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LED Basics
LED technology continues to develop rapidly as a general light source.
As more LED products and light fixtures are introduced on the market,
what do retailers, energy efficiency advocates, and consumers need to
know to make informed buying decisions?
Terms
SSL solid-state lighting; umbrella
term for semiconductors used to convert
electricity into light.
LED light-emitting diode.
However, LED device efficacy doesnt tell the whole story. Good LED system and
luminaire design is imperative to energy-efficient LED lighting fixtures. For example,
a new LED recessed downlight combines multicolored high efficiency LEDs, excellent
thermal management, and sophisticated optical design to produce more than 700 lumens
using only 12 watts, for a luminaire efficacy of 60 lm/W. Conversely, poorly-designed
luminaires using even the best LEDs may be no more efficient than incandescent lighting.
LED Basics
How long do LEDs last?
Unlike other light sources, LEDs
usually dont burn out; instead,
they get progressively dimmer over
time. LED useful life is based on the
number of operating hours until the
LED is emitting 70% of its initial light
output. Good quality white LEDs in
well-designed fixtures are expected to
have a useful life of 30,000 to 50,000
hours. A typical incandescent lamp lasts
about 1,000 hours; a comparable CFL
lasts 8,000 to 10,000 hours, and the best
linear fluorescent lamps can last more
than 30,000 hours. LED light output
and useful life are strongly affected
by temperature. LEDs must be heat
sinked: placed in direct contact with
materials that can conduct heat away
from the LED.
PNNL-SA-58429
January 2008
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
Luminous Efficacy
Energy efficiency of light sources is typically measured in lumens per watt (lm/W), meaning
the amount of light produced for each watt of electricity consumed. This is known as
luminous efficacy. DOEs long-term research and development goal calls for white-light
LEDs producing 160 lm/W in cost-effective, market-ready systems by 2025. In the
meantime, how does the luminous efficacy of todays white LEDs compare to traditional
light sources? Currently, the most efficacious white LEDs can perform similarly to
fluorescent lamps. However, there are several important caveats, as explained below.
Terms
Lumen the SI unit of luminous flux.
The total amount of light emitted
by a light source, without regard to
directionality, is given in lumens.
Color Quality
The most efficacious LEDs have very high correlated color temperatures (CCTs),
often above 5000K, producing a cold bluish light. However, warm white LEDs
(2600K to 3500K) have improved significantly, now approaching the efficacy of CFLs.
In addition to warmer appearance, LED color rendering is also improving: leading warm
white LEDs are now available with color rendering index (CRI) of 80, equivalent to CFLs.
Driver Losses
Fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) light sources cannot function without a
ballast, which provides a starting voltage and limits electrical current to the lamp. LEDs
also require supplementary electronics, usually called drivers. The driver converts line power
to the appropriate voltage (typically between 2 and 4 volts DC for high-brightness LEDs)
and current (generally 200-1000 milliamps or mA), and may also include dimming and/or
color correction controls.
Currently available LED drivers are typically about 85% efficient. So LED efficacy should
be discounted by 15% to account for the driver. For a rough comparison, the range of
luminous efficacies for traditional and LED sources, including ballast and driver losses
as applicable, are shown below.
10-18
15-20
35-60
50-100
50-90
47-64*
25-44*
Thermal Effects
The luminous flux figures cited by LED manufacturers are based on an LED junction
temperature (Tj) of 25Celsius. LEDs are tested during manufacturing under conditions
that differ from actual operation in a fixture or system. In general, luminous flux is
measured under instantaneous operation (perhaps a 20 millisecond pulse) in open air.
Tj will always be higher when operated under constant current in a fixture or system.
LEDs in a well-designed luminaire with adequate heat sinking will produce 10%-15%
less light than indicated by the typical luminous flux rating.
Light Source
Application Efficiency
PNNL
PNNL-SA-50462
January 2008
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
Color quality has been one of the key challenges facing white light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) as a general light source. This fact sheet reviews the basics regarding light
and color and summarizes the most important color issues related to white light LEDs,
including recent advances.
Unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps, LEDs are not inherently white light sources.
Instead, LEDs emit light in a very narrow range of wavelengths in the visible spectrum,
resulting in nearly monochromatic light. This is why LEDs are so efficient for colored light
applications such as traffic lights and exit signs. However, to be used as a general light
source, white light is needed. The potential of LED technology to produce high-quality
white light with unprecedented energy efficiency is the impetus for the intense level of
research and development currently being supported by the U.S. Department of Energy.
gamma
rays
10-14
ultraviolet
rays
X-rays
10-10
10-12
10-8
infrared
rays
10-6
10-4
radar
FM
10-2
TV
shortwave AM
102
104
Wavelength (meters)
Visible Light
400
500
600
Wavelength (nanometers)
700
Incandescent, fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps radiate across the visible
spectrum, but with varying intensity in the different wavelengths. The spectral power distribution
(SPD) for a given light source shows the relative
300
radiant power emitted by the light source at
each wavelength. Incandescent sources have
250
a continuous SPD, but relative power is low
200
in the blue and green regions. The typically
warm color appearance of incandescent lamps
150
is due to the relatively high emissions in the
100
orange and red regions of the spectrum.
50
0
300
350
400
450
500
550
Wavelength (nm)
600
650
700
750
12000K
7000K
4000K
3000K
2000K
Advantages
Disadvantages
Phosphor conversion
RBG
Most currently available white LED products are based on the blue LED + phosphor
approach. A recent product (see photo below) is based on violet LEDs with proprietary
phosphors emphasizing color quality and consistency over time. Phosphor-converted chips
are produced in large volumes and in various packages (light engines, arrays, etc.) that are
integrated into lighting fixtures. RGB systems are more often custom designed for use in
architectural settings.
CRI
70-79
2600-3500 K
23-43 lm/W
3500-5000 K
36-73 lm/W
36-54 lm/W
> 5000 K
54-87 lm/W
38 lm/W
90+
25 lm/W
Sources: Manufacturer datasheets including Cree XLamp XR-E, Philips Lumileds Rebel, Philips Lumileds K2.
Kelly Gordon
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Phone: (503) 417-7558
E-mail: kelly.gordon@pnl.gov
PNNL-SA-50007
January 2008
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
Lumen Depreciation
All electric light sources experience a decrease in the amount of light they emit over time, a
process known as lumen depreciation. Incandescent filaments evaporate over time and the
tungsten particles collect on the bulb wall. This typically results in 10-15% depreciation
compared to initial lumen output over the 1,000 hour life of an incandescent lamp.
In fluorescent lamps, photochemical degradation of the phosphor coating and
accumulation of light-absorbing deposits cause lumen depreciation. Compact fluorescent
lamps (CFLs) generally lose no more than 20% of initial lumens over their 10,000 hour
life. High-quality linear fluorescent lamps (T8 and T5) using rare earth phosphors will
lose only about 5% of initial lumens at 20,000 hours of operation.
Typical Lumen Maintenance Values for Various Light Sources
100%
100W Incandescent
90%
80%
42W CFL
32W T8 Fluorescent
70%
5-mm LED
60%
High-Power LED
50%
0
Source:
5000
10000
operating time (hr)
15000
OSRAM Opto
Semiconductors
OSTAR Lighting
Terms
Lumen depreciation - the decrease
in lumen output that occurs as a lamp
is operated.
Rated lamp life the life value
assigned to a particular type lamp.
This is commonly a statistically
determined estimate of average or
median operational life. For certain
lamp types other criteria than failure
to light can be used; for example, the
life can be based on the average time
until the lamp type produces a given
fraction of initial luminous flux.
20000
Adapted from Bullough, JD. 2003. Lighting Answers: LED Lighting Systems. Troy, NY. National Lighting
Product Information Program, Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
The primary cause of LED lumen depreciation is heat generated at the LED junction.
LEDs do not emit heat as infrared radiation (IR), so the heat must be removed from
the device by conduction or convection. Without adequate heat sinking or ventilation,
the device temperature will rise, resulting in lower light output. While the effects of
short-term exposure to high temperatures can be reversed, continuous high temperature
operation will cause permanent reduction in light output. LEDs continue to operate even
after their light output has decreased to very low levels. This becomes the important factor
in determining the effective useful life of the LED.
Checklist
recommends defining useful life as the point at which light output has declined to 70% of
initial lumens (abbreviated as L70) for general lighting and 50% (L50) for LEDs used for
decorative purposes. For some applications, a level higher than 70% may be required.
Light Source
750-2,000
8,000-10,000
http://www.buildings.gov
http://www.netl.doe.gov/ssl
Linear fluorescent
20,000-30,000
Incandescent
Halogen incandescent
Metal halide
3,000-4,000
7,500-20,000
35,000-50,000
Electrical and thermal design of the LED system or fixture determine how long LEDs will
last and how much light they will provide. Driving the LED at higher than rated current will
increase relative light output but decrease useful life. Operating the LED at higher than design
temperature will also decrease useful life significantly.
Most manufacturers of high-power white LEDs estimate a lifetime of around 30,000 hours
to the 70% lumen maintenance level, assuming operation at 350 milliamps (mA) constant
current and maintaining junction temperature at no higher than 90C. However, LED
durability continues to improve, allowing for higher drive currents and higher operating
temperatures. Specific manufacturer data should be consulted because some LEDs available
today are rated for 50,000 hours at 1000 mA with junction temperature up to 120C.2
Philips Lumileds Lighting. LUXEON K2 Emitter Datasheet DS51 (5/06)
PNNL-SA-50957
August 2006
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
Fluorescent
Metal Halide
LED
Visible Light
8%
21%
27%
15-25%
IR
73%
37%
17%
~ 0%
UV
0%
0%
19%
0%
81%
58%
63%
15-25%
Heat
19%
42%
37%
75-85%
100%
100%
100%
100%
(Conduction + Convection)
Total
IESNA Handbook
Varies depending on LED efficacy. This range represents best currently available technology in color termperatures from warm
to cool. DOEs SSL Multi-Year Program Plan (Mar 2006) calls for increasing extraction efficiency to more than 50% by 2012.
Osram Sylvania
Terms
Conduction transfer of heat through
matter by communication of kinetic energy
from particle to particle. An example is the
use of a conductive metal such as copper to
transfer heat.
Convection heat transfer through the
circulatory motion in a fluid (liquid or gas)
at a non-uniform temperature. Liquid or
gas surrounding a heat source provides
cooling by convection, such as air flow over
a car radiator.
Radiation energy transmitted through
electromagnetic waves. Examples are
the heat radiated by the sun and by
incandescent lamps.
Junction temperature (Tj) temperature
within the LED device. Direct
measurement of Tj is impractical but
can be calculated based on a known case
or board temperature and the materials
thermal resistance.
Heat sink thermally conductive
material attached to the printed circuit
board on which the LED is mounted.
Myriad heat sink designs are possible;
often a finned design is used to increase
the surface area available for heat transfer.
For general illumination applications,
heat sinks are often incorporated into the
functional and
aesthetic design
of the luminaire,
effectively using
the luminaire
chassis as a heat
management
device.
Source: Enlux
PNNL-SA-51901
February 2007
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
CFL
A lamp
Incandescent*
Fluorescent*
13W 4-pin
Spiral CFL
15W R-30
CFL
725
860
750
Lamp wattage
(nominal W)
65
13
15
652
514
Luminaire wattage
(nominal W)
65
10
LED**
LED 1
LED 2
675
300
730
12
15
15
12
42
45
20
60
* Based on photometric and lamp lumen rating data for commonly available products. Actual downlight performance depends on
reflectors, trims, lamp positioning, and other factors. Assumptions available from PNNL.
** Results for two commercially-available products tested. LED 1 was tested in Aug 2006. LED 2 was tested in Sep 2007. Lamp
level data are not available for the LED downlights, which contain proprietary LED arrays, heat sinks, reflectors, and diffusers.
The 13W spiral and 15W reflector CFL systems have similar luminaire efficacy and both
lamp types are readily available from all of the major lamp manufacturers. Available
LED products vary widely in light output and efficacy. LED 1 provides less than half
the delivered light output of the 15W reflector CFL, but the newer LED 2 fixture
provides more net lumens than the 15W RCFL or the 65W incandescent and has the
highest overall luminaire efficacy of the options shown here.
Terms
Luminaire a complete lighting unit
including lamp(s), ballast(s) (when
applicable), and the parts designed
to distribute the light, position and
protect the lamps, and connect to the
power supply.
Luminaire (fixture) efficiency the
ratio of luminous flux (lumens) emitted
by a luminaire to that emitted by the
lamp or lamps used therein; expressed
as a percentage.
Luminaire efficacy total lumens
provided by the luminaire divided by
the total wattage drawn by the power
supply/driver, expressed in lumens per
watt (lm/W).
ICAT stands for insulated ceiling
(or insulation contact), air tight
and refers to ratings on recessed
downlight luminaires used in
residential construction.
Downlighting quality
What about lighting quality? The table below compares three of the same fixtures/lamping
options from Table 1, in terms of color quality measures, luminous intensity, beam angle,
and average luminance.
Table 2: Comparison of Recessed Downlight Lamping Options
65W BR-30
Flood
13W 4-pin
Spiral CFL
LED 2
570
514
730
65
12
12
42
60
2700 K
2700 K
2700 K
100
82
95
510 cd
154 cd
280 cd
55
120
105
16161
11862
14107
CCT (Kelvin)
CRI
Center beam candlepower (candela)
Beam angle (degrees)
Average luminance at 55 (cd/sq meter)
Dimmable
The downlight using an incandescent reflector flood lamp provides more light in the center
of the beam (center beam candlepower) and a narrower beam than either the CFL or LED
downlights. Depending on the application this may be an important consideration. But
on total luminous flux, color temperature, and color rendering, both the CFL and LED
products are good options.
Residential downlights are often a glare problem, as indicated by the high average
luminance figures for all three of these products. For the products listed above, both
the CFL and LED alternatives would be an improvement over the most common lamp
type used in residential downlights, the 65-watt reflector flood, but particularly in lower
ceilings, glare may be an issue. Using louvers, shielding trim, or deeper recessing of the
light source alleviates glare, as does dimming. Alternatively, wall sconces, cove lights, wall
washers, or torchieres may be better options for lighting the room because they diffuse
light over a large surface (the wall or ceiling), while completely hiding the light source.
PNNL-SA-52145
January 2008
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
Fluorescent*
LED 1*
LED 2*
LED 3*
CCT
3000K
3015K
2767K
3328K
3552K
CRI
100
84
70
83
71
Luminaire Lumens
440
689
265
758
344
Luminaire Watts
60
19
8.7
21
Luminaire Length
1.91 ft
3 ft
2 ft
1.4 ft
1.8 ft
230
230
133
527
194
36
31
36
43
Based on photometric data for commonly available products. Actual product performance depends on reflectors,
trims, lamp positioning, and other factors. Assumptions available from PNNL.
* Based on photometric testing of CFL and LED undercabinet fixtures July 2007. Except as noted, fixtures tested
were purchased through normal market channels.
*This sample was a prototype submitted by the manufacturer.
Term
Luminaire a complete lighting
unit including lamp(s), ballast(s)
(when applicable), and the parts
designed to distribute the light,
position and protect the lamps,
and connect to the power supply.
Luminaire (fixture) efficiency
the ratio of luminous flux (lumens)
emitted by a luminaire to that emitted
by the lamp or lamps used therein;
expressed as a percentage.
Luminaire efficacy total light
output (lm) provided by the
luminaire divided by the total
wattage (W) drawn by the fixture,
expressed in lumens per watt (lm/W).
Directionality Luminaires
designed to take advantage of LED
directionality can be more energy
efficient than those using traditional
light sources. For example, most
incandescent and fluorescent lamps
emit light in all directions. In typical
undercabinet fixtures, only about
half the light produced by the lamp
actually comes out of the fixture;
the remainder is absorbed within.
CCT Correlated color temperature
indicates the relative color appearance
of a white light source, from yellowishwhite or warm (2700-3000 K)
to bluish-white or cool (5000 K).
CRI Color rendering index is
a measure of the ability of a light
source to render colors, compared to
a reference source (incandescent or
daylight), on a scale of 0 to 100, with
100 being identical to the reference
source.
Fluorescent
Halogen
Xenon
LED
Disadvantages
High Efficacy
Long life (10,000 hours)
Inexpensive
Dimming expensive
Dimmable
High color rendering
Dimmable
High color rendering
Long life (8,000 hours)
*Color quality of white LEDs continues to improve, with warmer color temperatures and better color rendering.
Warm white LEDs (2700-3000K) from the leading LED device manufacturers are now available with CRI of 80.
LED undercabinet fixtures are more expensive than most other fixtures, but
they continue to improve in performance as well as price. As new LED-based
undercabinet lights enter the market, users should keep the following in mind:
LED luminaires must be engineered to mitigate heat. This can be accomplished by
adding heat sinks or utilizing the fixture chassis as a heat dissipation mechanism.
Beam patterns must be considered; the luminaire should provide uniform
illumination, both on the horizontal and vertical surfaces.
Although LED color quality continues to improve, individual products should be
evaluated carefully. Some commercially available products have very high color
temperature (i.e., the light appears blue/cool), noticeable color variations across the
product, and/or very low color rendering.
Some LED undercabinet luminaires have excessive shadowing caused by the
arrangement of the LEDs in the fixture. This can be distracting depending
on the type of task surface and is most noticeable on single-color, matte finishes.
ES-CFL*
LED 1*
LED 2*
LED 3*
CCT
2856K
3432K
2891K
4390K
6255K
3631K
CRI
100
79
81
88
74
71
Luminaire Lumens
351
236
700
148
301
430
Luminaire Watts
38
10
16
10
11
10
24
43
16
27
42
Terms
Luminaire a complete lighting
unit consisting of a lamp or lamps and
ballast(s) or driver(s) (when applicable)
together with the parts designed to
distribute the light, to position and
protect the lamps, and to connect
the lamps to the power supply.
Portable desk/task luminaire
Self-contained luminaire designed
to direct light primarily downward
onto a task surface; include a plug and
outlet connection to electric power and
usually contain integral switching and/
or dimming. In this context, the term
portable does not refer to handheld or
battery-operated lighting devices.
Luminaire efficacy total lumens
emitted by the luminaire divided by
total wattage of the fixture. Includes
energy used by the light source and all
electronics, controls, power supplies,
and drivers included in the luminaire.
CCT Correlated color temperature
indicates the relative color appearance
of a white light source, from yellowishwhite or warm (2700-3000 K) to
bluish-white or cool (5000 K).
CRI Color rendering index is a
measure of the ability of a light source
to render colors, compared to a reference
source (incandescent or daylight), on
a scale of 0 to 100, with 100 being
identical to the reference source.
The LEDs should be arranged to minimize shadowing of objects between the light
source and illuminated surface. Check for shadows, especially on monochromatic
matte finish surfaces.
The luminaire should be designed to avoid off-state power consumption by placing
the switch upstream of the power supply (see below).
Most portable desk/task lighting fixtures have a problem that is not immediately obvious:
they continue drawing power even when turned off. This is possible for all fixtures that
use a power supply and also have an on-off and/or dimming switch located downstream
of the power supply, such as a switch on the base of the fixture. LED fixtures tested by
US DOE to date have measured off-state power use of 0.5 watt to 2.5 watts. What is the
impact on the energy efficiency of the fixture? As an example, consider an LED fixture
with luminaire efficacy of 18 lm/W and measured off-state power of 2 W. The effective
efficacy of the fixture, assuming 3 hours per day average use drops to 9 lm/W. Designing
the fixture so that the switch is between the plug and the power supply will ensure that
when the fixture is turned off, its really off.
Introduction
Lighting of outdoor areas including streets, roadways, parking lots, and
pedestrian areas is currently dominated by metal halide (MH) and highpressure sodium (HPS) sources. These relatively energy-efficient light sources
have been in use for many years and have well-understood performance
characteristics. Recent advances in LED technology have resulted in a new
option for outdoor area lighting, with several potential advantages over
MH and HPS sources. Well-designed LED outdoor luminaires can provide
the required surface illuminance using less energy and with improved
uniformity, compared to HID sources. LED luminaires may also have
significantly longer life (50,000 hours or more, compared to 15,000 to
35,000 hours) with better lumen maintenance. Other LED advantages
include: they contain no mercury, lead, or other known disposal hazards;
and they come on instantly without run-up time or restrike delay. Further,
while MH and HPS technologies continue to improve incrementally, LED
technology is improving very rapidly in terms of luminous efficacy, color
quality, optical design, thermal management, and cost.
Current LED product quality can vary significantly among manufacturers, so
due diligence is required in their proper selection and use. LED performance
is highly sensitive to thermal and electrical design weaknesses that can
lead to rapid lumen depreciation or premature failure. Further, long-term
Terms
LCS luminaire classification system
for outdoor luminaires, published as
an IESNA technical memorandum,
TM-15-07. Addresses three zones
of light distribution from outdoor
area luminaires: forward light (F),
backlight (B), and uplight (U).
Uplight
Back
Light
Forward
Light
IESNA
Figure 1. Several HPS fixtures (left) were replaced with LED pole-top mounted luminaires (right) to illuminate a
pedestrian area at a Federal Aviation Administration facility in Atlantic City, NJ. A full report on this installation is
available at www.netl.doe.gov/ssl.
performance data do not exist given the early stage of the technologys development. Interested users should continue
to monitor available information sources on product performance and lifetime, such as CALiPER test results and
GATEWAY demonstration program reports, available on the DOE Solid State Lighting website (www.netl.doe.gov/ssl).
Energy efficiency
Energy effectiveness encompasses luminous efficacy of the light source and appropriate power supply in lumens per watt
(lm/W), optical efficiency of the luminaire (light fixture), and how well the luminaire delivers light to the target area
without casting light in unintended directions. The goal is to provide the necessary illuminance in the target area, with
appropriate lighting quality, for the lowest power density. One step in comparing different light source and luminaire
options is to examine luminaire photometric files. Look for photometry in standard IES file format from qualified
independent or qualified manufacturer-based laboratories.1 The photometry should be based on an actual working
product, not a prototype or
Table 1. Examples of Outdoor Area Luminaire Photometric Values
computer model.
Table 1 provides photometric
data for several outdoor area
luminaires, to illustrate basic
comparisons. Lumen output
and efficacy vary greatly
across different outdoor
area luminaires, so these
data should not be used to
generalize the performance
of all luminaires using the
listed lamp types.
150W HPS
150W CMH
LED
183W
167W
153W
CCT
2000 K
3000 K
6000 K
CRI
22
80
75
16000
11900
n/a
70%
81%
n/a
11200
9639
10200
61 lm/W
58 lm/W
67 lm/W
Sources. HPS and CMH: published luminaire photometric (.ies) files. LED: manufacturer data.
Luminaires differ in their optical precision. Photometric reports for outdoor area luminaires typically state downward
fixture efficiency, and further differentiate downward lumens as streetside and houseside. These correspond to
forward light (F) and backlight (B), respectively, referenced in the Luminaire Classification System (LCS). How does
luminaire photometry translate to site performance? The next step is to analyze illuminance levels provided to the
target areas, both horizontal and vertical. This is done through lighting design software and actual site measurements.
Table 2 compares measured illuminance data from the recent installation of LED outdoor luminaires referenced in
Figure 1, in which existing 70W HPS luminaires were replaced with new LED luminaires.2 The LED luminaires
installed used three arrays containing 20 LEDs each. An option using two arrays was also modeled in lighting software
National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) accreditation for LED luminaire testing is not yet available, but is in development. In the meantime, DOE has
pre-qualified several independent testing laboratories for LM-79 testing.
1
Kinzey, BR and MA Myer. Demonstration Assessment of Light Emitting Diode (LED) Walkway Lighting at the Federal Aviation Administration William J. Hughes Technical
Center, in Atlantic City, New Jersey, March 2008. PNNL-17407. Available for download from http://www.netl.doe.gov/ssl/techdemos.htm.
2
(see Table 2, last column). Note that in this installation, the uniformity was improved by more than a factor of two
with the LED luminaires. The maximum illuminance decreased and the minimum illuminance was the same or
slightly higher than the HID, which led to a lower uniformity ratio. These results cannot be generalized for LEDs, but
indicate a potential benefit possible with well-designed LED luminaires for outdoor area lighting.
Since HID lamps are
Table 2. Comparison of HPS and LED Outdoor Luminaires for Demonstration Site
high-intensity nearLED 3-array
Optional LED
Existing 70W HPS
point sources, the
Luminaire
2-array Luminaire
optical design for these
Total power draw
97W
72W
48W
luminaires causes the
Average illuminance levels
3.54 fc
3.63 fc
2.42 fc
area directly below the
luminaire to have a
Maximum illuminance
7.55 fc
5.09 fc
3.40 fc
much higher illuminance
Minimum illuminance*
1.25 fc
1.90 fc
1.27 fc**
than areas farther away
Max/Min Ratio (uniformity)
6.04:1
2.68:1
2.68:1
from the luminaire. In
Energy consumption per luminaire***
425 kWh/yr
311 kWh/yr
210 kWh/yr
contrast, the smaller,
multiple point-source
Energy savings per luminaire
-114 kWh/yr (26.8%) 215 kWh/yr (50.6%)
and directional
* Lowest measured or modeled for each luminaire. IESNA guidelines call for at least 0.5 fc.
characteristics of LEDs
** Modeled results.
*** Energy consumption for the HPS system is based on manufacturer-rated power levels for lamps and ballasts, multiplied by 4380
can allow better control
hours per year. Energy consumption for the 3-bar LED unit is based on laboratory power measurements multiplied by 4380 hours
of the distribution,
per year. Energy consumption for the 2-bar unit is based on manufacturer-rated power levels multiplied by 4380 hours per year.
with a resulting visible
improvement in uniformity. This difference is evident in Figure 2, where hot spots are visible under the HPS
luminaires. This overlighting represents wasted energy, and may decrease visibility since it forces adaptation of the eye
when looking from brighter to darker areas.
Durability
Outdoor lights often become perches for birds and the debris
that comes with them. The luminaire should not collect and
retain dirt or water on the top side, and the optical chamber
should remain clean for the LED luminaire to truly reduce
maintenance. Ingress Protection (IP) ratings describe the
luminaires resistance to dust and moisture penetration. Look
for an IP rating appropriate to the conditions in which the
luminaire will be used. For example, a rating of 65 indicates
dust tight, and protected from water jets from any direction.
Ask the manufacturer about the long-term reliability of gaskets
and seals relative to the expected useful life of the LEDs, and
make sure the manufacturer will replace the product if it fails
Figure 2. Installation of LED parking lot lights (left) compared to HPS lights
(right) shows the difference in color appearance and distribution. Photo credit:
before 5 years, similar to the warranty for an HID luminaire.
Beta Lighting.
A quick disconnect point between the light engine and the
drivers will allow for field maintenance on the power supply. Keeping the maintenance contact points to this level
reduces the opportunity for installation mishaps that create reliability issues during normal use.
Color
The most efficient white LEDs at this time emit light of 4500K
to 6500K correlated color temperature (CCT). This makes them
white to bluish-white in appearance. Some LED luminaire
manufacturers mix LEDs of various color temperatures to
reach a target CCT for the array or luminaire, balancing the
highest efficacy sources with warmer LEDs. Color rendering
varies according to the make, model, and CCT of the LEDs,
but generally is better than HPS (usually around 22 CRI) and
standard MH (around 65 CRI), but somewhat lower than ceramic
MH (80 to 90 CRI). The nominal CRI for neutral (4000K to
4500K) and cool white (5000K or higher) LEDs is typically 70
to 75. In most street and area lighting applications, CRIs of 50 or
higher are adequate for gross identification of color.
Figure 3. Comparative spectral power distributions for HPS, MH, and LED.
Colors shown along top and bottom are approximations provided for reference.
In addition to CCT and CRI, it is useful to see the spectral power distribution (SPD) for the light source, to evaluate
relative output in each area of the visual spectrum. See Figure 3 for a comparison of several sources, including the LED
luminaire cited in Table 1.
Relative lumens
80%
70%
60%
50%
PS MH mag ballast
CMH elec ballast
HPS
LED-est'd
LED Outdoor-est'd
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 30 36 42 50
All light sources experience a decrease in light output (lumen depreciation) over their operating life. To account for
this, lighting designers use mean lumens, usually defined as luminous flux at 40% of rated life, instead of initial
lumens. For HPS lamps, mean lumens are about 90% of initial lumens. Pulse-start MH mean lumens are about 75%
of initial lumens, while ceramic MH lamps have slightly higher mean lumens, around 80% of initial lumens. See
Figure 4 for typical lumen maintenance curves for these HID light sources and two example curves for LEDs: one
designed for 50,000-hour useful life (LED example 1) and one designed for longer life (LED example 2).
90
UH High
80
FH High
100
90
FM Mid
TYPE I
TYPE II
TYPE III
TYPE IV
100
UL Low
UL Low
90
60
FL Low
30
0 (nadir)
Figure 5. Section view for forward (F) solid angle.
Light emmitted at high and very high angles can cause
discomfort and disability glare for roadway users.
Used with permission of IESNA.
0 (nadir)
TYPE V
Follow IESNA recommendations for designing roadway and parking lot lighting rather than just designing for average
illuminance on the paving surface. Illuminance alone does not consider the disabling glare that reduces visibility
for the driver. For example, although an IES Type I or Type II distribution may provide the most uniform spread of
illuminance with the widest pole spacing along a roadway, the angles of light that allow the very wide spacing are often
the angles that subject the driver and pedestrian to disability and discomfort glare.
Cost
As a new technology, LED luminaires currently cost more to purchase than
traditional fixtures lamped with commodity-grade HPS or MH light sources.
The reduction in relamping cost and potential power savings with LEDs
may reduce the overall lifecycle cost. Economic evaluation of LED outdoor
luminaires is highly site-specific, depending on variables including electric
demand (kW) and consumption (kWh) rates, labor costs, which may be
bundled in a broader maintenance contract for the site; and other options
available for the site. LED outdoor lighting demonstrations documented by
DOE to date have shown estimated paybacks from three years to more than 20
years, depending on the assumptions and options assessed.
In some cases, LED technology may address new requirements that change
the comparison to traditional sources. For example, some jurisdictions have
implemented mandatory reductions in nighttime illumination. LED luminaires can
be designed with control circuits that reduce the light output by half after curfew,
without affecting the uniformity of light on the street or parking lot. Compare this
to a design where a single, high-wattage HID luminaire is replaced with two lowerwattage luminaires on the same pole, so that half the fixtures can be extinguished at
curfew without affecting the light distribution.
Acknowledgement:
U.S. DOE acknowledges the major
contribution of Naomi Miller in the
writing of this document.
Summary
Outdoor area lighting appears to be a promising application for LED
technology. New products are being introduced regularly. As with all LED
products, careful information gathering and research is needed to assess quality,
performance, and overall value. The checklist below is provided as a quick
summary of issues addressed in this document:
Ask for photometric test reports based on the IESNA LM-79-08 test procedure.
Ask about warranty; 3 to 5 years is reasonable for outdoor luminaires.
Check ingress protection (IP) ratings, and choose an appropriate rating for
the intended application.
Ask for operating temperature information and how this data relates to
luminaire efficacy and lumen depreciation.
Background
What makes LEDs different from other light sources? LEDs are semiconductor
devices, while incandescent, fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge (HID)
lamps are all based on glass enclosures containing a filament or electrodes, with
fill gases and coatings of various types.
LED lighting starts with a tiny chip (most commonly about 1 mm2) comprising
layers of semi-conducting material. LED packages may contain just one chip
or multiple chips, mounted on heat-conducting material and usually enclosed
in a lens or encapsulant. The resulting device, typically around 7 to 9 mm on a
side, can produce 30 to 150 lumens each, and can be used separately or in arrays.
LED devices are mounted on a circuit board and attached to a lighting fixture,
architectural structure, or even a light bulb package.
Examples of LED
Lighting Applications
General illumination applications
that may most benefit from the
LED attributes described in this
document including the following:
Undercabinet lighting
In-cabinet accent lighting
Adjustable task lighting
Refrigerated case lighting
Outdoor area lighting
Elevator lighting
Recessed downlights
Accent lights
Step and path lighting
Cove lighting
Spaces with occupancy sensors
Food preparation areas
Retail display cases
Art display lighting.
Dimensions
6 high by 17 long
Watts
118
Initial lumens
6,400
Dimensions
Watts
175
Initial lumens
10,400
Breakage resistance
LEDs are largely impervious to vibration because they do not have
filaments or glass enclosures. Standard incandescent and discharge lamps
may be affected by vibration when operated in vehicular and industrial
applications, and specialized vibration-resistant lamps are needed in
applications with excessive vibration. LEDs inherent vibration resistance
may be beneficial in applications such as transportation (planes, trains,
automobiles), lighting on and near industrial equipment, elevators and
escalators, and ceiling fan light kits.
Traditional light sources are all based on glass or quartz envelopes.
Product breakage is a fact of life in electric lamp transport, storage,
handling, and installation. LED devices usually do not use any glass.
Photo credit: Sea Gull Lighting
LED devices mounted on a circuit board are connected with soldered
leads that may be vulnerable to direct impact, but no more so than cell phones and other electronic devices. LED light
fixtures may be especially appropriate in applications with a high likelihood of lamp breakage, such as sports facilities
or where vandalism is likely. LED durability may provide added value in applications where broken lamps present a
hazard to occupants, such as childrens rooms, assisted living facilities, or food preparation industries.
Instant on
Fluorescent lamps, especially those containing amalgam, do not provide full
brightness immediately upon being turned on. Fluorescents using amalgam can
take three minutes or more to reach their full light output. HID lamps have
longer warm up times, from several minutes for metal halide to 10 minutes or
more for sodium lamps. HID lamps also have a re-strike time delay; if turned
off they must be allowed to cool down before turning on again, usually for 10-20
minutes. Newer pulse-start HID ballasts provide faster restrike times of 2-8
minutes. LEDs, in contrast, come on at full brightness almost instantly, with
no re-strike delay. This characteristic of LEDs is notable in vehicle brake lights,
where they come on 170 to 200 milliseconds faster than standard incandescent
lamps, providing an estimated 19 feet of additional stopping distance at highway
speeds (65 mph). In general illumination applications, instant on can be
desirable for safety and convenience.
Rapid cycling
Traditional light sources will burn out sooner if switched on and off frequently. In incandescent lamps, the tungsten filament
degrades with each hour of operation, with the final break (causing the lamp to burn out) usually occurring as the lamp is
switched on and the electric current rushes through the weakened filament. In fluorescent and HID lamps, the high starting
voltage erodes the emitter material coating the electrodes. In fact, linear fluorescent lamps are rated for different expected
lifetimes, depending on the on-off frequency, achieving longer total operating hours on 12-hour starts (i.e., turned on and left
on for 12 hours) compared to shorter cycles. HID lamps also have long warm up times and are unable to re-start until cooled
off, so rapid cycling is not an option. LED life and lumen maintenance is unaffected by rapid cycling. In addition to flashing
light displays, this rapid cycling capability makes LEDs well-suited to use with occupancy sensors or daylight sensors.
Controllability/tunability
Traditional, efficient light sources (fluorescent and HID) present a number of challenges with regard to lighting controls.
Dimming of commercial (specification)-grade fluorescent systems is readily available and effective, although at a substantial
price premium. For CFLs used in residential applications, dimming is more problematic. Unlike incandescent lamps, which
are universally dimmable with inexpensive controls, only CFLs with a dimming ballast may be operated on a dimming circuit.
Further, CFLs usually do not have a continuous (1% to 100% light output) dimming range like incandescents. Often CFLs
will dim down to about 30% of full light output.
LEDs may offer potential benefits in terms of controlling light levels (dimming)
and color appearance. However, not all LED devices are compatible with all
dimmers, so manufacturer guidelines should be followed. As LED driver and
control technology continues to evolve, this is expected to be an area of great
innovation in lighting. Dimming, color control, and integration with occupancy
and photoelectric controls offer potential for increased energy efficiency and
user satisfaction.
No IR or UV emissions
Incandescent lamps convert most
of the power they draw into
infrared (IR) or radiated heat; less
than 10% of the power they use is
actually converted to visible light.
Fluorescent lamps convert a higher
proportion of power into visible
light, around 20%. HID lamps
can emit significant ultraviolet
radiation (UV), requiring special Photo credit: Scott Rosenfeld
shielding and diffusing to avoid
occupant exposure. LEDs emit virtually no IR or UV. Excessive heat (IR)
from lighting presents a burn hazard to people and materials. UV is extremely
damaging to artwork, artifacts, and fabrics, and can cause skin and eye burns in
people exposed to unshielded sources.
Summary
LEDs are available in an ever-increasing number of general lighting products.
In addition to attributes typically considered before buying a new light source,
such as color quality, energy efficiency, and operating costs, decision makers
should also consider the unique attributes described in this document, as
appropriate to the intended application:
Directional lighting
Size advantage
Breakage resistance
Cold temperature operation
Instant on
Rapid cycling capability
Controllability
No IR or UV emissions
PNNL-SA-58430
January 2008
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recycled paper.
Dimming LEDs
Lack of effective and affordable dimming has hampered the adoption of CFLs in
the residential sector. LEDs are in theory fully dimmable, but are not compatible
with all dimmer controls designed for incandescent lamps. What are the prospects
for dimming LEDs in residential applications?
Terms
Alternating current (AC) wave form, showing
one complete cycle. AC cycles at 60 hertz,
or 60 times per second. Typical household
dimmers switch off the current twice per
cycle, or 120 times per second.
Dimming CFLs
Some screw-in (integral) CFLs can be dimmed using line-voltage incandescent dimmers but
must be specifically designed to do so. They typically dim only to about 20% of maximum
intensity, due to limitations of the low-cost ballast. More sophisticated electronic ballasts
providing continuous dimming below 5% are available, but are simply not cost-effective
for use in screw-in CFLs. Some fixtures (e.g., torchieres) successfully use pin-based CFLs
in combination with on-board dimming controls. Four-pin CFLs using separate dimming
ballasts can be dimmed via line voltage or 0-10 volt DC control, with dimming range as
low as 1%, but more commonly 5% or 20%.
Most white LEDs are actually blue LEDs with a phosphor coating that generates warm
or cool white light. Their light does not shift to red when dimmed; some may actually
appear bluer with dimming. White light can also be made by mixing red, green,
and blue (RGB) LEDs, allowing a full range of color mixing and color temperature
adjustment. Overall LED luminaire efficacy decreases with dimming due to reduced
driver efficiency at low dimming levels.
Acknowledgement:
Future developments
PNNL-SA-59321
February 2008
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recycled paper.
C82.SSL1
Power Supply
Will specify operational characteristics and electrical safety of SSL power
supplies and drivers.
C82.77-2002
Standards Organizations
ANSI - American National Standards
Institute, www.ansi.org
CIE - International Commission on
Illumination, www.cie.co.at
FCC - Federal Communications
Commission, www.fcc.gov
IEC - International Electrotechnical
Commission, www.iec.ch
IESNA - Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America, www.iesna.org
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association,
www.nfpa.org
UL - Underwriters Laboratories Inc.,
www.ul.com
IESNA Documents
IESNA is the recognized North American technical authority on illumination.
TM-16-05
RP-16
LM-79
LM-80
IESNA Approved Method for Measuring Lumen Depreciation of LED Light Sources
Will specify procedures for determining lumen depreciation of LEDs
and LED modules (but not luminaires) related to effective useful life of
the product.
These documents are currently under development. LM-79, LM-80, and C78.377 are expected to be
completed and published in early 2008.
15:2004
Colorimetry, Third Edition
The official document defining various
CIE chromaticity and CCT metrics. Will
be referenced by ANSI C78.377.
127:2007
Measurements of LEDs
The only document to date addressing
LED luminous intensity measurement;
applies only to individual LEDs, not to
arrays or luminaires.
S 009/E:2002
Photobiological Safety of Lamps
and Lamp Systems
Specifies measurement techniques to
evaluate optical radiation hazards and eye
safety risks of LEDs and LED clusters.
FCC Requirements
47 CFR Part 15
UL Standards
UL is currently developing a safety standard for Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Light
Sources for Use in Lighting Products, which will be designated UL standard 8750.
Currently, UL has in place an Outline of Investigation (also numbered 8750) that
references all existing UL standards applicable to LED lighting products. The purpose
of the outline is to provide a comprehensive approach and listing of applicable standards
for UL treatment of lighting products based on LEDs. The Outline will be used until
the full LED specific document is completed. The table below lists the key UL standards
referenced in the Outline.
8750
Outline of Investigation for Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Light Sources for Use in
Lighting Products
Will specify the minimum safety requirements for SSL components,
including LEDs and LED arrays, power supplies, and control circuitry.
1598
Luminaires
Specifies the minimum safety requirements for luminaires. The requirements
in this document may be referenced in other documents such as UL 8750 or
separately used as part of the requirements for SSL products.
1012
1310
1574
2108
60950-1
Disclaimer: This list is not comprehensive, as other existing and future industry standards, recommended
practices, and regulatory requirements may apply to specific solid state lighting products.
Acknowledgement:
U.S. DOE acknowledges the assistance
of Ian Ashdown in the development of
this document.
PNNL-SA-57157
September 2007
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.
Terms
General Color Rendering Color
rendering is defined as the effect of an
illuminant on the colour appearance
of objects by conscious or unconscious
comparison with their colour appearance
under a reference illuminant (CIE 17.4,
International Lighting Vocabulary).
Color Rendering Indices The General
Color Rendering Index Ra is calculated in
accordance with CIE 13.3-1995, Method
of Measuring and Specifying Colour
Rendering Properties of Light Sources. It
is the arithmetic mean (i.e., average) of the
Specific Color Rendering Indices for each
test color and is usually referred to simply
as the CRI value of a test illuminant.
Test Colors Eight pastel test colors are
used to determine the color shifts and
hence the Specific Color Rendering Indices
for a test illuminant. Six additional colors
are sometimes used for special purposes,
but they are not used for calculating Ra.
Color Shifts The perceived color shifts
seen when viewing test colors under
the test and reference illuminants are
calculated using mathematical models of
human color vision. They may not however
correspond with what we actually perceive
under realworld circumstances.
Figure 2
1.0
Incandescent
Fluorescent
60
Relative Intensity
Relative Intensity
0.8
50
40
30
20
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Wavelength (nm)
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Wavelength (nm)
Now look at the SPD for an RGB LED in Figure 2 above. Its similar to the fluorescent
lamp in its spikiness, with obvious blue, green, and red peaks. It scores only 27 on the
CRI metric because those particular wavelengths dont perform like incandescents on the
eight sample CRI colors. Regardless of low CRI, the white light generated by commercial
RGB LED clusters is usually visually appealing. One possible reason is that they typically
tend to increase the perceived saturation (chroma) of most colors without producing
objectionable hue shifts.
Similarly, neodymium incandescent lamps (sold under brand names including GE Reveal,
Philips Natural Light, and Sylvania DaylightTM) have low CRIs, but objects illuminated
with them appear brighter and livelier when compared with unfiltered incandescent lamps.
Recommendations
A long-term research and development process is underway to develop a revised color
quality metric that would be applicable to all white light sources. In the meantime, CRI
can be considered as one data point in evaluating white LED products and systems. It
should not be used to make product selections in the absence of in-person and on-site
evaluations.
Specifically, we recommend the following:
1. Identify the visual tasks to be performed under the light source. If color fidelity under
different light sources is critically important (for example in a space where color or
fabric comparisons are made under both daylight and electric lighting), CRI values
may be a useful metric for rating LED products.
2. CRI may be compared only for light sources of equal CCT. This applies to all light
sources, not only to LEDs. Also, differences in CRI values of less than five points are
not significant, e.g., light sources with 80 and 84 CRI are essentially the same.
3. If color appearance is more important than color fidelity, do not exclude white light
LEDs solely on the basis of relatively low CRI values. Some LED products with CRIs
as low as 25 still produce visually pleasing white light.
4. Evaluate LED systems in person and, if possible, on-site when color fidelity or color
appearance are important issues.
PNNL-SA-56891
January 2008
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recycled paper.
Luminaire Efficacy
The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a general light source is forcing changes
in test procedures used to measure lighting performance. This fact sheet describes
the concept of luminaire efficacy and the technical reasons for its applicability to
LED-based lighting fixtures.
Lighting energy efficiency is a function of both the light source (the light bulb or lamp) and the
fixture, including necessary controls, power supplies and other electronics, and optical elements.
The complete unit is known as a luminaire.
Traditionally, lighting energy efficiency is characterized in terms of lamp ratings and fixture
efficiency. The lamp rating indicates how much light (in lumens) the lamp will produce when
operated at standard room/ambient temperature (25 degrees C). The luminous efficacy of a light
source is typically given as the rated lamp lumens divided by the nominal wattage of the lamp,
abbreviated lm/W. The fixture efficiency indicates the proportion of rated lamp lumens actually
emitted by the fixture; it is given as a percentage. Fixture efficiency is an appropriate measure for
fixtures that have interchangeable lamps for which reliable lamp lumen ratings are available.
However, the lamp rating and fixture efficiency measures have limited usefulness for LED
lighting at the present time, for two important reasons:
1) There is no industry standard test procedure for rating the performance of LED
devices or packages.
2) The luminaire design and the manner in which the LEDs are integrated into the
luminaire have a material impact on the performance of the LEDs.
These two issues are discussed in greater detail below. Given these limitations, how can LED
luminaires be compared to traditional lighting technologies? As an example, the table below
compares two recessed downlight fixtures, one using a 26-watt CFL and the other using an array
of LEDs. The table differentiates data related to the light source and data resulting from actual
luminaire measurements. Luminaire photometry shows that in this case the LED fixture is
drawing about the same wattage as the CFL fixture, but providing less than half the lumens. This
example is based on a currently available, commercial-grade, six-inch diameter downlight. LED
downlight performance is expected to continue to improve rapidly.
LED
Light Source
Lamp lumen rating
1800 lm
26 W
Terms
Photometry the measurement
of quantities associated with light,
including luminance, luminous
intensity, luminous flux, and
illuminance.
Integrating sphere a device that
enables geometrically total luminous
flux to be determined by a single
measurement. The usual type is
the Ulbricht sphere with associated
photometric equipment for measuring
the indirect illuminance of the inner
surface of the sphere.
Goniophotometer an apparatus
for measuring the directional light
distribution characteristics of light
sources, luminaires, media, and surfaces.
Goniophotometry can be used to obtain
total luminaire flux (lumens) and efficacy
(lumens/watt), but not the color metrics
(chromaticity, CCT, and CRI).
10
Spectroradiometer an instrument
for measuring radiant flux (visible and
non-visible) as a function of wavelength.
Visible radiation measurements can
be converted into luminous intensity
(candela) and flux (lumens).
Lamp or light source a generic term
for a device created to produce optical
radiation.
3W
~100 lm per LED*
Luminaire Measurements
Luminaire lumens
1062 lm
475 lm
26 W
28 W
Fixture efficiency
59%
Luminaire efficacy
40 lm/W
17 lm/W
Items in italics are not based on industry standard test procedures as published by ANSI/IESNA.
*Depends on specific LED used. Estimate is based on typical luminous flux declared by LED manufacturer on the product datasheet, which
assumes 25C LED junction temperature.
PNNL-SA-54578
January 2008
Printed on 30% post-consumer
recycled paper.