due to differencesin:
.
r
.
.
measuring methods
environments
work circumstances
readingjudgments, etc.
The results of analysis indicate that measuring variations doesnot significantly contrib_
ute to mergedvariation. However,each ship_
yard should verify its own measuring capabilities.
References
1. Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo, R.L. Storch,
and S. Nakanishi, ProcessA nalysisuia
Accuracy Control, National Shipbuilding
ResearchProgram, Maritime Administration
in cooperationwith Todd pacific Shipvards
Corp., February 1982.
2. Demming, W.E., "On SomeStatistical Aids
Toward EconomicProduction,,,Interfaces,
Vol. 5. No. 4, Augusr l97b.
3. Storch,R.L., and J.R. Gribskov,,,Accuracv
Controlfor U.S.Shipyards."Journat of Ship
Production, Vol. 1, No. 1, February 1gg5.
4. Storch,R.L., "AccuracyControl VariationMerging Equations:A CaseStudy of Their
Application in U.S. Shipyards,"Journal ol
ShipProduction,Yol. 1, No. 2, Mav t9g5.
CHAPTER IX
S H I P C O N V E R S I O N .O V E R H A U L . A N D R E P A I R
1. Intr oduction
The ship conversion, overhaul, and repair
industry is concernedwith working on ships
during their servicelives:
. changlngtheir configurationsso they
can do betterjobs or differentjobs
(conversion/modernization)
. generally and extensivelybringing
them back to an almost like-new
condition (overhaul)
. maintaining the equipment and hull
integrity ofthe ship, repairing or
replacing damagedand worn parts
(repair)
Also discussedin this chapter is what happens at the end of a ship's servicelife-deactivation or scrapping. The characteristicsof
the various repair markets are presented,
along with recent innovations in ship maintenance and repair.
1 . 1 .L i f eC y c l eo f a S h i p
A ship in serviceis subjectedto operational wear, to deterioration from exposureto
harsh environments, and to damage from
heavy weather and unplanned encounters
with solid objects. The basic actionstaken to
counter these effects and maximize the operational readiness of the ship during its
servicelife are illustrated in Figure 9-1.
359
rI
tI
II
i
360
SHIPPRODUCTION
Start
Service
LIFE OF A SHIP
Design/construction
Servicelife(17 to 25 yearsaverage)
Plannedmaintenance
(drydock)
Plannedmaintenance
(non-drydock)
Unscheduled
repairs(as needed)
Conversion/modernization
(optional)
Deactivation/scrao
Fig.9-1. Maintenance/repair life of a ship.
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
80%
60"/"
10%
20%
o%
Reoair Market
l\Iilitarv
1%
fotal
ieoairs
lonversions
Commercial
290/"
570/.
24%
5%
13%
Size
Repair& overhaul
Unscheduled
repairs
Zl
Plannedmaintenance Z
Overhaul
Z
Conversiory'modernization
Z
Deactivation
Z
Scrap
Legend:
Za
l-_l
1"".t 7
Complexitv
za
Z
z
z
Z
Z'
L"^"r romidrange[l
361
Facilities
Planning
Approach
Varies
Systo Zone
ShopVPier/DD Systo Zone
ShopVPier/DD
Zone
FullServiceSY
Zone
Sho/Pier
Zone& Sys
Pier/DD/Staging
Zone
Leastto greatesr/
Management
Approach
Varies
Functionto Project
ProjecVMatrix
ProjecVMatrix
Project
Project
Midrange
ro grearesr I
Grearesr
362
SHIPPRODUCTION
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
andrepair
t--_
II
363
. Inspectionsby in-houseengineersor
subcontractors
o Defrnition of work packageand development of specifications
o An invitation for bids from prospective
contractorsrequiring both a frxed price
and a promised delivery date (usually
guaranteedby a liquidated damages
clausein the contract that requires
the shipyard to pay the ship owner a
pre-establishedamount for every day
the ship is late)
. Selectionof a contractor basedon best
businessjudgment; sometimesan
owner may developa relationship of
trust with a shipyard that has more
value than low price
Most shipownersuse their own way of writing specifrcationsto definethe work and their
own contract terms to control the work. Seldom are they similar or coordinatedbetween
owners. During the work, the owner is usually representedby a port engineer or other
agent who makes technical decisionswithin
limits establishedwith the owner, interprets
the contract and specifications,inspectsand
approvesthe work, and approvesprogressfor
invoicing.For largerjobs, such as overhauls,
conversions,and modernization, the owner
may have a whole team of representativesat
the shipyard to overseeits interests.
Just as the shipowner is a businessperson first and foremost, so are the shipyard
owners. They are also providing a serviceto
make a profit. Virtually every contract they
deal with is different. The specificationsare
in different formats, and the shipowner's
representatives are experts at interpreting
their own documentsto their own advantage.
Therefore, it is critical for the shipyard or
repair contractorsto have managementpeople who can also read and interpret different
kinds of specificationsand a contract administrator on the project team who can protect
364
SHIPPRODUCTION
understand the contract requirements. Managing the contract well is at least as important to the financial successof the job as
managing the work well.
Repair and maintenance programs for
commercial ships can be executed in many
various ways dependingon the owner'smaintenance philosophy, business approach,and
the scopeof the work. Someshipownersprefer to perform as much of their maintenance
as possiblewith their own people.They may
have shops in strategic ports or teams that
can fly with their tools to wherever the ship
is berthed. These teams may perform maintenancetasks both in port and underway and
may prepare the ship in advance of in-port
maintenance.
Someshipownersestablish maintenance
contracts with companies that provide repair crews whenever necessaryand oversee
shipyard contracts. They may also provide
Item
P u b f i cY a r d s
P r i v a t eY a r d s
Competition
Total
1991
1990
2,913.8 2,521.9
1,734.5 1,310.8
(")
(-)
4 , 6 4 83
3,8327
' t9 9 2
2J19.1
1,339.3
C)
4,058.4
19 9 3
1994
2,390.3 1,595.8
1,104.3
802.1
(.)
393.5
3 , 4 9 46
2.791.4
' D a t a i n c l u d e di n p u b l i c
a n d p r i v a t ey a r d b u d g e tn u m b e r s .
NOTE: Does not includeother programcosts.
S O U R C E : U . S . D e p a r t m e not f t h e N a v y ,b a s e do n F y 1 9 9 4
C o n g r e s s i o n aBl u d g e t .
ltem
1 9 9 0( 1 )
1 9 9 1( 1 )
1 9 9 2( 1 ) 1 9 9 3( 1 )
S h i p b u i l d i n&
g
Conversion
11.541.2 8,751.2 6,713.2 5,853.2
S h i p R e p a i r&
Modernization 4,648.3 3,832.7 4,058.4 3,494.6
Total
16,189.5 12,583.9 10,771.7 9,347.8
1 9 9 4e
4,294.7
2,7g1.4
7.086.1
(1) Appropriated.
(2) Requested.
S O U R C E : U . S . D e p a r t m e not f t h e N a v y ,b a s e do n F y 1 9 9 4
C o n g r e s s i o n aBl u d g e t .
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
365
the accomplishmentof this work. Navy specifications and contract language are extensively standardized but are also very complicated due in part to heavy dependenceon
standard references.
The innovative phased maintenance approachis basedon the developmentof a maintenance plan for the needs of a class of ship
over an extendedperiod in the life ofthe ship
(usually 48 to 54 months). The Navy then
evaluates proposalsfrom a group of participating shipyards and enters into a costplus contract with the successfulshipyard
to identify, specify,plan, and execute these
maintenance actions. The work scopeis not
defined ahead of time by the Navy in order
to prepare a bid specification.Since a longterm contract exists, it is jointly developed
by the Navy and the shipyard working together, making compromisesas necessaryto
meet both the maintenanceneedsof the ship
and the operating needs of the fleet. Some
work might be deferred until a later availability to allow the ship to meet its operating commitments. One ofthe unique features
of this approachis that it involves one shipyard for an extended period in the life of a
group of similar ships, allowing it to build
familiarity and expertise with those ships,
developlessonslearned in the maintenance
of all the similar equipment, plan for the
execution of the maintenanceactions during
the most advantageous time for the ship
(not the shipyard),and maintain spare parts
and material between availabilities for emergencywork.
The U.S. Navy's primary resourcesfor
execution of ship repair and modernization
are 36 privately ownedshipyards(down from
45 in 1992),eight publicly ownednaval shipyards (three of which are scheduledto close
by 1996), and two Navy-owned ship repair
facilities.
Private shipyards must prequalify to do
most Navy repair work. For work on larger,
more comllex ships, pnvate yard,smust qual-
JOO
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
2. Selectingan Approach
Ship repair is a classic example of the jobshop form ofproduction organization.It is a
highly labor-intensiveand skill-intensive activity with only limited potential for automation. Much of the work is done aboard ship,
and consists of rip-out and refitting steel,
pipe, machinery, or wiring to existing systems. The labor-intensivenature is also due
to many parts being manufactured or rebuilt
in-house,insteadof being purchasednew, as
in ship construction.
Uach job is unique, but to better understand how to approach the many different
_ /
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R
Approach
stication
Greatest
Size
Complexitv &
Sophistication
Greatest
Sophistication
Greatest
Complexity
Fig. 9-5.Approachselectioncriteria.
more extensive facilities and management
organizations. They also lend themselves to
the use of some form of zone technology approach and sometimes a limited amount of
group technology. Smaller, simpler jobs can
often be effectively executed with fewer facilities, less sophisticated organizations, and onthe-job planning. Where the threshold lies for
using more sophisticated planning and management approaches is a matter ofjudgment,
resulting from an evaluation of each job, as
shown in Figure 9-5.
The size and complexity of a job serves as
a guide for choosing the most effrcient approach to that job and, in some cases, even
limits which companies are capable of pursuing the contract, as some companies specialize in a narrow range of approaches. Large
shipyards may find that providing teams to
pursue small emergency repairs is disruptive
and not economically feasible. Small companies may find that organizing and managing a large team to pursue major overhauls
is too cumbersome, financially risky. and difficult to control. Rather than attempting to
be all things to all people, some companies
368
sHtppRoDUcloN
enyironment,
Examples
ofthistypeoftooling hastruditionally
bccnbasod
onshipsys[elrs.
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
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371
production trades wind up gxouping and rescheduling tasks because work orders and
procedures written on a system-by-system
basis do not usually identify similar or adjacent/interface work.
However, no one person may have the
overall picture of what work is to be done and
when it is to be accomplished, especially on
larger or more complex jobs. Trade and shop
foremen may be forced to make resource and
scheduling changes with no idea of the impact on other jobs and other trades. While
trade supervisors may attempt to be objective,
it is not unusual for work to be performed on
"first
a
one in" basis, resulting in trade conflicts, rip-out of newly installed items, excessive rework, and wasted material. Experience
gained by individual foremen may never be
incorporated in future planning by higherlevel management, or even by other craft
foremen.
Scheduling by system is usually done in
two stages. During the first stage, the basic
elements-removal, inspection, repair (shipboard or shop), reinstallation, and test-are
given approximate start and stop dates, and
a few intermediate milestone dates are established. Preliminary information on scope
and historical data are used to estimate
total time-phased manning profiles and material requirements. In the second stage, more
detailed project scheduling is accomplished,
work packages are written, a critical path
method (CPM) network may be constructed,
and man loading is refined.
Networks drawn on a system-by-system
basis generally result in a series of parallel
Iines which, in theory, are interconnected at
each system interface. In practice, the interconnections tend to be insufficient to show
real interdependencies. For small, time-constrained repairjobs, the tasks are, in fact, all
done in parallel. The problems arise as the
job gets larger and more complex, requiring
a more sophisticated understanding and coordination of the task interrelationshios.
372
SHIPPRODUCTION
Modifyshipboard
Installpumps
Undock
11t20
I ztJ
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
witha particular
system
0rcomponent,
such as all piping and pumps associated with a particular tank, as well as
the tank itself
. uariable zone----combination
of functional
zone and geographiczone that organizes the work by process,also known
as a work zone
A stageis a substepor a band of time during
an overhaul in which specificproduction processestake place.Examplesinclude:
o pre-arrival planning, engineering,and
scheduling(Pre-arrival preparation is
being expandedby someowners and
shipyards to include underway layout,
373
374
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Known
Workscope
Uncgrtain
Workscope
Fig.9-9. Stages.
be processed,
an automateddata processing
(ADP) system is very helpful to realize the
full benefit of the PWBS. CPM networks are
not unlike those used by some yards for
system-by-systemoverhaul. Essential differencesare in the completeness
and the bounoaries of each network, the level of decision
making, built-in feedbackprovisions,and the
degree of coordination with material control.
As with new construction,material control and
the pallet conceptare key elements.An addi-
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
PBODUCTASPECTS
ZONE
PROBLEM
AREA
STAGE
SHIP
o
o
ON.BOARD
DIVISION
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-z-
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e7E
MAT'LREOOEFINITION
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INSPECTION
REPOBT
SHIPALTS
TECHWOHKDOC
376
SHIPPRODUCTION
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S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
377
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378
SHIPPRODUCTION
ZONE:
"
"
J O BO R D E R
^-';-.-S;Au-'
PREFAB/IVFFI
W
SHOPTEST
S H I PI N S T U O U T F I T
S H I PT E S T
WORKPACKAGETITLE
KEY
KEY
SHOP
OP
i.ri?
i::l
:4
i,aa
ra
REF
W O R KD E S C R I P T I O N
EST
DURATION
i:ta
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L O N G E S TD U R A T I O N
LIST OF M ATERIAUEOU IPMENT/I\i4
ACHINERY/FACIL ITIES
REMARKS
It
379
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
al'crtltat
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FR.loO
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
-Procure
: D E t v t t N ALIZED WATER
VENTDUCT
J6X15
W IRE WAY
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WAIER
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381
INNER
SOTTCM
382
SHIPPFIoDUCTIoN
F
I
I
I
I
I
II
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O.V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R
AIM Grammar
Objects to bc
proccsed
Stcps in the
PrGess
AIM Vocabulary
FOR SHIPBUILDNGTNDUSTRY
COMPONENT
UNITS
(y'Lr
'i
Valve
Pump
Motor
Stiffner
Doubler
Ladder
Switch
WORK
PACKAGES
COMPONENT
UNIT PHASES
CU/CUPs
Design
,,__\ - ,l
I
,'r
r
SysX
(,
Design
@
'@
@
'@
Purchase
Fabricnte
Assemble
'"itlJt.".t"*-l
linZoneA I
Test
(irouping
AIM
CU/CUPs
Continuous
Accountabilitv
(i)nstruction
(ltI/(ltlPs
bv Trne
(ireupings clrarrge
383
384
SHIPPRODUCTION
ntructure
i0n:ists
0fI componcnt
unit(CU) gygt0ng,
theJhii,fill""b.,ilt],,rll.t*.t,r.",
r
t
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
385
386
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
3. RepairandOverhaul
A ship needs to be operating to earn money
for its owner or, if it is a military ship, to
perform its mission. In order to maximize
operating time during its service life, a ship
must be repaired when damaged and maintained regularly to avoid breakdown and deterioration.
Classification societies publish rules for
maintenance of the vessels they classify. Surveys are conducted at intervals, with the type
of inspection varying with the age of the ship.
In addition to regular suryeys, the societies
require that damage repairs be accomplished
according to society rules.
In addition to classification society inspection, government agencies inspect merchant vessels to assure that they are maintained according to published rules. In the
United States, merchant vessel safety inspection is carried out by the U.S. Coast Guard.
(Classification societies and regulatory bodies usually coordinate their efforts to eliminate overlapping requirements and redundant inspection cost. This is sometimes formalized through documents of agreement.)
Repair and maintenance of ships generally falls into three categories discussed
below:
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
3.1.1Case 7. Shipsfrequentlyencounterlost
fishnet, some that are miles long, invisible,
and floating just below the surface.Having a
propeller fouled by a fishnet is a small-scale
problem that is simple to remedy,but important for continuing operations. It obviously
falls below the threshold for a sophisticated
planning and managementapproach.
o Focilities-Thisrepair requiresno
specialfacilities. It can be done by a
diver at the pier where the ship is
berthed. Alternatively, the ship can
be reballastedto bring the propeller
out of the water and a small team in
a boat can cut the net free.
ffil
Unscheduled
Repairs
ffil
LeastSize,
Complexity,
&
Sophistrcation
Planning Management
S i z e C o m p l e x i t v F a c i l i t i e s Approach Approach
U n s c h e d u l e dR e p a i r s
r 1 P r o p e l l efro u l e d
with fish nets
r 2 B o t t o md a m a g e
frnm
nrn'
Leg"nd:
Pier
System
Functional
z t z
Shops/DD
Zone
Project
Shops/Pier
Zone
Project
F u l lS v c S Y
Zone
Project&
Matrix
'nd,nn
r 3 F i r ei n C o m b a t
I n f oC e n t e r
r 4 C o l l i s i o&
n
e n g i n er o o mf i r e
I
L"ud Z]
Z
I
L"ugroric.ng" Zl
387
1"".rrog."r"rt Z
Mio.ng"
togr"ur"g I
c*ut".r
388
SHIPPRODUCTION
o Systemplanning approach-There is
only one system involved and the planning can be done on-site by the team
leader.
t Functional managementapproachOne responsibleteam leader can take
full responsibility for everything from
renting a boat, bringing in helpers
and tools from the shop,and planning
the work, to handling the paperwork
with the ship's master or agent.
3.1.2. Case 2. Bottom damage from grounding on a sandbaror someother obstacleis also
a commonemergencyrepair. It can be large
in scale but is not usually technologically
complex.Though unusual today, damageon
an old ship may be more complex if rivet
strakes are damaged,becausethere is little
F i g .9 - 1 9 ( a )
Fig.e-1s(b)
F i g .9 - 1 9 ( c )
F i g .9 - 1 s ( d )
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
389
blies, and fitted for final welding. In the second, the bow forefoot has been so severely
damagedthat an entire lower bow assembly
has been constructed to shorten the repair
cycle. The fully painted assembly is positioned in the dry dock using both cranesand
Fig.9-20(a)
Fig.e-20(c)
wj
"q*
Fig.e-20(b)
Fig. 9-20. Example of bottom damage.
Fis.e-20(d)
390
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
391
392
SHIPPRODUCTION
Planned
t-=tsr-EM--_l
PLANNING & I
Maintenance
rur'rcrror'rarI MANAGEMENT
|
I
I
I
APPROACH I
Least Size.
Complexity,&
Sophistjcation
Size
PlannedMaintenance
r l Underway
E
roulinemaint.
12 Annualsurvey&
Z
roulinemaint.
r 3 Underwatersurvey,
X]
underwatermainl.,
hull coatings,as well
as roulineannualmaint.
Legend:
f_l
Least I
Complexitv
tl
Z
X
Lea<romtoange ffi
Planning Management
Approach Approach
Facilities
Tools
System
Functional
Zone
project
Shops/Pier/DD Zone
project
Shops/Pier
Mio.ng"
l.,ridangerogreares I
Grearesr
andclcclflcirns.
0n0rssponsibls
tsm
r
I
' r
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
393
o Facilities-This
394
sHtppRoDUCTtoN
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVEBHAUL,
AND REPAIR
Greatest
Size
'",ffi+::1"
I
Threshold
Overhauls
I ,'Ji'-:Sll
lJl$^.^*
Il
Least Srze,
Complexity,&
Sophisttcahon
Size
Overhauls
r'1 Tugs,fenies,&
otherworkboats
t2
Containerships,
lankers,bulkcarriers,
& othercargoships
r 3 Cruiseships&
militarycombatants
Legend:
fl
reasr I
Gomplexitv
Planning Management
Facilities Approach Approach
Shops/Pier/DD
o r M a r i n eR R
Shops/Pier/DD
Shops/Pier/DD Zone
395
viorng"
l!
Tone
project
Zone
proiect
Midangero greate<
Project&
Matrix
|
cearesr
396
SHIPPRODUCTION
4. Conversion
andModernization
Conversion and modernization of both commercial vessels and naval warships are complex strategic, business, and waterfront production endeavors. Typical modernization and
conversion projects include installation or
removal of midbodies, cargo-handling upgrades, installation of improved bows, re-engining work, habitability upgrades, environmental protection modifications, and military
mission system upgrades. Figure 9-24 shows
theconyersion
ofanoldcr
trnlicrforcontin- cheLectoLizsd
by liigh ,,rrl"riolu'd *q.r,p-
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
r---'-:-----r
,'.1exrernalthreats
\
l--------------
than it would be in a new ship where installation could occur at a stage of construction
when there was easyaccess.Rip-out,working
around existing systems,transporting material through circuitous accessroutes, and
additional safety precautions necessaryfor
working around such hazards as fuel oil and
live electrical systems force up labor costs
substantially.
Whether to undertake conversionand modernization work is fundamentally a strategic
business decision that may be considered
several times during the life of a ship. This
decision is influenced by external drivers
(see Figure 9-25) that are similar for the
private ship operator and the naval planner.
Both consider and respond to competition
and external threats, technologicaldevelopments, changing mission requirements, and
the age and material condition of the ship.
The modernization/conversiondecisionis influenced by labor prices,material costs,government regulations, replacement costs, and
competitor decisions and actions. The decision maker is ultimately facedwith conducting
irtu.o
Ji
Chanqinq
I-_:
Output
r----'----l
,il Competition N\
I
mart<iti
-.)\
N\
N
]
Changing | ,
I
regulation.
I
L.
^_-_-=.....-_..
I
\
Newbuilding
nriees
\
\
I lmpaclon revenue
rmpacton market
|
Position
|
lmpacton profit
|
Technological
developments
397
flq
I
->r'
Do nothing
Convertor
modernize
Scrap&
build
398
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R
. Compatibility issues with other equipment that will remain on the ship
. Weight, moment, list, and trim limitations
TheWorldMerchantFleet
Age Distribution
in Mid-1992
GWTshareof respective
fleetsegmentin 7o
20%
10o/o
o%
011
9,27
031
399
t,
10-14
013
o2t
021
15-19
0 4 8 -l
_-
S4
013
0 26
- ]_
20-25
011
;,i
013
0.19
00'1
0.12
400
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Conversion&
Modernization
r'l
12
13
14
r 5
r 6
Conversion &
Modernization
Doublehulltanker
lo shuttletanker
ShortenSea-Land
Atlanticclassship
Modernize
Navy
combatstoresship
MarAdcontainershio
to craneshio
ModernizeNavy
nuclearsubmarine
Servicelifeextension
Navvaircraftcarrier
Legend:
f-l
Least[]
Size
P l a n n i n g Management
Approach
Xl
Shops/Pier/
DD
Zone
Project
Xl
FullSvcSY
Zone
Project
FullSvS
cY
Zone
Fullsvc sY
Zone
MaxSvcSY
Zone
MaxSvcSY
Zone
Project &
Matrix
Project&
Matrix
Project&
Matrix
Project &
Matrix
Lea<romidange Xl
u,o.ng"
Midnngerogrealed !
crearesr
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I R
401
402
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
U.S.S.Constellation
(CV-64)Zone Boundaries
F L TD K
03 LVL
02 LVL
01 LVL
MNDK
2ITD DK
3 R DD K
4 T HD K
1S T P T L F R M
2NDPTLFRM
I N N E RB O T T O M
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA,N D R E P A I B
equipment, radar systems, avionics, fire control systems, and weapons elevators were all
modernized. Catapults, arresting gear, jet
blast deflectors, and aircraft elevators were
all overhauled. Major propulsion systems
were overhauled, as well as numerous tanks,
voids, pump rooms, and the underwater
hull. Space and access considerations \\.ere
diffrcult. A comprehensive review of all support system requirements was necessary due
to the large number of newly installed components and the radically changed system
403
5. Deactivation
Lay-up and deactivation of active ships provides additional work for companies in the
ship conversion, overhaul, and repair market. The purpose ofthis type ofwork is to prepare ships for inactive storage and to maintain them while in storage, so that they can
be effectively returned to service in time of
strategic need or national emergency.
MarAd's National Defense Reserve Fleet
(NDRF) is a principal source for this type of
work. In 1993, MarAd had 96 ships in its
Ready Reserve Force (RRF), with an expectation to expand to 140 ships by 1999. MarAd
provides funds for the procurement, lay-up,
and maintenance of this force, which is in a
state of readiness to meet 5-, 10-, or 20-day
activation schedules.
A second major source of deactivation
work is U.S. Nary ships and submarines. This
source of work has been growing in recent
years with the steadily decreasing size of the
active fleet. The Navy has retired primarily
vessels that were older and increasingly
more expensive to operate. The active fleet
declined to 473 ships by the end of FY92, and
to 450 ships as of June 30, 1993. It is contemplated that the size of the active fleet could
go down to 346 ships by 1999. This reduced
fleet would include 11 aircraft carriers, one
reserve/training aircraft carrier, and 45 to 55
attack submarines.
404
SHIPPRODUCTION
approach builds on a revenue center orientation for the management of work. The project
team can adopt the modifred zone approach
for planning the project and package tasks for
execution within a particular zone.
6. Scrapping
Shipbreaking and scrapping are attractive
endeavors when steel and used equipment
pricesare high and when ready markets exist
for quick conversionof scrap to other products. Shipbreaking and scrapping are laborintensive activities that require high productivity and competitive wages in order to
be financially viable. This type of work has
been conducted mostly in developing countries in recentyears (seeFigure 9-29),but the
market has been changing due to the dechning steelmarket and increasingwages.
The projected annual market for shipbraking and scrappingis expectedto grow to
38 million DWT by 1999.[3]This market is
valuedin excessof $1billion annually,worldwide, until the end of the 1990s.
This forecastfor a growing shipbreaking
market is based on the age of the current
worldwide fleet and the increasingincidence
of structural and mechanicalproblems associated with these aging vessels.Additionally,
insurance premiums are rising for many of
these older ships, making them even more
expensiveto operate.
Effective shipbreaking projects require
creativeplanning, specialtooling, strict labor
controls, and high productivity in order to be
financially successful.The zone approachto
planning the scrappingofa ship is the desired
mechanismfor producing a sound and effective scrappingplan. Initially, the ship should
be strategically divided into zonesfor scrapping by zone-orientedwqfk teams. Some of
the factors that should4e consideredwhen
dividing the ship into zonesshould include:
o Rotating machinerythat requiresremoval for resaleor reuseon other vessels,
. ElectricaVelectroniccomponentsto be
removed
. On-boardliquids to be drained and
properlydisposedof
. Asbestospresentby geographiclocation
. PCB's present by geographiclocation
. Specialsystem lay-up requirements
After strategically planning the scrapping
zones,work must be packagedand scheduled
for executionby multiskilled work teams.These
teams shouldbe trained and equippedto perform a wide variety of tasks in a rapid manner, with minimal supervision.High productivity, with minimal labor expenditures,
is the primary goal of scrapping projects.
Size and complexity of a scrapping job is
usually proportional to the size and complexity of the ship being scrapped,though the
presenceof hazardous waste products seriously complicatesany job.
7. RecentInnovations
in ShipRepair
ri
SHIPCONVERSION,
OVERHAUL,
AND REPAIR
405
Analysis
of VesselsBrokenUp in 1992
(Developing
countriesare in the lead)
Total
No.
China
lndia
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Turkey
36
109
34
20
7
dwt
('000)
Tankers
No.
dwt
('000)
DryBulkers
No.
dwt
('000)
12
1?
2,442
1,528
1,370
1,472
tuo
3,187
tc
2,733
1,727
32
12
1,715
185
I J
J '
oob
420
1t3
214
41
Gen.CargoShips
No.
dwt
('000)
79
o+
785
19
243
29
?e
Thailand
15
Mexico
13
Spain
Peru
Greece
Portugal
Denmark
.Japan
Netherlands
Germany
UnitedKingdom
TOTAL
220
9,593
-74
A q10
34
1.453
1a
5
3
3
t t z
1,221
Source:
Lloyd's
Shipping
Economist.
Research
files.London
Fig.9-29.Analysisofvesselsbrokenup in 1992.
recent ideas and innovations for both managing and delivering ship repair services will be
needed.
7. 1 . Maintenance Management Approaches
Preventative maintenance, an approach of
providing maintenance for equipment before
it breaks down, has long been a mainstay of
ship maintenance programs designed to minimize out-of-service time. Life cyclelequipment failure data are routinely available for
most equipment and can be used as the
basis for determining maintenance intervals
in a preventative maintenance program. Now,
planning for preventative maintenance can
be enhanced with more specific data from Predictive Maintenance (PDM).
406
sHrPpRoDUcloN
. Reduces spare parts inventory because adequate lead time now exists
for parts identifrcation and procurement
o Improves operator and public safety
o Provides data for preventative maintenance programs
The manner in which repair serwices are delivered in the ship repair industry is also
undergoing experimentation and innovation.
A shipowner may establish an organization
that can provide much of its own maintenance services. Alternatively, the owner may
sign a long-term contract with a single service provider to handle repair and maintenance on a one-stop-shopping basis. Shipyards may not just wait until the ship arrives and solicit bids. They may instead enter
into long-termservicecontracts
for a ship
S H I PC O N V E R S I O N
O,V E R H A U LA.N D R E P A I R
. Small waterplanearea,twin-hull
(SWATH) ships built for applications
requiring greater stability at sea
. Ships equippedwith flapped rudders
to enhancemaneuverability
407
vironmental
regulations,
bothU.S.andinternational, are becoming more stringent and
having more impact on the design and outfitting of ships. Sometimes, when regulations
change, the new equipment configuration must
408
SHIPPRODUCTION
--.\
G L OS S A R Y
Acceleration.The efTortsrequired to prevent a delay in ship delivery, or to achievea major milestone (e.g.,increasedmanning, addedshifts,
overtime, reschedulingof work force),or to
achievea milestoneearlier than originally
scheduled.
Accessholes.Temporary holescut in ship's
structure to allow accessand shifting ofequipment into position during construction.
Accommodation.All spaceson a ship that are associatedwith the crew'snormal living, including navigation, radio, and similar spaceswhen
incorporated in the same deckhouse.
Accuracycontrol.The useofstatistical techniques
to monitor, control, and continuouslyimprove
shipbuilding designdetails and work methods
so as to maximize productivity.
Aft. Toward. at. or near the stern.
After body. That portion of the ship'shull aft of
amidships.
Afterpeak. The compartment in the stern, aft,of
the aftermost watertight bulkhead.
Air and drainageholes.Holescut in the structure,
usually transversewebs,to ensurethe free escape of air to the vents and free drainage of
liquids to the pump suctionwells.
Amidships. A point which is exactly halfway between the fore and after perpendiculars.
Anchor. A device,usually ofsteel, usedto hold a
ship against the movementof current, tide, and
wind.
Angle or angle bar. A structural section made up
ofa web and a flange,that is usedas a stiffener.
Appendages.The portions ofa vesselextending
beyond the main hull outline, including such
items as rudder, shafting, struts, bossings,and
bilee keels.
409
Beam,molded.
Themaximumbreadthofthehull
measured betweenthe inside surfacesof the side
shell plating.
Beam, transom. The aftermost transverse side
410
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Boom. A round spar hinged at its lower end, usually to a mast or a crane, and supported by a wrre
rope or tackle from aloft to the upper end ofthe
boom. Cargo, stores, etc., are lifted by tackle
lei*iag from the upper end of the boom.
Boom table. A stout, small platform, usually attached to a mast or crane to support the end of
booms and to provide proper working clearances
when a number of booms are installed around
one mast; also called a mast table.
Bosom piece. A strap formed by a short piece of
angle attached inside a buttjoint oftwo angles.
Bossing or boss.The curved swelling outboard portion of the ship's shell plating that surrounds
and supports the propeller shaft; also called
propeller bossing/boss.
Bossing plate. Steel plate covering the bulged portion ofthe hull where the propeller shaft passes
outboard.
Bow. Forward end of a ship.
Bracket. A structural member used to rigidly
reinforce two or more structural parts, which
are joined at approximately right angles to each
other, such as deck beam to frame. or bulkhead
stiffener to the deck or tank top; usually a plate.
Break. The end ofa partial superstructure such as
a poop, bridge, or forecastle where it drops to the
deck below; any sharp change in a vessel's line.
Breakwater. Plates fitted on a forward weather
deck to form a V-shaped shield against water
that is shipped over the bow.
Breasthook. A triangular plate bracket joining
port and starboard side stringers at the bow.
Bridge, flying. The platform forming the top of the
pilothouse.
Bridge, navigating. The conning station or command post of a ship.
Bridge house. A part ofthe upper superstructure of
a ship. The officers'quarters, staterooms, and
accommodations are usually located in the
bridge house and the pilothouse located above it.
Bulbous bow. A bow with a rounded, protruding
shape at the bottom to improve flow and resistance characteristics.
Bulk carrier. Ships designed to carry bulk cargo,
usually not in liquid form, such as coal, ore,
graln, etc.
Bulkhead. A vertical partition, which subdivides
the interior of a ship into compartments or
rooms. Bulkheads which contribute to the
strength ofa vessel are called strength
bulkheads; those which are essential to the
watertight subdivision are watertight or
oiltight bulkheads. Gastight bulkheads serve to
prevent the passage ofgas or fumes.
I
q
l
GLOSSARY
Bulwark. Fore and aft vertical plating immediately above the upper edge ofthe sheer
strake.
Bumped. A term applied to a plate which has been
pressed or otherwise formed to a concave or
convex shape used for heads oftanks, boilers,
etc.
Burning. Oxy/gas, plasma-arc, or laser cutting,
usually ofshell plating or structural sections.
Butt. The joint formed when two parts are placed
edge to edge; the endjoint between two plates;
also transverse joints for connecting two parLs,
subassemblies, or blocks.
Butt strap. A strap that serves as a connecting
strength strap when it overlaps the butt between two plates.
CAD. Computer aided design.
CAM. Computer aided manufacturing.
Cant frame. A frame which is not square to the
keel line, such as stern frames.
Cargo hatch. An opening in a deck for vertical
loading and unloading ofcargo holds.
Cargo port. An opening in a ship's side for loading
and unloading cargo.
Casing, engine and boiler. Bulkheads enclosing a
large opening between the weather deck and the
engine and boiler rooms. This permits instalhng
or removing large propulsion units such as boilers or turbines.
Centerline. A vertical reference plane running
fore and aft, dividing the ship into two
symmetrical halves.
Center vertical keel. A vertical girder running
from the flat keel to the tank top along the
centerline.
Chafing plate. Bent plate for minimizing chafing
ofropes as at hatches.
Chain locker. The compartment in the forward or
aft lower portion of a ship in which anchor charn
is stowed.
Chain pipe. Pipe for passage of chain from the
anchor windlass to the chain locker.
Chamfer. To cut offthe sharp edge of a 90'corner;
to trrm to an acute angle.
Chock. A cut piece of plating used to terminate a
structural shape at its end or to support a
structural shape; also an opening or guide for a
towing or mooring line.
Chock, boat. A cradle or support for a lifeboat.
Clip. A short length ofangle used by shipfitters to
align structural sections.
Coaming. The vertical plating bounding an opening for the purpose ofstiffening the edges ofthe
opening. It also retards the entry ofwater.
411
Deck.A horizontalsurf'ace
in a shipcorresponding
to a floorin a building.It is theplating,planking, or covering of any tier of beams in either the
hull or the superstructure ofa ship. Decks are
usually designated by their location, as boat
deck, bridge deck, upper deck, main deck, etc.
412
SHIPPRODUCTION
Decks at different levels serve various functions; they may be either watertight decks,
strength decks, or simply cargo and passenger
accommodation decks.
Deck height. The vertical distance between the
molded lines of two adjacent decks.
Deckhouse. A comparatively light structure, built
on the hull, which does not normally extend
from side to side of the ship. It commonly is
composed ofspaces that are used for crew accommodations and control of the ship (bridge,
radioroom, etc.).
Deck machinery. Miscellaneous machinery
located on the decks ofa ship such as windlasses,
winches, etc.
Deck stringer. The strake ofdeck plating that runs
along the outboard edge ofthe deck; also called
stringer plate.
Declivity. Inclination of the ways on which some
ships are built and down which they slide during
Iaunching.
Deep tanks. Tanks extending from the bottom or
inner bottom up to or higher than the lower
deck. They are often fitted with hatches so that
they may also be used for dry cargo in lieu of fuel
oil, ballast water, or liquid cargo.
Depot-level. Used to describe repair and maintenance actions on military ships, temporarily
taken out of service, that must be accomplished at a repair facility.
Derrick. A device for hoisting and lowering heavy
weights, cargo, stores, etc.
Docking brackets. Short transverse flanged plates
in the inner bottom strrrcture that run from the
center vertical keel to the first longitudinals on
both sides ofthe keel. They usually alternate
with the floors (seeFloor).
Dog. A small metal device used to secure doors,
hatch covers, manholes, etc., in a closed position.
Double bottom. Compartments at the bottom of a
ship between inner bottom and the shell plating,
mostly used for ballast water, fresh water, or
fuel oil.
Doubling plate. A plate fitted outside or inside of
another to give extra local strength or stiffness.
Draft marks. The numbers which are placed on
each side ofa ship at the bow and stern, and
sometimes amidships, to indicate the distance
from the lower edge of the number to the bottom
ofthe keel or other fixed reference point. The
numbers are 6 inches high and spaced 12 inches
bottom to bottom vertically. Draft marks may
alternativelybeprovidedin meters.
Draglines.Wireropesattachedto temporarypads
0r chainsattachedto a shipto providemeansof
i" !!\
theendsofshafttubesandstrutbarrels.
and
shaped to streamline the parts, thus eliminatine
GLOSSARY
413
414
SHIPPRODUCTION
GLOSSARY
Lifeboat. A boat carried by a ship for use in
emergency.
Life raft. A very buoyant raft, usually ofinflatable
material, designed to hold people abandoning
ship.
Lightening hole. A hole cut in a nonwatertight
structural member for ventilation, accessibility,
and/or weight reduction.
Limber hole. A small hole or slot in a frame or
plate for the purpose ofpreventing water or oil
from collecting; a drain hole.
Line heating. The use of systematic heating and
cooling to shape or form steel or aluminum
plates or structural shapes.
Liner. A flat or tapered strip placed under a plate
or shape to bring it in line with another part that
it overlaps; a filler.
Line shafting. Sections of the main shafting
located in the shaft tunnel between the engine
room and the afterpeak bulkhead.
Liquefred gas carrier (LNG). A ship specially designed to carry gases, primarily natural gas, at
extremely low temperatures in the liquid state.
The liquid gases are carried in specially constructed tanks and considerable insulation has
to be provided to ensure that the temperatures
are maintained in the tanks while the main
hull structure is maintained at ambient
temperature.
Loftwork. The laying offof full form details at full
size in preparation for cutting plate and
structural members. The process is now almost
entirely computerized.
Longitudinal. A fore-and-aft structural shape or
plate member attached to the underside of decks
or flats, or to the inner bottom, or on the inboard
side ofthe shell plating.
415
416
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
similartomakehatch
manufactuing
practicrl.
bulwark;[hehorizon[al
pipesor.h.i.,rlbr-i.,*
GTOSSARY
a fencelike railing fitted inside of a bulwark.
Rake. A term applied to the fore-and-aft inclination from the vertical, of a mast, smokestack.
sternpost, etc.
Reverse polarity. Direct current arc welding in
which the electrode has positive polarity and
ground is negative.
Resistance welding. A welding method in which
the parts to bejoined are clamped together and
an electric current (AC) is passed through the
joint. The resistance to the passage ofcurrent
across the joint creates heat, thus causing the
metal to melt with resulting fusion. Spot welding is a form of resistance welding.
Ribband. A fore-and-aft wooden batten used to
align the transverse frames and keep them in
fair line; also a layer ofinsulation on the boundaries ofa deck in way ofinsulated areas.
Rider plate. A continuous flat plate attached to the
top or bottom ofa girder.
Rigging. Wire ropes, fiber line, tackle, etc., used to
support masts, spars, booms, etc., and for handling and placing cargo on board ship.
Roll. To impart curvature to a plate.
Root. The smallest dimension of a joint prepared
for welding; also the first pass of a weld requiring more than one pass. It may be a point, a line,
or root face. Also called nose or land.
Rudder. A device used to steer a ship. The most
common type consists of a vertical metal area,
hinged at the forward edge to the stern post or
rudderpost.
Rudderpost. See Stern post.
Rudderstock. A vertical shaft that connects the
rudder to the steering gear.
Rudder stop. A lug on the stern frame or a stout
bracket on deck at each side ofthe quadrant, to
limit the swing of the rudder to approximately
37'port or starboard. A rudder angle of35'is the
maximum usually used at sea.
417
418
S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
GLOSSARY
to the ship's sides.
Supervisor of Ships. An organization within the
Naval Sea Systems Command responsible for
developing repair specifications and managing
shipbuilding and repair contracts between the
Navy and private industry.
Surface preparation. The work required to permit
coating materials (primarily paint) to be
satisfactorily applied to metals.
System. A structurally or operationally functioning product.
Tabernacle. An arrangement ofbrackets used to
support, a mast.
Tack weld. A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment until final welds are
made.
Tailshaft. See Propeller shaft.
Tank, ballast. See Ballast tank.
Tank, peak. See Aft,erpeak, Forepeak.
Tank, settling. Fuel oil tanks used for separating
entrained water from oil.
Tank, trimming. A tank located near the ends of a
ship. Seawater (or fuel oil) is carried in such
tanks as necessary to change trim.
Tank, wing. Tanks located well outboard adjacent
to the side shell plating, often consisting ofa
continuation ofthe double bottom up the sides to
a deck or flat.
Tank top. See Inner bottom.
Telegraph. An apparatus, either electrical or
mechanical, for transmitting orders, as from a
ship's bridge to the engine room, steering gear
room, or elsewhere around the ship.
Telemotor. A device for operating the control
valves ofthe steering engine from the
pilothouse, either by fluid pressure, or by
electricity.
Template. Wood, paper, or steel full-size patterns
to be placed on materials to indicate the size and
location ofpenetrations, plate edges,etc.; also to
indicate the curvature to which plate, frames,
etc.. are to be bent.
Test head. The head or height ofthe column of
water which will give a prescribed pressure on
the vertical or horizontal sides of a compartment
or tank in order to test its tightness or strength.
Thrust recess. A small compartment at the after
end of the main engine room at the forward end
ofshaft tunnel, designed to contain and give
access to the thrust shaft and block.
Tie plates. Plates used to tie parts ofthe structure
together when they are not otherwise directly
419
420
SHIPPRODUCTION
INDEX
A
Accommodations,142
Accuracy,319
Accuracycontrol, 319-58
applications,349-58
block assembly,339, 355
control items, 344-49
cycle,327
defrned,319
design,349
evaluating, 340-49
execution,335-40
hull erection,339-40
information flow, 341
mold loft. 349-53
parts fabrication, 337, 353
plan,240
planning,326-35
roIe,327
stage measurements,330
standardization,332-35,355
statistical analysis,319; principles of, 319-24
subassembly,337-39,353-55
urgent analysis, 343-44
work standards,333-35
Accuracycontrol checkand report sheet,290,
291
Accuracystandard, 335, 383-84
constructionstage,335
range,335
setting, 342
tolerancelimit, 335
Acquisition policy, 28
Activity duration, 257
Addition of variance theorem, 324
Adjustment cost,37, 41-43
external,37
internal, 37
Advanced Industrial Management, B8B
Agreement for Boat Repair (ABR), 366
Administration, 8
Air conditioning, 140-41
equipment mechanic,11
421
422
INDEX
Block assembly,TO-74
accuracycontrol, 339, 355
block storing,296-97
guidanceplan, 289
master schedule,336
material control. 297
planning, 261; prelimin ary, 201-2
problem area,74
process,efficiency,202-3
productivity, 297-98, 298-302
scheduling,296
stage,74
stage classihcations,74
Block storage
block assembly,296-97
plan,291
Boiler works, 169-70
Bottleneck. 4O-4I.44
Brazing, 134-35
Bridge crane, 144-45, 174
top running, 145
under running, 145
Britships,246
Budget,32
Budget control list, 201, 268-70
functions, 268-69
material lists by system, 264-70
Budget control work volume, 281
Building position, I7 1-73
Building strategy, 201, 253
contract requirements,254
outputs,253,254
production phases,254
work classifi cation, 254
Building way, longitudinal sloped,171
Bulk carrier.9. 168
Bureau Veritas, 13
Burning torch, 118
Butt weld, 123
Buy in, 38
C
Cable, 186
Cabotage,14,22
Capital Construction Fund, 22
Capital expenditure,28
Capital intensiveness,flexibility, 175
Capital stock, 35
Carbon, 107-8
Carpenter, 12
Cash flow, 26
Cellular manufacture, 46-47
Cementite, 109
Central limit theorem, 321
Centrifugal blasting, 152-53
advantages,153
airless, 153
Centrifugal fl agellater, 155
Chainfall, 184
Change
desigr,240-44
key plan,242
Charpy V-notch test, 110
Checkingprocedure,334
Check sheet.337. 338
Chipper/grinder, 12
Classification
by use, 13-14
material,305-14
product aspects,55
scope,50-51
Classificationsociety,13-14
annual survey, 13-14
areas covered,13-14
Clip and bolt, 185
Coamingunit, 87
Coating
flame-sprayed,157-58
systems, 156-57
Coding,51
defrned,51
Combatant, 11
nuclear,29
Combatant ship, 143
Combat system, 742-43
Come-along,184
Communication,239
feedbackchannels,277
hull construction, 27 6-78
Component
blockjoint,23T
side by side alignment,236
standard.308.312
Componentprocurement,84
Componentsupplier, 24-25
Compositearrangement,216-18,265, 2G6
considerations,217
engineroom,2l5,277
hull outfrt, 218
marked, 220; supplements,220
objectives, 216-17
outfitting type separation, 21,7
zone-by-zone,2l8
Compositedraft, 215-16
considerations,216
contig'uouspallet, 216
engine rcom,215,216
rough,216
Compression,44
Computer,29
applications,244
history,244
Computer-aideddesign
advancedintegrated, 246
hardware,245-46
integrated system,245
key plan, 249
network,250
outputs, 246-47
potential, 247-48
INDEX
process,246
schedulereview, 249
software, 245-46
work instruction,24S
Computer-aidedmanufacturing
advancedintegrated, 246
hardware,245-46
integrated system,245
material control,245
N/C instructions, 244-45
network,250
potential, 247-48
process,246
processplanning, 244
purchasing,244-45
rcbot.244.246
software, 245-46
Computer algorithm management information
system,256
Computer-integrated manufacturi ng, 244
Conglomeratemerger, 26
Conservatism,28
Construction,4-5
manufacturing levels, 4
parts manufacturing, 4
Constructionrate, optimum, 33
ConstructionReserveFund, 23
Construction schedule,40
Construction stage,accuracystandard, 335
Construction time, optimum, 33
Constructive change,38
Container, 147-48
Containership,9
Contract, 4
cost,4
delivery date, 4
performance requirements, 4
Contract drawing, 280
Contract management,8
Contract negotiation,260
Contractplan, 197,200
Control by lot, 94-95
Control chart,32I-23
Shewhart,321
Control item, 336
Controlling, 66-67
Conversion
aggregateschedule,375, 376, 377
commercial, 362-64
critical path, 371
network, 371-72,382
personnel,398, 403
planning,366-84
planning documents,375, 376, 377
product-oriented,375-82
product work breakdown structure, 371,
373
scheduling,371,372
systems-oriented, 37 l-7 2
vs. new construction.373. 396-98
423
424
INDEX
INDEX
End product tolerance.824
Engineeredlabor standafi. 257
Engineering,8
defined,222
design,222-44
group technology,199_200
Engineering cycle,2O2
Go meeting to K meeting, 208
_ ML meeting to keel layri.g,2}4
Engine room
compositearrangement,2I5, 2I7
outfit unit, 87
Equivalent ton, 82
Erection, 4
productivity, 297-98, g0l
sequence,207
Erection checkschedule,386
Erection schedule,27g
Erection shop, scheduling,29g
Erectionsite painting, l8l
Error,320
defrned,320
Estimate, initial, 38
Estimating,2SS
Evafuation, accuracycontrol, 840-49
.Eixcess.
325.334
distribution, S5Z
Excessstandard, 356
Excessvs. assemblysequence,distribution.
356
Experiencecurve, 86-32
Experiencelevel, 85
F
Fabrication, 54
Facilities, 55
Facility plan, Iong-range,
2b9
Fairing, 135-30,1t6
classifrcation,189
Family,46
Family manufacturing, 46,60
Fatigue strength, 111
Fatigue test, S-N plot. 111
Federal government, i4
Ferrite, 109
Fillet weldin g, I2J, 386
Finish painting, 93
l!njsh undercoat painting. 92-93
Fishing vessel,10
Fitting drawing, 264, 265
Fitting instruction, 282
Fitting stage,21b
Fitting work instruction drawing, 220
Fixed cost, 33
Fixture, 187
Flame planer, 120
Flatbed truck,74G-47
Flat block, 74, 1gl, 192
Flexibility,66
capital intensiveness,125
Flow lane. Seeprocess lane
Fork lift truck, 142
Format standardization.240
Forming, 120-28
mechanical, 720-2I
thermal, 121-28
Fracture mechanicsapproach,111
Frame bender, 122
Frigate, 164
Fusion welding, 123
heat input rate, l2B-28
heat sourceintensity, 128
processcharacteristics,126_2g
shielding, L2S-26
thermal cycle,126
weld metal metallurgical effects,126
G
Gamma iron, 108-9
Gantry crane,74E,I74
Gantt chart, 263.264
Gas metal arc welding,l32-83
Gas-shieldedarc welding, 125-26,lg}
Gas tungsten arc, 182. 1BB
Gas welding, 728-29
_ oxyacetyleneequipment, 12g
Gaussiandistribuaion.326
Gear-pulleydevice,184
General Dynamic Electric Boat Division, 174
GermanischerLlovd. 13
Governmentreguiation cost,25
Grain growth, 126
Grand block, 94
Grand-block,L-type, ZgJ, 294
Grand-blockjoining, 7J, 7 b-91
problem area,74
stage,74
Grand-unitjoinine, 83-86
Graving dock, 166. lZ2
advantages,122
disadvantages,122
Gravity welding machine, 181
Group technolory,b, 29, 81, 4b_b3
batch size,4Z
classification,4g-EL;BoeingCompany,52
classificationsystem,46
coding,5l
company functions affected. 50
cost,52-53
defined,47, 48
design,199-200;additional factors,199;
characteristics,199
engineering,199-200
engineering effort intensity, 200, 201
family,46
interim product, 46
job satisfaction,46
zoneconstruction,bB
425
426
INDEX
H
Hammerhead crane, 146
Hand tool cleaning, 154-55
Hardcore cost,39
Hatch cover,87
Hawser, 14
Heating, 740-41
Hoisting machine, synchrolift, 773, \74
Hull,63
integrated schedule,66
Hull block, 4
Hull block constructionmethod. 60. 68-75
objectives,68
planning,68-69
product aspectclassification,68
sevenlevels, 68-75
Hull bottom cleaner,153
Hull construction,55
basic production plan, 280-81
basic schedule,280-81
communication,2T6-78
manpower expenditure,299
on-block,277-78
on-boardoutfitting, 279
planning, 271-98
processlane,276
production planning flow, 286
production progress,299
production scheduling flow, 287
schedule,275
standards,279
start date, 264
Hull constructionprocessesplan, 280-81
Hull erection,74
accuracycontrol, 339-40
problem area,74
rework analysis, 344-47
stage,74
Hull erectionlayout plan, 280
Hull erectionmaster schedulenetwork, 281
Hull feature, outfit convenience,237-38
Hull material, 105-16
Hull outfrt. 63. 64
compositearrangement,218
Hull structural design, outfitting, 236-38
Hull structural desigrr schedule,276
Hydraulic device,185
Hydraulicjack, 185
Hydrofoil, 11
Hydrostatic test, piping unit, 159
I
Idleness,52
Industrial project managementcycle,61, 62
Industrial vehicle, 146-47
Industry organization,25 -28
businessenvironment, 26-27
capital budgeting policy, 26-27
economicperformance,27
economicvalue, 25
foreign purchase,25-26
investment,2T
merger,26
proflrtability, 26
strategic value, 26
Industry status, 14-29
economicmodel,14-15
national policy, 14-15
political factors, 14-15
U.S., 18-21;U.S. shipyardlocations,19
U.S. market, 21-23;history,2l-23;Navy, 21-23
world market, 15-18
Information booklet, title p age,227
Information flow, 197-99
standards,357-58
Ingalls Shipbuilding, 165, 168
Innovations,406
Insulator, 12
Insurancerates, 14
Interim product, 2t, 32, 33, 34, 46, 48, 68
accuracy,319
tolerance, 324-25
Interstitial solid solution, 106
Iron/iron carbidephasediagram, 108
J
Jack, hydraulic, 185
Jacking clamp, 185
Japaneseshipyard, 29
Jib crane. 144-46.183
Jig, 188
Job satisfaction,46
Joiner, 12
Joiner work, 142
JonesAct, 22
Journeyman, training, 24
Journeyman/totalworker ratio, 36
K
Kaiser, Henry, 163
Kerf,353
Kerf compensation,342
Key plan, 207
change,242
computer-aideddesign,249
mold loft, 223
structural, 208-9
L
Labor
cost;foreign, 28; minimization, 34; U.S., 28
learning curve, 36-37
market, cyclicality,25
quality, 35, 38, 39-40;adjusted,35; cost curve,
39-40
shortage,training,23
Labor adjustment cost
external, 37-38
frictional, 37-38
internal,3T-38
Laborer, 12
INDEX
Labor force,23-24
Labor hoarding, 3Z
Labor intensiveness,18
U.S. vs. forcign,27
Labor standard,engineered,257
Larson.B.. 171
Laser welding, 72G,1Bg-84
Launching, 171-73
level building facilities, 124
Launch pontoon, 1ZB
Layoff,23
Legislation, 14
Line heating,72I-ZB,856
curwature,121
distortion removal, 1gb-96
local reactions, 121-22
Linnean hierarchical taxonomv.49
Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 1'3
quality assurance,158
Loading. processlane. 1g3-g4
Lofting, computer systems,166
Loftsman, 12
Lot size batch, 48
M
Machinery,63,18Z-38
installation, 197-88
loadingmethods,213
reliability, 14
Machinery arrangement module. 231
Machinery outfitting, 63, 64
manpower expenditure,299
productivity, 299-902
Machine shop, 138
Machinist, 13
Major detail. planning, 287-gg
Managementcycle,industrial project,61, 62
Management system,58
corporateplan, 2b8
Man-hour. borrowing, 52
Man-hour budget, 268, 2g2
Man-h_ourbudget determination system, 267_6g,
292-93
Man-hour control, 292-gB
Man-hour control curve, 262-6g
Man-hour expenditure,29g
Manning level, 35, 41
Manpower,55
Manpower expenditure
electric cable assemblv.299
electricalassemblv.299
hull construction.Zgg
machinery outfitting, 299
Manufacturing work instruction, Igg, 282
|}fang{ac^turingwork instruction drawing, 22I _22
MarAd. SeeMaritime Administration
Margin,325
Marinette Marine, 124
Maritime Administrat ion, L4, 26,27
National DefenseReserveFleet. 866
427
Market, 14
Market cycle,23
early 1970s,15-16
oil embargo,15
Marketing plan. long-range,2bg
Market research.258
Marking, 775-76,177
Martensite, 109-10
Martensitic st6el, 110
Mass production,5
technique,5
Master outfitting schedule,272
Master schedule,block erection,386
Master Ship Repair Agreement(MSRA),866
Mast unit, 87
Match mark, 334
Material, 24-25,88
allocated,302
allocatedstock,307
assigneilgeograph\ca\, 2B\-32
classification,30b-14
critical path, B0Z
definition,30B-5
design,305-8
geographicarrangement,283
lead times,302
long-lead-time,207, 212
non-standard,2 18
procurement,30b_14
production,308, 804
requisitioning process,2II_I2
short-lead-time,202
standard, 213, 312-lJ
stock,307
Material classificationsystem,29
Material code
componentcode,808
desigrratingsystem,B0g
number, SOb
part code,308
Material control, 302-17
block assembly,2gT
classihcation,B0Z-8
parts fabrication shop.295
subassembly
section,296
Material control group,lZ4-78
Material control identifrcationcode,307_g,309
Material cost classifrcation
number,305
structure, 310
Material definition, 22I, BOB-5
schedulingobjectives,262
Material handling, 148-b0,l7B-74
equipment, 149-b0
inventory, 175
retrieval, 175
storage,175
system design,148
Material issue.palletizing,315,3lZ
Material list. 312.813
428
INDEX
I
I
Monthly schedule,273
Multi-pass welding, 123, 125
N
National policy, 18, 23
merchant ship, 15
National Shipbuilding ResearchProgram,28
Natural disaster,38
Naval architectural calculation,200-201
functional design,207
Navy, 18
N/C steel marking process,flow diagram,
775-76
Network
defrned,253
planning, 253-55,256
Newport News, 27
Normal distribution, 320, 321
mean,320
sampling,320
standard deviation,320
Nozzleblasting, 153-54
On-block,hull construction,277-78
On-block outfrtting, 82, 86-88
goals,86
pipe tunnel, 88
problem area, 86-87
stage,86
On-boardoutfitting, 82, 88-89
hull construction,278
problem area, 88
stage,89
zone,88-89
On-unit outfitting, 82
Optimum block, 68
Optimum output rate, 39
Ordinanceequipmentmechanic,13
Outfit planning group, 375
Outfrt process,136-43
Outfrt specialty group man-hour expenditure,
267-68
Outfrtting,55
advanced,166
integrated schedule,66
on-block,259
on-board,259
on-unit,259
processlane, 193
strategy, 213,2I5
systemcomponents,105;small independent
tanks, 237; stages,220, 221
Outfrtting milestone schedule,264
Outfrtting shop master schedule,289
Outfit unit, 236
Outfrt unit module,231
Out-of-sequencework, 45
Output
changes,44
INDEX
required, 38-39
unit,34
Output rate, optimum, 39
Overhaul
commercial,302-4
critical path, 371
Navy, 382-84,393, 394
network, 371-72,382
personnel,385
planning,368-84
planning documents,375
product-oriented,375-82
product work breakdown structure, 37l, 373
scheduling,37I-72
systems-oriented, 37 | -72
vs. new construction,373
virtual flow lane, 373
zone-oriented,372-75
Overlap, planning,6l
P
Padeye,186
Painter, 13
Painting,55, 179-81
erection site, 181
facility, 158
integrated schedule,66
new construction,157
Paint system,zonepainting method, 89-93
Pallet, 82,I48
coding systems,197-99
definition, 213-15
mold loft, 226
pipe pieces,104
storageareas, 103
subcontractordelivery, 317
work breakdown,314, 315
Pallet concept,197, 198
Palletizing, 314-18
functional flow. 314. 316
Pallet list, 213
original,213
Panel assembly,176-78
Panel line, 176-78
blast and coastfacilitv. 180
high-capacity,165
layout, 176-78
steel,179
Panel shop,layout, 176-78
Parent/child sigrr, 2 12
Parts assembly,70
level classifrcation,70
sub-blockpart concept,70
Parts fabrication, 70
accuracycontrol, 337, 353
problem area,70
productivity, 299-302
stage classifications,70
Parts fabrication processlanes plan, 290
Parts fabrication shop, 180
pipe piecejoining,103
problem area,94
product aspects,94, 95
testing, 103-4
work flow lanes,93
work lot, 94-95
work packages,94
Pipe piecejoining, 103
Pipe piecemanufacturing, 138
Pipe run
commonsupports,235
multiple,234
parallel toXJ{Z axes,235
Pipe shop band saw, 139
429
430
INDEX
zD l:l I
precontract,260-61
preliminary, accuracycontrol, B2B-29
process,57-59
production or ganization, 252
repair,368-84
shop-level,293-94
work flow, 258
working detail, 289-91
work instruction, 291-g2
zonepainting method, 89-93
Planning phase,252, 253
defined,252
Plasma arc pipe cutter, 139
Plasma metal inert gas welding, 133, 144
Plasma welding, 125
Plate fitting, 176
Platen, 188
flat block. I97.792
Platen/blockcategories,191, 192
Plate welding,176-77
Pneumatic abrasivetool, 15b
Pneumatic device,186
Political factors, 14-15
Poppet,171
Position-dimensiondiagram, 351
Power tool cleaning, 754-55
Precipitation during welding, 126
Pressbrake. 721.147
Pressure
blaster,portable,
lb4
Primer painting, 90-92
Problem area,56-57
Processanalysis,324
Processlane, 60, 789-94,234
categories,141
cells,277
curved panel block, 272
defined. 189.276
facility layout, 190, 191-92
flat panel block,277
hull construction,276
loading, 193-94
outfrt, 193
physical, 189-93
platen/blockcategories,191
shop organization,2T6
stages,277
virtual flow, 373
Processstandard, 55
Processtime,257
Procurement
material,305-14
m a t e r i a ll i s t , 3 1 3 - 1 4
Product aspect,56, 69
Production.8. 63-66
cost,31
design,222-44
racrlrtv.I /b
function, SS
material,303-5
output, 44
Production control, 298-302
defined,252
functions,298
integration, 252-53
man-hour expenditure,298
productionprogress,298-99
productivity index, 299-302
zone-to-systemtransposition.802
Productioncontroldepaitment,221
Productionline, 60
Productionorganization
craft, 163
mass production, 163
process,162
product, 163
semi-process,163
Productionperiod, optimum, 43
Productionplanning
modules,278-79
standards,278-79
Productionplanning flow, hull construction,2g6
Productionprog"ess,298-gg
hull construction,299
Productionrate, 31-33,41-48
adjusted,31
completionstage,31
optimal, 43
original,44
Production
ratccurvc,
32,33
INDEX
erection, 299-302
foreign,29
Japaneseshipyard,2g
low,51-53
machinery outfitting, 229-32
parts fabrica tion, 299-302
parts fabrication shop,295
resources,57-59
standardization,22S
subassembly,229
subassemblysection,296
time, 57-59
work circumstancequality, 57-59
Productivity control group, 301-2,303
Productivity index, 257, 258, 299-302
Productivity value, 69
Productorientation,55
Product-orientedconstruction,group, 48
Product-orientedwork breakdown structure, 31,
54-55,61
assembly,55
fabrication, 55
hull construction,55
outfitting, 55
painting, 55
pipe piecefamily manufacture, 93-104
planning,6l-67
resources,55
value analysis,57-59
work packageclassification,55-57
zone constructionmethod, 67 -93
Product resource,69
definitions,55
Product work breakdown structure, b0
Profile cutter, 120
Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT),253-56
Progress,32, 34
Progresscurve, 32, 33
Project management,8
Pulldown, 184
Purchaseorder specification,format standardization,240
Purchasespecification,264-66
Purchasing,8, 310-12
Push-pull jack, 185
431
RegistroItaliano Navale, 14
Regulatoryagency,13-14
areascovered,13-14
Repair approach
commercial,362-64
critical path, 371
facilities,361,366,367-68
military,364-66
quasi-commercial,366
planning of 368-84
planning documents,375, 37G,877
product-oriented,375-82
product work breakdown structure. BZ1.37S
scheduling.37L, 372
systems-oriented,37l-7 2
vs. new construction.373. 396-98
virtual flow lane, 373
zone-oriented,
372-375
Repair industry, 20-21
Requiredoutput
changes,38-39
cost,38-39
shift, 38-39
Requisition plan, 290
Requisition process
d e v e l o p m e n3t ,0 9 , 3 1 1
functionalflow, 309,311
Residencetime, 126
Resourcemarket, 23-25
Resourceutilization, 32
Resourceutilization rate. 33
Rework,344
Rigger/craneoperator,13
Rigging, 148-49
R i p - o u t , 3 6 63, 8 1
Risk-aversiontechnique,18
Riveting, 161
Robot,244
Roll-on/roll-offshio. 9
Rotary wire brush, 155
Rough cutting plan, 290
Round componentroll, 120
S
Sampling,320
Scaffolding,149-50
Scatter, 321
Schedule tracking meeting, 292
Scheduling
basic2
, 70-71,279-84
blockassembly,296
conversion,37I, 372
coordination,52
cycle,27l, 274
defined,252,270
design,261-67; sequence,263
detail work instruction, 284-93
erectionshop,298
feedback,6T
hierarchy,270,271
432
INDEX
Scheduling (continued)
hull construction,275
integrated,63
integration, 252-53
major detailing, 288-89
master outfitting,2T2
milestone,272
mold loft, 226,294
monthly,273
network, 253
overhaul. 371.372
overview,257-27I
parts fabrication shop, 294-95
repair,37I,372
shop-level,293-94
slippage,S3
subassemblysection,296
weekly,273
working, 291
work instruction,2T2
zone outfrtting, 270
Sea trial, 159
Seam welding, 176
Self-check,336
Semi-blockassembly,73-74,76, 77, 79, 80
Shaft, installation, 138
Shears,117
Sheetmetal cutter, 141
Sheet metal mechanic,13
Shelfplate,238
Shell plate curving roll, 120
Shewhart control chart, 321
Ship
classification.6. 8-11
defrnition,6
types,6, 8-11, 164-65;inboardprofiles,9-11
Shipbuilding
defrnitiion, 6
history,5
process,3-6; stages,3
Shipbuilding activity timing schedule,281
Shipbuilding master schedule, 267, 262
Shipbuilding model, 33-3?
graphic analysis, 37-43
Ship design group schedule,266
Ship design master schedule, 264-66
Shipfitter, 13
Ship production progress curve, 34
Shipway, modular construction, 165
Shipwright, 13
Shipyard
building position, 771-73
European, 16
facility, 6-7, 12, 168-89
high-capacityin-line process,164, 165
important features,6-7
Japanese,17
locations,20
modular construction.165-66
rI
nationalized,16,168
1960to present, 163-68
organization,7-8
pre-World War II, 162
receivership,168
third-generation,166, 167
Shipyard layout, 6-7, 12, 170-7|
conventional,165-68
first-generation,163
fourth-generation,168, 169
historical perspective,161-68
McNeill shipyard classificationsystem, 161
product-oriented,168
second-generation,
164
World War II to 1960, t62-68
Shipyard planning ovewiew, 257-Eg
Shipyard selection,4
Shipyard worker, organization,7-8
Shop-level
planning,293-94
scheduling, 293-94
Shop organization,processlane, 276
Shop priming, 156
Shrinkage,334,355
Shrinkage allowancestandard, Bb6-58
elements,356-57
Sidelaunchingshipway,\72,179
Side launch system, 172, 173
Sight line template, 339
Single passwelding, 723,l2S
Siting, 168-89
factors, 168
Skill dilution, 24
Skilled labor, shortage,23
Skill level, 35
Soldering,134-35
Specifrcation,197
Spot heating, 135
Stage,57,76-82
Staging,57, 149-50,189
Standard
basic,229
classification. 229. 313
material,312-13
Standard deviation, 320
Standard deviation analysis,342
Standard drawing, 229
Standardizat ion, 228-29
accuracycontrol, 332-35,35b
block, 228
component,228
material list for manufacturing, 222
outfit unit, 228
productivity, 228
subassembly,228
Standard man-hour, 34, 35
Standard range, 325
Statistical analysis,work processrequiring, 826
Statistical control, 322-23
INDEX
Stay, 186
Steel,107-10
brittle fracture, 110
choice,112
corrosion resistance, 7ll-12
ductility, 110
fabrication, 164
fatigue strength, lll
g r a d e s , 1 1 21, 1 3 - 1 5
high-strength low-alloy, 112
notch toughness,110-11
phasediagram, 107-10
properties, 110-12
requirements, 113-14
solidification process,109-10;rapid cooling,
109-10;slow cooling,109
strength,110
stress-straincurve, 110, 111
transport, 164
types,112
weldability, 112
Steel block, 255
Steel ship, classifrcation,14
Step-cut dog, 184
Stiffener setting, 178
Stiffener welding, automatic, 179
Stochasticnetwork simulation management
systems,256
Strategic planning, 36
Stress-straincurve, 110-11
Strong back, 187
Structural assemblydetail, 230
Structural material, 105
Structural strength, 14
Stud welding, 131-32
Subassembly,4, 54
accuracycontrol, 337-39,353-55
productivity, 229
Subassemblysection
material control, 296
productivity, 296
scheduling,296
Sub-block
assembly,70-73
part concept,70
Subcontracting,310-12
Subcontractor,24-25
Submergedarc welding, 130-31,132
Subsidy,14,22
Substitutional solid solution, 106
Suez Canal, 165
Superstructure, 63
Superstructureblock, 192
Superstructure outfit, 63, 65
Supertanker, 165
Supplier base,25
decline,2S
Support service,188-89
Surfacepreparation, 150-58,179-81
433
force,I52
methods,152
Surfacetransporter, 173
System,56
System diagrammati c, 207-13
Systemplan, 211
Systemsapproach,47
Systems-orientedwork breakdown structure, 54
System-to-zonetransposition,62
T
Tacker,/burner,13
Tanker,9
Taxonomy,49
Technology,28-29
Japaneseshipyard, 29
U.S. vs. foreign,28-29
Test, 159
combatant program contracts, 143
Thermite welding, 726, 134
Threadeddevice,185
Title XI, 23
Tolerance, 324-25
end product, 324
interim product, 324-25
limit,335
rework, 325
Torch tip, convergenttype,l23
Total package procurement, 26-27
Total Transportation Systems,174,179, L80
Trade,11-13
Trade skills, 11-13
Training
labor shortage,2S-24
Nary,23
time required,2S-24
Transporter, self-propelled,165
Trial, 159
Triangle heating, 135
Tug, 10
Tungsten inert gas welding, 132
Turnover.24.36
Turret press, 142
U
U.S. CoastGuard, 14
quality assurance,158
U.S. Navy
construction pr ogram, 22
design,3
quality assurance,158
ship types, 164
ship work breakdown structure, 54
shipyard, apprentice training program, 23
systems-orientedstructure, 54
training,23
volume, 15
U.S. Public Health Service,quality assurance,
158
434
INDEX
Underbidding,33
Uniform work content, 34
Unit assembly,83-84
problem areas,84
stage,84
V
Vacuum blaster, push mower type, 154
Vacuum saddle, 186
Value analysis, 57-59
Variance,324
Variation,319
constructionstage sources,329
Variation merging, 323-24
Variation-merging equation, 324, 331-32,332-33
Ventilation, 140-4I
w
Waiting time, 45
Warehousing,Sl4-I7
facility, 174-75
functional flow, 314, 316
Weaponssystem, 142-43
Web,356
Wedge,184
Wedgedevice,184
Weekly schedule,273
Welder, 13
Welding,5,123-34,161.Seeolso specifictype
aluminum, 116
pipe, 139
plate, 356
repair, 178
semiautomatichigh-capacity,166
stiffener, 356
types,126-34
Welding process,penetrations, 123, 725
Weld metal, metallurgical effects,126
Weld-onsaddle,184
Wet blasting, 155
Work accessholes plan, 289
Work breakdown structure. 53-59
product-oriented,31
system-oriented,31
Work flow,60
level,258-59
planning,258
Working detail, planning, 289-91
Working drawing, 63
Working piecetreatments plan, 289
Working scheduling,291
Work instruction
computer-aideddesigrr,248
moldloft,224
planning,29I-92
scheduling,292
Work instruction master plan, 289
Work instruction package,195
Work instruction plan, 218
moldloft,224
Work lot, 94-95
Work order, 52
fire main,52
Work package,32, 58
iterative development,58
Work packagenumber, 305
Work process,standards,357-58
Work processlane, 63
Work standard, accuracycontrol, 333-3b
Work unit, 189
Y
Yard plan, 797,213
mold loft, 223
Z
Zone,56
problem area,76-82
stage,76-82
Zone constructiongroup, 48
Zone constructionmethod, 29, 53, 67 -93
design,229-40
fitting instruction, 232
manufacturing instruction, 232
material list for fittrng,232
operation,89
pallet,232
planning,68,76
test, 89
Zone outfitting method, 60, 76-89
componentprocurement,84
manufacturing levels,83
objectives,82
operation,89
planning, 76-84
product aspects,82, 85
scheduling,270-71
test, 89
Zone painting method, 60, 89-93
manufacturing levels,89-90
objectives,89-90
paint systems,90, 92
planning, 89-93
prerequisites,89
product aspects,90, 91
stage,90
Zoneplanning, 29
Zone-to-systemtransposition,62, 302
i
I
I
I
ri
I
A B O U T T H E A U T H OR S
r s B N0 - 8 7 0 3 3 - 4 6 1 - 1
ttnfilfiut
ilililru]ffiilil
t..fr:.er\35lr
t _ _
-2'.J.-.*-
Fig.3-27(a)
Fig.3-27(b)
Fig.3-27(c)
Fig. 3-28(a)
Fig. 3-29
Fig.3-28(b)
PI,ATE II
Fig.3-35
Fig.3-36
Fig.3-37
Fig.3-38
Fig.3-39
Fig.3-40
PLATE III
Fig.3-47
Fig. 3-48
Fig.3-49
Fig.3-50
Fig.3-51
Fig.3-52
side shell and engine room flat right side up. Fig.
3-51. On-block outfitting of the block shown in
figures 3-49 and 3-50 being completedright side
up next to the building dock.Fig. 3-52.Erection of
the block shown in figures 3-49 through 3-51.
PI,ATE IV
Fig.3-53
Fig.3-54
Fig.3-55
Fig. 3-56
Fig.3-57
PI,ATE V
Fig.3-58
Fig. 3-59
Fig.3-60
Fig.3-61
Fig.3-62
Fig.3-63
PLATE VI
Fig.3-64
Fig.3-65
Fig.3-66
Fig. 3-67
Fig.3-68