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Abstract
The production of metal, and the technologies of mining and processing associated with this production, are
an intensely debated component within the discussion of
the development of complex societies. The study of these
processes and technologies has developed signiicantly in
recent decades because of the application of scientiic techniques both in the ield and in the laboratory. The application of geophysical techniques for the discovery and investigation of mining and processing sites, while having a long
history within Bronze Age studies, has recently seen a surge
in interest as a result of continuing technological advances.
Building on the legacy of previous studies this paper discusses
a new program of geophysical survey on Middle Bronze Age
landscapes in the Southern Ural region of Siberia and looks
forward to the further application of these and related techniques in Siberia, Britain and throughout Europe.
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Seeking the Process: The Application of Geophysical Survey on some Early Mining and Metalworking Sites
423
Karagaily Ayat River valley. Settlement and mortuary activities in the valley are well documented for
the Middle and Late Bronze Age phases along with a
number of Iron Age and Medieval mortuary sites. The
appearance of three Sintashta settlements in such
close proximity to each other immediately raises
questions about their relationship. For example do
they perhaps represent three separate relocations of
a single smaller community after the degradation of
resources in an immediate site catchment area (approximately 45 km radius), or are they three separate communities occupying the sites contemporaneously? Questions such as this can only be answered
through more intensive investigations of the settlements and their relationships within their local environments. However, such settlement distributions
appear to challenge the model of larger catchment
zones between autonomous Sintashta settlements.
The main focus of collaborative work in this
area (20052007), in conjunction with A. Epimakhov
(Southern Ural State University) and L. Koryakova
(Ural State University), has been the settlement of
Olgino itself and its immediate locale, including the
Kamennyi Ambar 5 cemetery. Large areas of magnetometer survey were conducted over both the settlement area and across the nearby cemetery. Further
surveys were also conducted over a possible area of
early mining/quarrying to the north-east and across
other burial features (ig. 2). Here the discussion will
cover the surveys on the settlement and mining areas. For a complete discussion of all the results from
the geophysical survey see Hanks et al. (in prep.) and
for further information on the investigation of the
possible mining/quarrying site see Hanks and Doonan (in press).
The largest survey was across the settlement area
which had been interpreted as a rounded (middle
category) settlement from the results of air photographs. This survey included the whole of the settlement (as identiied from aerial photographs) as well
as the available area of land to the west of the site
(situated between the settlement and the river) and
extending approximately 80 metres eastward beyond
the margin of the settlement (ig. 2).
The magnetometer survey revealed very good information in relation both to the enclosing boundary
of the settlement and to internal features including
features which are consistent with hearths or furnaces within house units and some possible internal dividing boundaries; substantial magnetic dipoles near
the centre of the settlement consistent with structures or deposits of burnt material or metal; and an
internal dividing boundary ditch.
As can be seen in igure 3 there is a clear boundary (a ditch) to the settlement which has most likely
developed in at least two phases. The boundary of the
settlement is clearly rectangular in shape. There is a
faint linear anomaly running north-west to south-
424
Fig. 2: Map of the Kamennyi Ambar area (showing the relative positions of the Sintashta sites).
Seeking the Process: The Application of Geophysical Survey on some Early Mining and Metalworking Sites
425
Fig. 3: Greyscale plot of magnetometer results for the survey of the Olgino settlement (Kamennyi Ambar).
These linear anomalies are consistent with the foundations of internal boundary walls and are also shown
in black in the interpretive diagram.
This survey strongly suggests that there is a
clearly deined spatial patterning within the northern part of the settlement enclosure. The features interpreted above as possible hearths, pits or furnaces
show a clear linear arrangement suggesting that the
household units within the settlement are arranged
in straight lines parallel to or perpendicular to other
lines forming something of a grid pattern. The southern part of the settlement area does not show such
patterning. However, it is likely that this is a later
phase of enclosure on this settlement and may not
contain such regular features. It is also possible that
the southern part of the settlement area has sufered
greater erosion/disturbance (it has certainly partly
been eroded by the nearby river).
Close to the centre of the enclosed area of the
settlement (just north of feature 1) are three areas
of strong magnetic anomalies. These are substantially stronger than the features outlined above, and
two are clearly magnetic dipoles. These anomalies
are consistent with bodies of burnt material. These
anomalies could represent large pits illed with suitably magnetic material. These anomalies are marked
4 on igure 3.
The results of the geophysical survey have enabled a reinterpretation of the layout of the site
(Zdanovich/Batanina 2007: 97102) which had originally been deined from aerial photographs (Zdanovich/Batanina 2002). A continuing programme of excavation by the Russian team will no doubt reveal
further information about the spatial organisation
of this site and the activities taking place within its
boundaries.
To the north-east of the site an area was initially identiied during a walk-over survey as a possible mining area. This was subject to a small sample
geophysical survey covering 800 m2. This showed no
magnetic anomalies and so further investigation was
conducted in 2007 by more extensive ield survey and
some small sample excavations. This area proved not
to be a source of metal ore but possibly the source
of stone used within the nearby settlement. While
this initial survey did not reveal any early metal ore
mining it very quickly showed the potential for associated archaeological features within the landscape
surrounding the settlement and reinforced the case
for extensive ield survey and site catchment studies.
The project is also undertaking extensive survey
in an area on the northern edge of the Sintashta pattern distribution area (approximately 130 kilometres
north of the Karagaily Ayat River valley) in collaboration with Dmitri Zdanovich (Center Arkaim). This
work is in the valley of the River Ui at the settlement and cemetery site of Stepnoye, the settlement
of Chernorechye and its nearby cemetery of Krivoe
Ozero (approximately 15 kilometres south-east of
Stepnoye; see ig. 5). The site of Stepnoye is particularly striking as it contains the largest Middle Bronze
Age cemetery in the southern Urals region, which
consists of at least 45 kurgan structures dating from
the Middle to Late Bronze Age. This area is among the
most mineral rich areas of western Siberia and consequently ofers great potential for the deinition and
examination of early mining sites.
No signiicant excavation of either settlement has
been undertaken in the past. The Krivoe Ozero and
Stepnoye cemeteries have been partially excavated,
with the Stepnoye cemetery currently undergoing a
programme of excavation. In 2007 preliminary mag-
426
Seeking the Process: The Application of Geophysical Survey on some Early Mining and Metalworking Sites
Fig. 6: Greyscale plot showing the results of the geophysical surveys on the Sintashta settlement site of Stepnoye (note the area
covered by the magnetometer survey is smaller than the area covered by the resistivity survey: A, B, C, and D mark the limits and
location of the magnetometer survey).
feature is running through the settlement area as deined by the resistivity survey and ends just inside the
enclosing boundary of the settlement. The gap coincides with the enclosing boundary of the settlement
and then the additional positive magnetic feature to
the north which lies outside the settlement area. It is
not clear what is causing this feature although a small
sample excavation in the area outside the settlement
revealed an area of deeper soil containing signiicant
amounts of slag and artefactual material. It is possible that the linear positive magnetic feature and the
additional area outside the settlement are part of a
natural feature which has become illed with a deeper
soil causing the magnetic anomaly. The settlement
may then have been built over this natural feature.
However, this interpretation is not entirely convincing as the low magnetic properties of the soils and
sediments at Stepnoye do not strongly support this.
It is hoped that in future further excavation may shed
light on this. The presence of slag and artefactual
material outside the settlement is a welcome conirmation that archaeological features and deposits are
present outside these enclosed settlements.
One of the additional activities in 2008 was a preliminary reconnaissance in the area around Stepnoye
to explore the possibilities of early mining sites. Very
427
428
vicinity of possible mining sites and on open settlements will hopefully rapidly yield useful information
with which to address these questions.
Western Siberia is not the only early mining and
metal producing area that is currently being studied.
Many other sites are being examined including a current project at Ecton in Stafordshire in the U.K. Here
again large scale geophysical survey is being applied
to a known early mining site in order to explore the
possible areas for ore processing sites. As can be seen
from igure 7, however, the hills of the western Peak
District do not ofer such comfortable geophysical
surveying conditions as are found on the Sintashta
sites of Western Siberia.
Just as thirty or more years ago technological
developments provided a huge stimulus for the increased application of geophysical techniques for the
examination of archaeological sites, we are now again
in a period of signiicant development and innovation
within archaeological geophysics. Total-ield instruments such as alkali-vapour magnetometers have
gradually grown in their application as these instruments have become more available. However, there
have also been several innovations recently developing the delivery systems for existing types of equipment, for example the use of carts, sleds or hand held
multiple sensor arrays. These vary from multiple
magnetometer systems from manufacturers such as
Geoscan, Bartington and Foerster to multiple sensor
platforms such as the new cart system from Geoscan
Research Ltd or the GEEP mobile sensor platform
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their Russian collaborators, D. Zdanovich, E. Kupriyanova, L. Koryakova and A. Epimakhov and the students and staf of
Ural State University, Southern Ural State University,
Chelyabinsk State University and the University of
Pittsburgh for their support in carrying out the research discussed within this paper. We also gratefully
acknowledge funding from the National Science Foundation, Wenner-Gren Foundation and the Russian and
East European Center at the University of Pittsburgh.
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