Chapter 20- The Reign of Peter the Great

1. Describe the controversy surrounding the throne when Peter became tsar.
Who were the competing factions?
Peter became tsar in April 1682. His mother became regent, while her relatives and
friends secured leading positions in the state. Starting in may, the Miloslavksy party,
led by Alexiss able and strong-willed daughter Sophia, Peters half-sister, inspired a
rebellion of the regiments of the steltsky concentrated in Moscow. Leading members
of the Naryshkin clan were murdered and Peter witnessed it. The Miloslavskys took
power because of it. The boyar duma then declared Ivan senior tsar and allowed
Peter to be junior tsar, and then made Sophia regent.
2. Who was Sophia and how would you describe her regency?
Sophia was Peters half-sister and Alexiss strong-willed daughter. Her regency
helped to restore relations with Europe and she was receptive to new ideas and
influences from abroad. She was aggressive and led a rebellion that led to her
ruling.
3. How do you assess the character of Peter? What was the impact of his
childhood and youth on this interests and later life?
He made the impression that he was one of enormous strength and energy. He
possessed physical strength and vigor. He was powerful and active and he believed
that politics should have a powerful and active role in Russia peoples lives. He
recovered quickly from losses and he always tried to stay busy. During his
childhood, he also did not
4. Describe the challenges and successes of the first years of Peters rule.
During his first year of rule he declared a war against Turkey. It was his first major
action. He put a lot of his time and effort into this war. He sent a group of men to
study shipbuilding and navigation. He also sent out to form allies with other
countries to aid in the Turkey war. He spent a lot of time trying to modernize the
armed forces, which is why he spent so much time trying to study shipbuilding and
navigation. He had challenges with the streltsy. They delayed journey and caused
issues with what he was trying to accomplish.
5. What were the causes and outcomes of the Great Northern War? Be specific.
Peter joined Saxony and Poland and Denmark in a war against Sweden. Russia
entered late into the war because they were waiting for the peace negotiations to
be completed with Turkey before beginning a new war. They went after Sweden
because they just got out of the Thirty Years War and had a very dominant position

along the Baltic sea and Baltic area. Sweden quickly forced Denmark to surrender.
They turned their attention to Russia after the disposal of Denmark enemies. After
this first attack on Russian armies, he neglected and underestimated them. Peter
used this neglect to strengthen his army and to prepare for the next strike. Saxony
and Poland then signed treaties, so they were no longer participating in the war.
Which left Peter all alone fighting the most dominant country in the world. Russia
defeated the Swedish army on July 8, 1709 at the battle of Poltava. The power and
rise that Russia experienced after this win surprised the European countries.
6. What were the provisions of the Treaty of Nystadt?
The treaty was completed on August 30, 1721 between Russia and Sweden. Russia
acquired Livonia, Estonia, Ingermanland, part of Karelia, and certain islands. Russia
received several other borderlands that they used to their control and they also
retained the fortress of Viborg. In return, Russia gave most of Finland and 2 million
rix-dollars. This treaty established Russia as a contender in the Baltic area.
7. What reforms did Peter make to the army and navy? Why?
Peter reformed the army by giving them general conscription and reorganizing and
modernizing the army. They established a new way to draft. It was passed that there
would be one draftee for every seventy-five serf households. When people were
drafted or recruited, the term was for life. They were unable to leave once they
were in it. He updated the military manual and made it more modern. Everyone was
forced to work their way up from the bottom, no matter which social class they
came from. They created elite regiments of guards. He began the navy from
scratch. The modern navy that they had was all due to peter.
8. Discuss the major administrative reforms, their impact and flaws.
Peter established colleges in place of prikazy. These colleges helped to organize the
education system. There was more unity to the system and they had specialized
school, which helped to educate more people. He also reformed the government,
local and central government. He also reformed the church administration and
finance. He put important changes in Russian society, economy, and culture.
9. How and why was the Church reorganized?
His reform essentially made the church into a branch of government. Although the
new arrangement fell under the conciliar principle widespread in the Orthodox
Church and although it received approval from the eastern patriarchs, the reform
belonged to the western, not Byzantine or Muscovite, tradition. He expected the
church to serve the public good and interests of the state and empire as a whole.
He tried to strengthen and broaden church schools and charged the church with
organizing welfare institutions such as almshouses.
10.What financial and social measures were also taken during Peters reign?

Peter constantly needed money, so in order to receive money from the people of
Russia he taxed everything. Everything included beehives, mills, fisheries, beards,
and bathhouses. Stamped paper became an additional source of revenue for the
state and so did oak coffins. In 1718 peter introduced the head, or poll, tax in place
of the household tax and the tax on cultivated land. The purpose of this was to
catch shirkers who combined households or failed to till their land. Peter accepted
Russia as it was with serfdom and the economic and social dominance of the gentry.
He constantly tried to bend the society to better serve him and his needs.
11.How did the economy develop and in what directions during this era?
The emperor only thought of the war first and everything else second. From about
1710 he strove to develop industries not related to military needs, to increase
Russian exports, and in general to endow the country with a more varies and active
economy. He made efforts to stimulate private enterprise and e also acted on a
large scale directly through the state. He adhered to mercantilism, which was
popular in Europe at the time. A favorable balance of trade and the protection of
home industries as reflected in the Russian tariff of 1724.
12.Discuss the major innovations in education and culture in Peters time.
He encouraged schools that would produce specialists, such as the School of
Mathematics and Navigation established in 1701. His broader plans included
compulsory education for the gentry which could not be translated into practice at
the time and the creation of the Academy of Sciences to develop, guide, and crown
learning in Russia. This academy came into play after the death of Peter.
13.What were the problems of Peters succession? How was it resolved?
The conflict between old Muscovy and new imperial Russia played out within the
sovereigns own family. His mother and his wife belonged to the unreformed. He had
a son. This boy lived with his mother in her nun seclusion and then later lived with
aunts. He never established a good rapport with his son. There were rumors and
conspiracies that peter was mean to be murdered. He passed a law of succession,
which disregarded the principle of hereditary seniority and proclaimed that instead
that the sovereign could appoint his successor.
14.What are the various evaluations of Peter and what is your opinion of the man
and his reign?
The evaluations included that he was compared to Jupiter, Mars, Neptune, and
Hercules, and to David, Moses, and Samson. He was said to have brought Russia
victory over its enemies and the rule of law and reason. He also had enemies
though. They hated what he had done to Russia. Peter was similarly either reversed
as a bold champion of light against darkness, as an enlightened ruler who had
replace savagery with civilization, or as a crude tyrant who undermined and

perverted Russias distinct national spirit and importuned the alien spirit of western
rationalism.
Riasanovsky, Chpater 21
Chapter 21- Russian History from Peter the Great to Catherine the Great
1. Why is the period between the rules of Peter and Catherine so confusing and
even disastrous?
It was confusing because he did not name a successor. So whenever he died, many
candidates for the throne came forward. Peter was the only direct male heir and
thus the logical successor to his grandfather.
2. How would you characterize the reigns of Catherine I and Peter II? What were
the influences upon these reigns?
Vatherines reign lasted only two years and three months. The Menshikov played the
leading role in the government. The important act was the creation of the Supreme
Privy to deal with the matter of exceptional significance. Peter was not yet 12 when
he became the emperor. He fell into the hands of the Menshikov who transferred the
monarch from the palace to his residence and betrothed him to his daughter. He
placed his confidence in young Prince Ivan Dolgoruky. The family used this
opportunity to have Menshikov arrested. Peter died from small pox when he was not
even 15 years old.
3. How did Russia reach a low point in the rule of Anne and Ivan VI.
The rule of Anne was the only constitutional rule that existed in Russia. Traditionally,
individuals German in Russia has presented this rule as period of cruel and stupid
rule. While this interpretation should not be over done, it remains true that Anne
brought with her from Courland a band of favorites, and that in general she
patronized Germans as well as other foreigners and distrusted the Russian high
nobility, whose influence she did all she could to restrict. She nominated twomonth-old infant, Ivan, to be her successor.
4. Why was Elizabeths reign somewhat better than her immediate
predecessors? Why did favorites continue to play a major rule? With what
results?
Elizabeth and her administration did much to continue Peter the Greats legacy. The
senate was restored to its former authority and her reign saw further rationalization
of government institutions. Her government sought to stimulate the economy by
abolishing most domestic custom barriers and encouraging private
entrepreneurship. She supported artistic and cultural development including the
establishment of the University of Moscow. Ivan Shuvalov was the empress favorite.

She left behind him an almost unique reputation for integrity and kindness for
refusing awards and prizes.
5. What is meant by the German orientation in the reigns between Peter and
Catherine?
The German orientation that had been overthrown by Elizabeth, her circle was more
attracted to French culture and France, came back with a vengeance when Peter III
ascended the throne.
6. How did the gentry benefit socially and economically during this time?
Most important was the growth of the power and standing of the gentry together
with its complementary process, a further deterioration in the position of the serfs.
Empress Anne began giving away state lands to her gentry supporters on a large
scale, the peasants on the lands becoming serfs, and Elizabeth enthusiastically
continued the practice. The most significant evolution took place in regard to the
service obligation to the gentry state.
7. How did serfdom grow in the 1700s? Why?
Serfdom grew because the leaders were giving away the state land. If there were
people living on this state land then they automatically became serfs to the higher
up people that were receiving the land. Serfs were unable to volunteer to be in the
military, the rulers did not want them to join the army in order to escape their
position on the social ladder.
8. What were the major foreign policy challenges and engagements in this era?
Peter the Great brought Russia forcefully into the community of European nations as
a major power that was concerned with the affairs of the continent at large, not
merely with the activities of its neighbors, such as Turkey, Poland and Sweden. In
the period under consideration, Great Britain would be considered a natural friend
of Russia. In its new role as a great power, Russia also became involved in wars
fought away from its borders over issues not immediately related to Russian
interests.
Chapter 22- The Reigns of Catherine the Great and Paul
1. Describe Catherine the Greats background and how she adapted to life in the
Russian royal court.
Catherine was 33 years old when she ascended the Russian throne. She had
acquired a considerable education and experience. She was born a princess and
grew up in modest but cultured surroundings. The early years were rough for her to
transition into the royal court. Peter proved to be a miserable husband and her

position at the imperial court was isolated and precarious. Her mother was
discovered to be Frederick the Greats agent and had to leave Russia.
2. What was the legislative commission and its goals? Were the goals
accomplished?
The aim of the commission was to codify laws, a task last accomplished in 1649,
before the Westernization of the country. She believed that the work of the
commission would go a long way towards rationalizing and modernizing Russian law
and life. In preparation, Catherine drafted a remarkable document to guide the
discussion of the delegates in which she laid out her vision of how Russia should be
governed and how society should be organized.
3. What were the causes of Pugachevs rebellion? How did it end?
Social antagonisms that simmered in the legislative commission exploded in the
Pugachev rebellion. The uprising was built upon social discontents that were
widespread in imperial Russia. What began as a Cossack movement quickly
attracted serfs, state peasants, poorer town dwellers, old believers, and nonRussians.
4. What were Catherines reforms regarding the gentry and serfs?
The new system of local government that was introduced was closely related to the
frightening collapse of local authority during the rebellion. She reorganized the
administrative geography of the country. Establishing fifty governments each
subdivided into ten districts. Each province was to be run by an appointed governor
and a network of institutions.
5. What were the foreign policy goals and accomplishments of Catherines
reign? Be specific.
Important events in Russias foreign policy under Catherine clustered in two
segments of time. There was the first Turkish war, together with the first partition of
Poland. Then Russia participated in the Second Turkish war, which was an
inconclusive war with Sweden after they attacked Russia. The second and third
partitions of Poland happened after that. One other development was the success
during Britains war with its rebellious American colonies, in promoting the doctrine
of free commerce at sea for noncombatants, which led to the formation of the
League of Armed Neutrality in 1780.

6. How do scholars evaluate the reign of Catherine? Why is she named the
Great? What do you think?

She has received a large amount of both praise and criticism. Her admirers focus
mainly on her achievements in advancing Russias westernization and international
position. Her detractors dwell on her failures to achieve many of her stated goals
and especially on the continued growth of serfdom. I believe that she was named
the Great because she continued the work of Peter the Great. Both of them were
praised and criticized for the westernization and modernization that they brought to
Russia.
7. How would you characterize the reign of Catherines son Paul? What were his
reform ideas? Why was he so unpopular?
When he ascended the throne he made undoing his mothers work a salient feature
of his brief reign. He hated his mother, her advisors, and her favorites. His views
and attitudes found reflection in his treatment of the crucial problem of serfdom and
the gentry. He continued Catherines support and promotion of serfdom by
spreading it to extreme southern Russia and by distributing state lands and
peasants to his favorites at a faster rate than his mother did. He harshly suppressed
peasant rebellions. He was very unpopular in foreign relations because he did not
cooperate well with them.
Chap. 23 Economic and Social Development of Russia in the Eighteenth
1. Why is the eighteenth century an important divide in Russian history?
The eighteenth century was a time of radical transformations, dramatically rising
prices for grain, robust development of trade and markets, a growing money
economy and even an increasingly vital peasant economy. Agriculture thrived and
landlords made great profits, serfdom became stronger and the tax burden on the
poor grew and towns and urban manufacture languished. There were also changes
in the population curve.
2. What impact did the expansion of Russian land in this period have on Russian
government, the economy and society?
The Russian land expanded into the Baltic area, which gave the state access to
population that was proficient in navigation and commerce. The state was also
granted access to the ports of the Baltic Sea. The economic affairs and culture and
politics began to mirror how the Europeans conducted economic affairs and culture
and politics. The land expansion brought them closer to Europe, which is why it
began to mirror those countries. Population in the south grew rapidly due to newly
acquired lands.
3. Discuss agricultural practice in Russia.
The agricultural practice in Russia differentiated because of the large expansion that
happened during this time. There were fertile lands in the south and they became
more distinct from the regions in the north and center of the land. The serfs tilled

this land and they performed tasks such as cutting firewood or mowing hay. The
system was a barshchina system. This system consisted of work for ones master.
This is the system that was used in the south. In the north, an obrok system was
used. This system consisted of payments to the landlord in kind or money.
Agricultural products developed on a large scale during this time.
4. Examine the growth of industry in the 1700s.
There were greater advances made in the industry business during this time than in
the agricultural business. Many of the factories employed many people. The vitally
important mining and metal industries developed so spectacularly as to give Russia
a leading position in Europe in this type of production. The Ural area produced 90%
of Russian copper and 65% of pig iron. The acquisition of a suitable labor force often
created special problems. Russian manufacturing establishments reflected and in
turn affected the social structure of the empire.
5. What were the major developments in both internal and foreign trade?
Domestic commerce was stimulated by the repeal of internal tariffs that culminated
in Empress Elizabeths legislation in 1753. The building of new canals, territorial
acquisitions, and the quickened tempo and increasing diversity of economic life also
led to the stimulation of the domestic commerce. Foreign trade also developed
rapidly. The annual ruble value of both exports and imports more than tripled in the
course of Catherines reign. After the victory in the Great Northern War, the Baltic
ports became the main avenue of trade with Russia and they maintained this
dominant position into the nineteenth century.
6. What was the status of the peasantry in the 1700s? Why is this period
named the golden age of the gentry?
The great bulk of people during this time were peasants. They were in two different
categories, serfs and state peasants. Peasants were facing increasing economic
exploitation, which was made worse by the virtual complete dependence of serfs on
the will of their masters, without even the right to petition for redress. This period
was name the golden age of the gentry because it constituted a little over 1% of the
population and it dominated the life of the country and enjoyed growing wealth in
this favorable economy. Their style of life became increasingly elaborate and costly,
requiring servants, elegant furniture, imported books and art, costly balls, the finest
education for their children, and travel abroad.
7. What were the key fiscal policies of this era?
Policies towards different groups varied widely depending on how much the state
valued their potential service to crown and country. This was also influenced by
existing prejudices. The policy towards non-Russian ethnic and religious groups
remained remarkably pragmatic, flexible, and tolerant. The rationalist philosophy of

viewing people according to their utility, the great distances of the empire, the
weakness of local government, and native resistance to interference in their
traditional ways were the reasons behind the flexibleness of the non-Russian
policies. Russian ethnicity and orthodox religion were not yet treated by the state as
the unifying and stabilizing foundation of Russian politics and society.
Chap. 24- Russian Culture in the Eighteenth Century
1. Why is the eighteenth century a distinct period in Russian cultural history?
This period is distinct for Russian cultural history because it marked the separation
from the Muscovite past. Peter the Greats violent activity was the most
revolutionary in the domain of culture. Suddenly, skipping entire epochs of
scholasticism, Renaissance, and Reformation, Russia moved from a parochial
ecclesiastical, quasi-medieval civilization to the age of reason. Russian culture
during this period differed greatly from the culture of the prior periods. The Russians
applied themselves to the huge and fundamental task of learning from the West. It
was an age of apprenticeship and imitation par excellence.
2. What were the characteristics of the Russian Enlightenment?
The characteristics of the Russian Enlightenment were salient. It represented the
triumph of secularism and thus stood in sharp contrast to the Church-centered
civilization of Muscovy. Orthodoxy remained in imperial Russia and even continued
to be linked to the state and occupy a high position. Instead of being central to
Russian life and culture, it became a separate and neglected compartment.
Enlightenment came to Russia through the educated gentry.
3. What changes and reforms were made in the area of education?
Peter the Great first arranged for publication of Russian books by a Dutch press.
Several years late, the publishing was transferred to Russia. He then took part in
reforming the alphabet. He produced what came to be known as the civil Russian
alphabet. It was composed of Slavonic, Greek, and Latin letters and it was
considered a simplification of the old Slavonic. The old alphabet was allowed in
church books, but all other works was required to use the new system. He also sent
hundreds of Russian students to study abroad. He also opened new types of schools
in Russia. He established the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in
Moscow. It was a secondary school that stressed the teaching of arithmetic,
geometry, trigonometry, astronomy, and geography.
4. What developments were seen in this period in Russian language and
literature?
The adaptation of the Russian language constituted a major problem for Russian
education, literature, and culture. Over the course of the century, the basic
linguistics issues were resolves and modern literary Russia emerged. Foreign words

and expressions were either rejected or absorbed into the language of Russia. This
greatly increased the vocabulary. The Russian linguistic evolution during this period
was very successful and can be best seen from the fact that the golden age of
Russian literature followed shortly after.
5. What ideas and personalities were behind the development body of social
criticism at this time?
The spirit of criticism developed during the reign of Catherine and was aided by the
sponsorship and example of her. She gave official endorsement to the critiques and
views of the philophies. The Free Economic Society awarded its first prize to a work
advocating the abolition of serfdom. There was a lot of skepticism towards many
aspects of Russian life. Freemasonry became another school of criticism and
thought for the Russians because it combined disparate doctrines and trends. It
came to Russia from the west. The freemasons contributed towards the life of polite
society.
6. What developments were characteristic of advances in Russian science and
scholarship?
Mikhail Lomonosoc was born into a peasant family and was one of the great
scholars of this time. He was a pioneer grammarian, an important literary scholar, a
gifted poet, he was also a chemist, a physicist, an astronomer, a meteorologist, a
geologist, a mineralogist, a metallurgist, a specialist in navigation, a geographer, an
economist, and a historian. He brought scientific specialization to Russia and he
advanced each of the professions that he was specialized in. he taught the first
course of physical chemistry and he published textbooks in that field. The Russians
scientists most successful achievement included the discovery of the law of the
preservation of matter and energy.

Chapter 25- The Reign of Alexander I

1. Discuss the personality, manner and psychology of Alexander I. Why has he
been seen as a somewhat mysterious character?
The psychology of Alexander was unstable, uncertain, and contradictory. Alexander
had a rough and difficult childhood. He had ambiguous relations with his father. His
father and his grandmother hated each other, which wasnt good for Alexander. He
spent more time with his grandparents than with his parents. He learned the arts of
flattery, dissimulation, and hypocrisy. The education that he received influenced his
character, view, and activities. Alexanders upbringing was guided by the ideas of
the Enlightenment.
2. What were Alexanders attitudes toward liberal reform? What reforms were
accomplished?

Alexander reformed many things that were put into place prior. An amnesty restored
to their formed positions up to 12,000 men that were dismissed, the obnoxious
restrictions on travel abroad and on the entry into Russia of foreigners as well as
foreign books and periodicals were abrogated, the censorship was relaxed, and
private publishing houses were allowed again to open, torture in investigation was
abolished, and the charters granted by Catherine to the gentry and to towns
regained their full force. These were the reforms that began the liberal program.
3. What was the Unofficial Committee and who was Speransky?
The work of the Unofficial Committee suggests that Alexander first wanted to
abolish autocracy and serfdom. The dangers and difficulties associated with these
issues, as well as the unpreparedness for reform of the administration and the mass
of people, quickly became apparent. Due to this, Alexander became disillusioned
and impatient with the proceedings and called the committee together less and less
frequently and the war of 1805 marked the conclusion of its activities. Speransky
was the emperors most remarkable assistant. He came not from aristocracy but
from poor village clergy. It was his intelligence, ability to work, and outstanding
administrative capacity that made him Alexanders prime minister. He sought to
establish in Russia a strong monarchy firmly based on law and legal procedure, and
thus free form arbitrariness, corruption and confusion.
4. Discuss the influence of Novosiltsev on Alexanders reign.
Novosiltsev emphasized very heavily the position and authority of the sovereign and
bore strong resemblance to Speranskys scheme in its stress on legality and rights
and its narrowly based and weak legislative assembly. He wanted the Russian
empire to be divided into twelve large groups of provinces that were to enjoy
certain autonomy. It was presented to Alexander in 1820 and it was graciously
accepted and preceded to implement it in small part. Mostly by combining several
provinces he created as a model on of the twelve units proposed by him.
5. What were the characteristics and major challenges in foreign policy in this
time?
The failure of reform is because of his preoccupation with diplomacy and war. The
wars included several difficult ones against Napoleon. His reign began with
declarations of peaceful intentions and a certain isolationism. Russia was unable to
stay out of the conflicts that were raging in Europe. He joined the opponents of
France and economic ties with Great Britain contributed to the decision. The Russian
army was no match for Napoleon and they suffered many losses in wars to him.
6. Discuss the Napoleonic invasion of 1812 and its impact.
In June of 1812, having made the necessary diplomatic and military preparations,
Napoleon invaded Russia. Russia had allies in Sweden and Great Britain. Napoleon

was able to advance into the heart of Russia and the Russians were unable to stop
the invaders. They lost several engagements to them including the battle of
Smolensk. In September, napoleon entered the Kremlin. His expectations of a final
victory and peace were cruelly deceived. Alexander refused to consider peace as
long as a single French soldier remained on Russian soil. Moscow, which was still
completely built with wood, burnt down during the days that the French occupied it.
7. What were the characteristics of the second half of Alexanders reign?
While Alexander attended international meetings and occupied himself with the
affairs of foreign countries, events in Russia took a turn for the worse. The second
half of his reign so now progressive legislation and few plans in that direction. The
constitutional regime in Poland looked impressive on paper, but it did not function
well. This is mostly because Alexander proved to be a poor constitutional monarch
because he quickly became irritated by criticism or opposition and repeatedly
disregarded the laws.
8. Discuss the influence and achievements of Arakcheev.
Arakcheev occupied Speranskys position during the second half of Alexanders
reign. He was once a faithful servant of Emperor Paul and a distinguished specialist
in artillery and military matters in general, was brutal, rude, and a martinet of the
worst sort. They came up with plans, but Arakcheev was unsuccessful in executing
them. Alexander would step in to help execute them, but they failed regardless.
9. What was the complicated story and course of the Decembrist Revolt?
The Decembrist Revolt was the first revolutionary group of Russia. They stemmed
from disappointment with the course of Alexanders reign. They were mostly made
up of army officers who were often from aristocratic families and elite regiments,
they had received a good education, knew French and many other foreign
languages, and obtained a first hand knowledge of the west while they were there
fighting wars. The Union of Salvation, which was founded in St. Petersburg, was the
first society that was formed by the Decembrists. Many of the people that
participated in this rebellion received a punishment of being exiled to Siberia.