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Background. Many animal studies have shown that acrylamide is both neurotoxic and carcinogenic. The first reports of
DFU\ODPLGHDFWXDOO\KDYLQJEHHQIRXQGLQIRRGVWXIIVZHUHSXEOLVKHGLQE\WKH6ZHGLVK1DWLRQDO)RRG$JHQF\LQFRQjunction with scientists from the University of Stockholm. It has since been demonstrated that acrylamide arises in foodstuffs
by the 0DLOODUGUHDFWLRQLHEHWZHHQIUHHDVSDUDJLQHDQGUHGXFLQJVXJDUVDWWHPSHUDWXUHV!&&RIIHHLQIDFWIRUPV
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ranging from late adolescents to the elderly.
Objectives. To determine the acrylamide level in commercial samples of roasted and instant coffee and in coffee substitutes
by LC-MS/MS method. The influence of coffee species and colour intensity of coffee on acrylamide level was also detailed.
Materials and methods. $WRWDORIVDPSOHVRIFRIIHHZHUHDQDO\VHGZKLFKLQFOXGHGWKDWZHUHJURXQGURDVWHGFRIIHH
11 instant coffees and 3 coffee substitutes (grain coffee). Analytical separation of acrylamide from coffee was performed
by liquid chromatography followed by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). To evaluate the colour intensity of ground
roasted coffee and instant coffee we used method of arranging (sequence).
Results. The highest mean acrylamide concentrations were found in coffee substitutes (818 g/kg) followed by instant coffee
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the coffee species ie. $UDELFD vs 5REXVWD or a mixture thereof. The various methods of coffee manufacture also showed no
differences in acrylamide (ie. freeze-dried coffee vs agglomerated coffee). A significant negative correlation was observed
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Conclusions. It was demonstrated that roasting process had the most significant effect on acrylamide levels in natural
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these products.
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UR]SXV]F]DOQHMLSUyENLVXEVW\WXWyZNDZ\NDZD]ERRZD$NU\ORDPLGR]QDF]RQRPHWRGFKURPDWRJUDILLFLHF]RZHM
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(szeregowania).
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vs 5REXVWD vs mieszanka $UDELFDi 5REXVWD). Sposb produkcji kawy rozpuszczalnej (liofilizowana vs. aglomeryzowana)
QLHZS\ZDQD]DZDUWRDNU\ORDPLGXZSURGXNFLHILQDOQ\P6WZLHUG]RQRLVWRWQSXMHPQNRUHODFMSRPLG]\
]DZDUWRFLDNU\ORDPLGXDLQWHQV\ZQRFLEDUZ\NDZ\SDORQHM=ZL]NXWDNLHJRQLHVWZLHUG]RQRGODNDZ\UR]SXV]F]DOQHM
:QLRVNL8]\VNDQHZ\QLNLSRWZLHUG]DMHSURFHVZ\SDODQLDNDZ\PDQDMLVWRWQLHMV]\ZS\ZQD]DZDUWRDNU\ORDPLGX
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Z\VRN]DZDUWRDNU\ORDPLGXZVXEVW\WXWDFKNDZ\NDZD]ERRZD]DVDGQHZ\GDMHVLRSUDFRZDQLHZDUWRFLZVNDQLNRZ\FKGODWHMJUXS\SURGXNWyZVSR\ZF]\FKRUD]SRGMFLHSU]H]SURGXFHQWyZG]LDDQDU]HF]REQLHQLDDNU\ORDPLGX
szczeglnie w tym rodzaju kawy.
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manufactured on an industrial scale as a substrate for
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Numerous studies have demonstrated that acrylamide is
neurotoxic and may damage the central and peripheral
nervous systems (respectively CNS and PNS) in both
animal models and humans exposed to acrylamide at
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Cell culture studies show that acrylamide is genotoxic and amongst other things it results in chromosomal
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Animal studies demonstrate an increase in multi-organ
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gland when acrylamide was supplied in the drinking
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Research on Cancer had assigned acrylamide to those
substances that are probably carcinogenic to humans
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exposure limits to dietary acrylamide are low for such a
substance that exhibits genotoxicity and cancerogenicity
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,Q IRRGVWXIIV DFU\ODPLGH IRUPV LQ WKH 0DLOODUG
reaction between free asparagine and reducing sugars.
The main dietary sources of acrylamide are potato
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EUHDGEUHDNIDVWFHUHDOIODNHVDQGFDNHVWRJHWKHUZLWK
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When foodstuff acrylamide levels were monitored
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ZHUHPHDVXUHGLQLQVWDQWFRIIHHPHDQRIJNJ
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coffee and 3 coffee substitutes made by various manufacturers. The roasted coffee samples were randomly
selected as part of a monitoring programme in accordance with European Commission (EC) recommendations
Nr 3
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6WDWH6DQLWDU\,QVSHFWRUDWHGXULQJE\VDPpling from grocery shops and supermarkets throughout
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brands that originated from 8 manufacturers of which
3 were Polish coffee roasting companies. One sample
comprised at least two commercially available packages
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minimum quantity of 1 kg. The methods of sampling and
amounts taken were in accordance with EC Regulation
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species (&RIIHD$UDELFD5REXVWD (&RIIHDFDQHSKRUD)
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instant coffee of which 9 were a mixture of $UDELFD and
5REXVWD. The coffee substitutes samples were principally
composed of roasted cereals (ie. rye and/or barley) and
chicory root. One sample contained also roasted beetroot.
In accordance with specifications provided by manufactuUHUVWKHGHJUHHRIFRIIHHURDVWLQJZDVPRGHUDWHLQWZHQW\
IRXUVDPSOHVOLJKWWRPRGHUDWHLQWZRFDVHVDQGOLJKWWR
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seven were freeze-drying whilst four were agglomerated.
All samples were transported and stored under conGLWLRQVVWDWHGRQWKHSURGXFWODEHOV3ULRUWRDQDO\VLV
sample replicates were mixed together from which a
representative portion was taken which then constituted
the laboratory sample.
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The laboratory samples consisted of 1.8 to 3 g
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the organic layer was removed. The aqueous layer was
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5(68/76
Concentrations of acrylamide in all the sample types
of commercial coffee studied are shown in Table 1.
The highest mean level values was in coffee substituWHVJNJIROORZHGE\LQVWDQWFRIIHHJNJ
whilst the lowest were for roasted coffee at 179 g/kg
(range: 61 397 g/kg). The ANOVA analyses indicated
that there were significant differences present between
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whilst only two were higher at 386 and 397 g/kg (FiguUH)RUWKHLQVWDQWFRIIHHWKHUHZHUHVDPSOHVZLWK
DFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVEHORZJNJDQGRQHVWKDWUDQJHGEHWZHHQJNJ,QDIXUWKHUWZRVDPSOHV
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be assumed that it the entire acrylamide content of commercial products will be present in any coffee infusion.
Taking into account the variations of acrylamide levels
REVHUYHGDQVLQJOHFXSRIGULQNLQJFRIIHHLVH[SHFWHG
Table 1. Comparison of acrylamide level in different types of coffee and coffee substitutes
Type of coffee
ground roasted coffee1
instant coffee
coffee substitutes3
Acrylamide content
>JNJRIFRIIHH@
>JFXSRIFRIIHH@
x SD
min max
x SD
min max
179 85a*
61 397
a*
358 188b
b
c
c
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3
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*
1
177
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9
check value
for roasted coffee*
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
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5
check value
for instant coffee*
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
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400
350
g/kg of product
300
250
188
200
180
162
150
100
50
0
Arabica (n = 6)
Robusta (n = 10)
Figure 3. Comparison of acrylamide level in ground roasted coffee depending on the coffee species
178
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g in coffee substitutes (Table 1).
The mean amount of acrylamide present in the
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but as before this difference was not significant.
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freeze-dried coffee compared to agglomerated coffee
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depending on the way of production
Acrylamide content
Number of
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Type of coffee
samples
x SD
min max
freeze-dried
7
agglomerated
16
14
r = -0.5569; p = 0.0386
12
10
0
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
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12
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r = 0.4616; p = 0.1530
2
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Figure 5. The correlation between acrylamide content in coffee and color intensity of instant coffee
179
Nr 3
Table 3. Comparison of acrylamide level in roasted and instant coffee depending on the intensity of colour
Intensity of coffee color1
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Number of samples
5
5
x SD
*
168 55
197 69
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Number of samples
x SD
3
381 119
1
*
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The mean acrylamide content in the roasted coffee
samples was 179 g/kg ranging from 61 to 397 g/kg
depending on the product. Similar findings were observed in a study by $QGU]HMHZVNLHWDO>@ZKLFKWHVWHG
GLIIHUHQWFRIIHHW\SHVDYDLODEOHRQWKH86$PDUNHW
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Higher amounts of acrylamide were found in various
coffee types in Denmark by *UDQE\ and )DJK >@
$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVVWXG\>@RQHOLWUHRIH[SUHVVRFRIfee contains on average 9.5 g of acrylamide (range 7
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of drinking coffee). A smaller amount was demonstraWHGE\DQRWKHUVWXG\FRQGXFWHGLQ3RUWXJDO6RDUHVet
DO>@ZKHUHH[SUHVVRFRIIHHFRQWDLQHGDFU\ODPLGH
from 57 to 181 g/kg coffee (the authors claiming that
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ZDWHU +RZHYHU PXFK ORZHU DFU\ODPLGH FRQFHQWUDtions were demonstrated by 6HQ\XYDand *RNPHQ>@
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The mean levels of acrylamide in instant coffee were
found to be 358 g/kg which was twice that in roasted
coffee (179 g/kg). Similar results were obtained by
RWKHUVWXGLHV$QGU]HMHZVNLHWDO>@DQG6RDUHV et al
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acrylamide levels in commercial products in Portugal
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than those presented were seen in instant coffee studies
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a study by $OYHVHWDO>@GHPRQVWUDWHGWKDW5REXVWD
coffee had significantly higher acrylamide than $UDELFD
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the country from which the beans originated. It appeDUVWKDWGXULQJURDVWLQJPRUHDFU\ODPLGHLVIRUPHGLQ
5REXVWD coffee than $UDELFDFRIIHHEXWXSWLOOQRZWKH
determining factors remain unexplained. Nevertheless
it has been suggested that fresh 5REXVWD coffee beans
FRQWDLQPRUHDVSDUDJLQH>@WKDQ$UDELFD ones.
The instant coffee products that appear on the Polish
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in how the coffee is dehydrated. When coffee is freezeGU\LQJIURPIUR]HQH[WUDFWVWKHLFHLVUHPRYHGWKRXJK
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extract is dried under streams of hot air up to the moment
that the dissolvable granules are formed. Despite such
GLIIHUHQFHVWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\GLGQRWVKRZDQ\VLJQLILcant association between these methods of production
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acrylamide in freeze-dried coffee was not significant.
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demonstrated between acrylamide concentrations and
the intensity of color which was consistent with other
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Lower acrylamide levels in dark coloured coffee compared to the light coloured ones reflect the sensitivity of
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is principally formed at the start of the roasting process
but its content decreases the longer the roasting contiQXHV>@(YHQWKRXJKWKHUHZHUHGLIIHUHQFHVLQ
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found not to be linked to acrylamide concentrations.
The presented study confirms that the roasting
process is a key factor in determining the acrylamide
levels in the finished product. The species bean (ie. raw
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worth checking the acrylamide content in $UDELFD and
5REXVWD coffee according to country of origin.
It can be summarised that coffee forms a significant
source of dietary acrylamide within the population of
persons consuming high amounts of coffee. Of special
concern is the high acrylamide levels in coffee subVWLWXWHVZKLFKRIWHQWDNHVWKHSODFHRIQDWXUDOFRIIHH
especially in the more vulnerable population groups
such as children and pregnant or breast feeding women.
It is therefore vital that check values are established for
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modified accordingly in affected groups and that targeWHGHGXFDWLRQLVXQGHUWDNHQ)XUWKHUPRUHEHFDXVHRIWKH
wide variations of acrylamide concentrations within the
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take whatever steps are necessary to reduce such levels.
Nr 3
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1. The study findings confirm that coffee can be an
important dietary source of acrylamide. Amongst
WKHYDULRXVFRIIHHW\SHVFRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVKDGWKH
highest mean acrylamide concentrations (818 g/kg)
followed by instant coffee (358 g/kg) and then by
roasted coffee (179 g/kg).
:HGLGQRWILQGVLJQLILFDQWGLIIHUHQFHLQDFU\ODPLde content between coffee types or mixtures (ie.
$UDELFD vs 5REXVWD vs mixtures thereof) nor in the
methods of manufacturing instant coffee (ie. freeze-drying vs agglomeration).
3. We found a negative correlation between acrylamide
levels in roasted coffee and the intensity of color of
coffee. This was not observed with instant coffee.
7KH SUHVHQWHG VWXG\ FRQILUPV WKDW WKH SURFHVV RI
roasting coffee beans is a significant factor in determining the acrylamide content in the final product.
,QFRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVWKLVFULWLFDOIDFWRULVWKHFRPposition of the raw material.
Acknowledgements
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