Course 1 Raw Material Extraction

1.1 Raw Material Extraction

Imprint
German Cement Works Association
Research Institute of the Cement Industry
P.O. box 30 10 63, 40410 Duesseldorf, Germany
Tannenstrasse 2, 40476 Duesseldorf, Germany
Phone: +49 211 45 781
Fax: +49 211 45 78296
info@vdz-online.de
www.vdz-online.de
info@elearning-vdz.de
www.elearning-vdz.de
Issued: 7th January 2013

Contents
1

Introduction.......................................................................................................

Deposits and Raw Materials ............................................................................

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

Extraction ..........................................................................................................
Drilling................................................................................................................
Blasting ...............................................................................................................
Secondary Blasting .............................................................................................
Ripping ...............................................................................................................
Other Extraction Methods...................................................................................

3
3
6
10
11
13

4
4.1
4.2
4.3

Loading ..............................................................................................................
Wheel Loaders ....................................................................................................
Hydraulic Excavators..........................................................................................
Other Loading Methods......................................................................................

14
14
16
16

5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

Transportation ..................................................................................................
Heavy-Duty Trucks.............................................................................................
Transportation with Loading Machines (Load and Carry) .................................
Other Transportation Methods............................................................................
Roadways at Extraction Sites .............................................................................

18
18
19
20
21

Health and Safety Practices .............................................................................

22

Factors Affecting Operation and Quality.......................................................

22

Maintenance and Inspection............................................................................

23

Environmental Protection ................................................................................

23

10

Questions on Course LB 1.1. Raw Material Extraction.............................

24

Solutions...............................................................................................................................

25

Glossary ...............................................................................................................................

27

Index.....................................................................................................................................

28

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1 Introduction
Stage within the entire
process

Rohmaterial- Rohmaterialaufbereitung
gewinnung

Klinkerproduktion Zementproduktion

5
Packerei und Versand

Figure 1.0-1: Step 1: Raw Material Extraction in Quarries .

The production of cement requires predominantly natural raw materials, in particular limestone and marl. It is therefore necessary for the cement industry to operate quarries to
extract these raw materials (Fig. 1.0-2). Securing this supply through appropriate land-use
planning is therefore also a matter of public interest.

For economic and ecologic reasons quarries should be as close as possible to the cement
works since the transport of raw materials over long distances results in high costs and
places stress on the environment and the population.
This course will illustrate how, and by which technical means, the necessary raw materials
are extracted in quarries.

Figure 1.0-2: Work in a quarry .

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Course Summary

2 Deposits and Raw Materials

2 Deposits and Raw Materials

Deposits

The most important raw materials for the cement industry







limestone,
marl,
chalk,
sand, and
clay

are extracted from deposits the formation of which took place millions of years ago. The
limestones used in most European cement plants are between approximately 20 million
and 400 million years old. In some overseas countries limestones as old as 2,700 million
years old are used for cement production. The age of a deposit can be determined on the
basis of the remains of former organisms ( fossils ) found in them. The raw materials are
generally extracted by open-cast quarrying (Fig. 2.0-1).

Figure 2.0-1: Open-cast Quarrying.

Formation of Limestone

Limestones are formed predominantly in shallow subtropical to tropical seas. Here calcium carbonate is either precipitated directly from sea water or prolifically present organisms incorporate it in their shells or skeletons which on their death gather on the sea floor.
Additionaly, algae may also secrete calcium carbonate and cement together the calcareous
detritus.
In the marginal areas of such seas, clay and sand may be brought in by rivers from the adjacent continents, leading to the formation of marls, a natural mixture of limestone, sand
and clay. Very pure limestones frequently represent ancient reef bodies. In Fi. 2.2-0 this
is illustrated schematically: Sandy-clayey material is deposited closer to the shore line
whereas farther out to sea various types of limestones are deposited. Within the body of
the reef itself very pure limestones are formed from the remnants of corals, molluscs etc.
by secondary cementation frequently aided by the activity of algae.
The sediments deposited on the sea bed were initially loosely packed and became compacted under the increasing pressure of the overlying rocks and the ensuing elevated temperature. Chemical processes also led to the transformation of unconsolidated sediments
into hard rocks. Movements in the earths crust (tectonism) and erosion by water later
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brought these deposits back to the surface where they can now be extracted. The resistance
of a rock to against extraction depends, among other things, on the age of the deposit, its
chemical composition and the degree of weathering .

3 Extraction
The following unit will detail the range of methods for extracting rock. In addition to
drilling and blasting, mechanical extraction methods will be discussed.

3.1 Drilling
The most common drilling methods used to extract limestone are
 rotary drilling,
 percussion drilling, and
 combined rotary/percussion drilling.

Drilling Methods

Drilling machines are usually mounted on a crawler chassis. Other key components are
the drivers cab and the filter plant (Fig. 3.1-1)

Figure 3.1-1: Carriage Drilling Rig with a Drill Rod Magazine .

Large-Hole Blasting
In limestone quarries large-hole blasting is typically carried out. In this type of operation
boreholes with diameters between 90 mm and 150 mm are drilled downwards into the
bench to be extracted. The face heights can reach approximately 30 m (Fig. 3.1-2). The
advantage of this method is its high degree of safety since the drilling machine is positioned above the bench to be extracted. The piles of broken rock of a blast may be loaded
without disturbing the process of drilling new holes for the next blast. The explosives can
be loaded easily into the sub-vertical boreholes.
The borehole diameter depends on
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3 Extraction

L =distance between boreholes

le
boreh- o
e
m
dia
ter

length of
stemming

face height

true n
burde
charge column

4
borehole
inclination

horizontal
burden

sub-drilling

borehole diameter
burden
distance between boreholessd
borehole inclination
sub-drilling
length of charge column

D = 90 mm to150 mm
(for large hole blasting)
V = 4 m to 5 m = length of stemming
L = 1,3 to 1,4 V
a = 70 to80
U = 5 % face height
=approx. one third of the burden
>doubled stemming length
doubled burden

Figure 3.1-2: Guide Variables for Boreholes .

 amount of explosives to be loaded and

 desired maximum block size of the rock mass.
The block size of the rock mass depends on the tectonic structure ( tectonics) of the rock.

narrow tectonic structure

wide tectonic structure

In the case of a narrow tectonic structure

 a small borehole diameter,

In the case of a wide tectonic structure

 a large borehole diameter,

a small distance between boreholes, and a

a large distance between holes, and a

 small burden
help to ensure good distribution of the explosive and
therefore uniform blasted rock.

large burden

help to ensure that the rock breaks up more easily so

that high blasting pressures are not required.

Table 3.1-1: Block Sizes.

Boulders

Pieces of blasted rock above about 0,5 m3.(known as boulders ) are usually too large to
be fed directly to crushers. They thus must be further reduced in size by blasting or by
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3.1 Drilling

mechanical methods. With wide borehole grids the quantity of boulders produced per
volume unit of broken rock is greater than with a narrower grids.
In large-hole drilling diameters of between 90 mm and 150 mm have proven to be most
effective. A rock mass of manageable size is produced with a burden measuring from 4.5
m to 5.5 m for 90 mm holes and from 6 m to 8 m for 150 mm holes. The shortest distance
between the explosive charge and the free wall face is called true burden (see Fig. 3.1).
When the holes are inclined the true burden should be measured at right angles to the
borehole axis. However, in a quarry it is usually measured horizontally to simplify matters
as there are only slight differences between the two types of burden when calculating the
volume (Fig. 3.1-2) .

Burden

The burden is dependent on the resistance at the foot of the face. In limestone quarries it
usually varies between 4 m and 5 m. The spacing between the boreholes within a row of
holes is selected so as to be no larger than 1.3 to 1.4 times the burden to ensure that the
rock is broken out cleanly.

Inclined Drilling

The development of inclined drilling was not based on technical or economic considerations. Since faces measuring 30 m to 40 m were often used in the past, the stability of the
quarry face was increased for safety reasons by arranging the faces not at right angle to
the quarry floor. When large-hole drilling was introduced the inclined position of the face
was adopted, particularly since the the technical advantages provided by inclined drilling
had been recognized (Fig. 3.1-3).
Borehole inclination: 90

75

60

line of resistance to shearing

a)
The resistance to shearing is infinitely
large, so the foot of the face will not be
broken out cleanly.

b)
c)
A borehole inclination

of 70 to 80 The line of resistance to shearing emerges

provides the best blasting results. above the quarry floor.
Residual projections impair loading.

Figure 3.1-3: Different Drilling Angles and Shear Effects at the Foot of the Face .

In inclined drilling, drilling below the loading level (sub-drilling) by about 5 % of the face
height results in

Sub-drilling

 an improved break-out at the borehole base,

 a smooth loading floor, and
 no need to level the ground.
Borehole inclinations influence the blasting result (Fig. 3.1-3), best results being obtained
with inclinations between 70 and 80 .

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Incline

3 Extraction

3.2 Blasting
Blasting is the forcible, sudden breaking up and fragmentation of material.
Explosives

A wide range of explosives is available to blasters, from blasting powder to powdered and
gelatinous emulsion explosives , from propellant explosives to high-strength explosives,
from water-sensitive to water-resistant explosives, from cartridged to bulk explosives and
from pumpable to injectable explosives.
All explosive materials expand rapidly on ignition as the gases produced occupy a far
greater volume than the original explosive. The rock is therefore split into pieces by the
shock wave produced by the blast.

Type and Selection

Different blasting methods may be used depending on the objective of the blasting process.
The most common blasting methods are detailed in Fig. 3.2-1.
1. Borehole blasting
and large hole blasting
2. Surface
blasting

4. Tunnel blasting

3. Boulder blasting

Blasting chamber

5. Fan blasting

6. Chambered-hole
blasting

Figure 3.2-1: Blasting Methods .

Blasting Authorization

The type of blasting to be carried out is determined by the blaster under consideration of

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3.2 Blasting

key criteria, such as:






safety,
noise,
rock structure,
desired size reduction.

Authorization for blasting is obtained through an additional qualification certificate issued by the relevant authorities. During any blasting process there is only one person in
charge, the other individuals involved are blasting assistants.
Safety Measures during Blasting
The following safety measures must be observed during blasting:
 give a warning using sirens,
 stand at least 300 m from the blasting site,
 do not place detonators on the loading level since there is a risk that detonators that
have failed to detonate may do so during subsequent loading of the broken material,
 avoid contact with explosion fumes.
Vibrations and noise caused by blasting must be reduced wherever possible in order to
minimize impacts on the environment. For this reason a borehole is loaded with the optimum amount of explosive and detonated with a time delay in relation to the other boreholes
at the blasting location. Low blasting vibrations are obtained by dividing the entire blasts
into many individual blasts.

Detonators
Delay detonators are used to spread out the individual shots in time (Fig. 3.2-2). Detonation is carried out either by providing the fuse of each borehole with a millisecond
detonator, as in Fig. 3.2-3, or by linking groups of boreholes with one fuse and detonating
these groups of boreholes at the desired millisecond intervals.

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7
Environmental
Protection

3 Extraction

Figure 3.2-2: Detonators Construction and Operating Principle .

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3.2 Blasting

a) Single ignition of boreholes

b) Group ignition of boreholes

cable to exploder

cable to exploder
0

30

60

90

1234

ignition delay
in milliseconds
boreholes with
millisecond
detonators

30

ignition delay
in milliseconds
boreholes with
millisecond
detonators

123456

Millisecond detonators - staggered blasting of individual rows of boreholes

a)

000000000000

b)

strong vibrations
non-uniform fragmented rock

10 11

low vibrations
average size reduction
fragmented rock is thrown to the left

212121212121
c)

0123456789

321321321321
d)

vibration: greater than b;

less than a
good size reduction

vibration: greater than b;

less than c
good size reduction

Figure 3.2-3: Millisecond Detonators .

The use of millisecond detonators provides the following advantages:

 the first blast places the surrounding rock under stress and alters the properties of the
rock,
 the second blast in the next borehole can fragment the rock stressed by the first blast
more easily.
This effect is comparable to a stressed sheet of glass. Here again only a small force is required to break the glass, whereas the forces required to achieve this effect with unstressed
glass or rock are considerably greater.

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Advantages Millisecond
Detonators

3 Extraction

stemming

pressure distribution

propellant
explosive

10
high strength
blasting explosive

Figure 3.2-4: Pressure Distribution during Blasting .

High-Strength Blasting
Explosives

In order to obtain uniformly broken rock the borehole should be filled as much as possible
with explosive (Fig. 3.2-4). High-strength blasting explosives that generate a large shear
force are used at the foot of the borehole whereas propellant explosives with a lower energy
content are placed above the high strength blasting explosive.

Stemming

The upper part of the borehole is closed with stemming consisting of dry sand or drilling
chips over about 20 % of the borehole depth. During the explosion the stemming must
grip well in the borehole and prevent the shock wave from escaping from the borehole and
weakening the explosive effect in the form of a so-called blow-out.
The efficiency of a blast is expressed by relating the mass of explosives used to the mass
of the basted rock. The respective factor (in g/t) should generally not exceed about 130
g/t.

Vibrations

Vibrations can be measured using various types of vibration meters. They may be characterized by a number of parameters, the most important being particle velocity in m/s.

3.3 Secondary Blasting

Secondary blasting is the size reduction of blocks of the rock mass that are too large
following primary blasting. Usually a larger number of boulders should be gathered in
order to break them up in one "session". Tab. 3.3-1 shows various methods for reducing
the size of these over-sized boulders.
For secondary blasting holes are drilled ijnto the boulders, filled with explosives and then
blasted. In plaster shooting a small amount of explosives is placed on the boulder, covered with loam or clay and then blasted. Alternatively boulders may be broken up with
hydraulic hammers.

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3.4 Ripping

Secondary Blasting Methods

Advantages

Disadvantages

Secondary Drilling and

Blasting

easy to insert explosives

high drilling costs

effective size reduction

high risk of scattering if the

boulders are overcharged or
if the borehole is off-centre

Plaster Shooting

little time required

few workers and little
equipment required

6 to 10 times the amount of

explosive used in secondary
drilling and blasting

low risk of scattering

loud detonation

quiet
mobile equipment is used

costs incurred for providing

a vehicle to carry the
hydraulic hammer

low cost

not always feasible

Mechanical Breaking (hydraulic hammer)

Mechanical Boulder (Ball)

no scattering effect

quiet
simple

11

Table 3.3-1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Secondary Blasting Methods.

Figure 3.3-1: Size Reduction of Lumps of Rock using Secondary Drilling and Blasting .

3.4 Ripping
The most commonly used mechanical methods of extraction are vertical ripping using a
hydraulic excavator and horizontal ripping with ripper dozers. Ripper dozers were used
frequently in the past but are now increasingly replaced by hydraulic excavators.

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Vertical and Horizontal

Ripping

3 Extraction

Figure 3.4-1: Material Extraction using a Ripper Dozer .

12

Ripper Dozers
Ripper dozers or bulldozers Fig. 3.4-1) loosen the rock in a single step with the ripper
tooth and at the same time push away the rock loosened during the previous run. It has to
be ensured that there is a good support surface for the tracks or that the tracks can adjust
to any unevenness in the ground.

incorrect

correct

Figure 3.4-2: Ripping Action of the Tooth .

Optimum Ripping
Angles

The ripping action of the tooth is best at a specific angle, and it is usually an advantage to
carry out ripping downhill. However, on the whole success is greatly dependent on local
conditions and the experience of the operators.

Hydraulic Excavators
Hydraulic Excavators

When ripping rock using a hydraulic excavator the so-called back-hoe arrangement is used
(Fig.2.0-1). The rocks to be excavated have to be well bedded to enable the teeth of the
bucket to penetrate into these planes. The excavator will then break out the rock with
its tremendous break-out force. Special attention should be paid to the stability of the
machine. If the ground or rock is fairly hard then narrow buckets should be used which
greatly increase the break-out force. The truck to be loaded may be standing next to
the excavator (Fig. 2.0-1) or on the level below. As a hydraulic excavator with a backhoe arrangement combines extraction and loading notable savings in quarry costs may be
achieved.

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3.5 Other Extraction Methods

Rippability and Rock Strength

As it is difficult to define rippability seismological examinations have to be carried out
in which the wave velocity (m/s) in the ground is measured. The different types of rock
are usually classified according to rock strength (ranging from very brittle to hard or from
extremely low to extremely high) or soil classes (see Tab. 3.4-1). The resistance of a rock
extraction increases with its strength (expressed as compressive strength (MPa)) or soil
class.

Overview of Methods and Fields of Application

Tab. 3.4-1 provides an overview of the methods and fields of application of breaking out
and ripping for specific types of ground.

Wave Velocity
(m/s)

Ground
Type

Name

Equipment

300 500

light ground
a) not cohesive or only slightly
cohesive
b) sand, gravel, silt

shovel

500 800

medium ground
a) cohesive, slightly ductile
b) loam, loess, marl, scree

spade, wheel loader

800 1.200

heavy ground
a) very cohesive, tough
b) clay, stones with a diameter
greater than 30 cm

crawler loader, mobile excavator,

crawler excavator up to 17 t

1,200 1,700

light rock
a) loose rock
b) very fissured and solid or
weathered and brittle rock

crawler excavator (17-25 t)

(Vs up to 1,400 m/s)
(Vs up to 1,600 m/s)

1,700 1,900

heavy rock
a) fissured
b) solid thin layers or brittle thick
layers

crawler excavator (40-70 t)

(Vs up to 1,800 m/s)
bulldozer (40-50 t)
(Vs up to 1,800 m/s)

1,900 2,300

heavy rock
a) slightly fissured
b) extrusive rock, in lumps
c) boulders, tightly interlocked

bulldozer (50-60 t)
(Vs up to 2,100 m/s)

2,300 3,000

practically solid, tightly packed

bulldozer (60-70 t)
(Vs up to 2,600 m/s)
bulldozer over 80 t
(Vs up to 3,000 m/s)

over 3,000

solid, very dense

blasting!

Table 3.4-1: Extraction and Ripping in Different Types of Ground.

3.5 Other Extraction Methods

Bucket wheel excavators, as employed especially in open-cast lignite mining, are also
used at sites with relatively soft limestone like chalk. The continuous flow of material ex-

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13

4 Loading

cavated by the bucket wheel is generally transported to the crushing plant by belt conveyor
systems (Fig. 3.5-1).

14

Figure 3.5-1: Bucket Wheel Excavator .

4 Loading
Loading refers to the general gathering of ripped, broken or blasted rock and its transfer
to a subsequent transportation system.
Different loading systems are available depending on the nature of the rock and the equipment available. When selecting a system the following factors should be considered:







quarry output
properties of the deposit
nature of the fragmented rock
mobility and flexibility
capital investment
available time and resources

Fig. 4.0-1 shows the types of loaders used.which will be discussed here in greater detail.
Some examples of mobile loaders .

4.1 Wheel Loaders

Advantages

The wheel loader (Fig. 4.1-1) has become extremely popular due to its manoeuvrability
and mobility. It has proven to be very useful not only for loading vehicles, but also for
general subsidiary activities.

Warning! Tipping Load!

If the bucket of a wheel loader or front-end loader is overloaded, the counterweight provided by the engine is insufficient and the loader will tip forward over its front wheels. This
load limit is called the tipping load and the payload must not exceed 50 % of it.

Wheel Loader
Coordination

Every quarry operator strives to operate his equipment so that the buckets are optimally

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4.1 Wheel Loaders

Wheel loader
Crawler loader
Excavator

Bucket excavator

Cable-operated excavator

Boom dragline

Hydraulic excavator

Backhoe excavator

Face shovel

15

Figure 4.0-1: Loader Classification .

Figure 4.1-1: Loading of Loosened Material in a Quarry using a Wheel Loader .

filled. The optimum level is determined by the type of material material to be loaded as
e.g. of moist clay less can be carried than of dry mixed soil.
The size of the wheel loader or excavator used must be matched, above all, to the size of
the transport vehicle. This must be loaded with not more than four to five bucket loads of
material in order to avoid excessive costs resulting from long periods of waiting during the
loading process.
Wheel loaders and excavators must be equipped with a roll-over protection system ROPS
to protect the driver and machine, as well as with protection against impact by stones.

Protection

The bucket may have a linear or V-shaped cutting edge. In the example shown (Fig. 4.12) scarifier teeth are affixed, which are no longer as susceptible to breakage as in earlier
times.
The mechanical and hydraulic components of the wheel loader require special care and
maintenance. In particular, leakage from the hydraulic system may pollute the environ-

Bucket

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Care and Maintenance

4 Loading

1
2
3

6
5

Figure 4.1-2: Bucket .

16

back of the bucket

side wall edges with additional wearing rails of hardened special steel

easily exchangeable wearing plates of tempered special steel

bucket cutting edge and

bottom knife of tempered steel

bucket teeth with welded or bolted attachment system

Table 4.1-1: Key to Fig. 4.1-2.

ment. Correct care of the machines will result in long service life. Depending on the
prevailing ground conditions tyres may be used with protective chains.

4.2 Hydraulic Excavators

Variants

There are two variants of the basic model of a hydraulic excavator. It may be equipped with
a back-hoe (Fig. 2.0-1) or a face shovel (Fig. 4.2-1). The back-hoe version has already
been described in Ch. 3.4 (Ripping). In the face-shovel version the hydraulic excavator
is almost exclusively used for loading trucks. The crawler drive has proved generally
successful within the pit and quarry industry as well as for subsidiary activities. Tyremounted hydraulic excavators are mostly used in the building industry.

Working Radius,
Digging Envelope

The working radius of an excavator depends on its size and the attachments fitted. A
specific digging envelope (Fig. 4.2-2) makes it possible to determine whether the geometry
will allow the particular operation to be carried out. The digging envelope of a faceshovel or back-hoe excavator should be taken into account not only when planning the
application, but also with respect to the safety of the application.

Advantages

Despite of their fairly low travelling speeds excavators are advantageous for relatively stationary operation or for extreme manoeuvrability in close quarters. If particular emphasis
is placed on stability and lifting capacity then the long chassis should be selected. Track
rollers, support rollers and idlers are generally permanently lubricated and reliably sealed.
Ruptures of hydraulic lines have become relatively rare due to the use of resistant materials. Hydraulic systems must be easy to access and simple to maintain.

4.3 Other Loading Methods

Cable Excavators

Cable excavators (Fig. 4.3-1) are used in the same way as hydraulic excavators with face
shovels but become increasingly replaced by hydraulic units. Owing to their sturdy and ro-

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4.3 Other Loading Methods

17

Figure 4.2-1: Loading of Loosened Material in a Quarry using a Hydraulic Excavator .

bust construction, they normally have a service life of between 10 and 20 years. Nowadays
most cable excavators are driven electrically.

Figure 4.3-1: Cable Excavator in Use .

The use of tracked loaders is limited to construction sites or small quarries. These machines are normally used only for subsidiary activities or for work in the overburden where
the ground conditions are unfavourable. Because of their low travelling speeds they are at
a disadvantage against wheel loaders for bulk transport.

Tracked Loader

Draglines are shown in Fig. 4.0-1 only for completeness sake as they are only very rarely
used for loading transport vehicles in limestone quarries. They are mostly used at present
for overburden removal in very large open-cast mines.

Draglines

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5 Transportation

5 Transportation
Transport in quarries includes the transportation of raw rock for further processing or to a
spoil heap. Transport costs account for the largest portion of total quarry costs.
Editors Note

Continuous transport equipment will not be dealt with at this point of the course because
it is detailed elsewhere or because the type of transport is only used in very specialized
cases that it does not need to be discussed.
Transportation Equipment for
Fragmented Rock in
"Constricted Quarry Areas

Continuous
Equipment

18

Discontinuous
Equipment

Conveyor belt systems

Trains

Pipelines

Heavy duty trucks

Specialized equipment

Wheel loaders
Specialized equipment

Figure 5.0-1: Transportation equipment .

The means of transport (Fig. 5.0-1) are selected on the basis of criteria such as:






type of material to be transported (coarse/fine)

size and output of operation
type of terrain
transportation distance
flexibility

The various means of mobile transport will now be discussed in detail.

5.1 Heavy-Duty Trucks

Heavy-duty trucks are specially developed transport vehicles which differ from standard
heavy goods vehicles in their robust design. They are particularly suited for use within the
exerting fields of quarrying, open-cast mining and earthwork (Fig. 5.1-1).
Heavy duty trucks are generally loaded by hydraulic excavators or wheel loaders, the size
of the loading bucket and the body being matched to each other. A truck should be filled
with 4 5 loading cycles.
Access Roads

As a result of the durable engineering employed in, e.g., engine, converter, gearbox, vehicle frame and tyres modern heavy-duty trucks can reach speeds of over 70 km/h. However,
generously designed access and service roads should also be taken into consideration when
laying out the quarry (Fig. 5.1-2)The gradient should be not more than about 10 % and adequate curve radii avoid the need for heavy braking.

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5.2 Transportation with Loading Machines (Load and Carry)

19

Figure 5.1-1: Transportation of Material using a Heavy Duty Dump Truck.

The roads should be adequately wide if two-lane traffic is to be employed. If the roads are
to be used for single-lane traffic a sufficient number of passing points must be provided.
The roads should be provided with crash barriers like boulders, protective barriers, etc.
(Fig. 5.1-3).
Although robust in design, quarry trucks are complex vehicles when viewed in detail.
Continuous monitoring, maintenance and inspection of the machinery results in a high
level of availability and a long service life. In modern machines, the operating status
and load conditions of the engine, gearbox, braking system and electrical systems of the
vehicle can be checked by rapid screening with a test unit.

Care and Maintenance

When ground conditions (for example over sand or unstable ground) do not permit highspeed transport by heavy quarry trucks the use of a dumper with articulated steering
should be considered. The speed achieved by it does not match that of a heavy-duty truck
but its design with wide, low-pressure tyres and all-wheel drive is suitable for the specific
terrain to be handled.

Dumpers

. Vehicles are frequently driven on the left on quarry roads. When the drivers cab of the
wide heavy-duty truck is on the side of the drop on narrow roads trucks are driven on the
left. This ensures that the driver has a better view of the edge of the road and of the ground
below.

Left-Hand Side Driving

in Quarries

5.2 Transportation with Loading Machines (Load and

Carry)
Over short distances the transport of material by heavy-duty trucks can quickly become
uneconomic. In this case the transport cycle of a low-speed machine travelling at 12
km/h is shorter than the loading/rapid transport/unloading cycle involving trucks. Transport with a loading machine, generally a wheel loader, is then usually selected (Fig. 5.2-1).
Maximum transport distances are in the range of 80 m to about 100 m.

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5 Transportation

20

Figure 5.1-2: Road Safety in a Quarry .

It should be noted that in this case the wheel loader suffers a high degree of wear so
thorough maintenance is of utmost importance.

5.3 Other Transportation Methods

Rail Transport

Rail transport is rarely an option. This transport system is only cost-effective in very
large extraction sites like in some cement plants of the former Soviet Union or when the
plant and the quarry are far apart. Rail transport requires level routes with0ut substantial
gradients.

Cableways

In contrast, long distances over rugged terrain with large differences in elevation can be
traversed easily with a cableway system. However, the efficiency of this type of transport
is limited to a maximum of approx. 600 t/h. Under extreme weather conditions, e.g. frost,
crushed material tends to stick in the transport containers. High winds may also bring the
system to a standstill.

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5.4 Roadways at Extraction Sites

roadway
marking

loose rocks

protective wall

21

protective wall or marking

overburden

Figure 5.1-3: Safety Measures in Quarry Roads .

Figure 5.2-1: Wheel Loader in a Quarry.

5.4 Roadways at Extraction Sites

It is important that roadways are of optimum width and configuration in order to ensure
safe travel. The provisions detailed for example in the German Workplace Ordinance
on the design of allowances at the edge of roadways and for oncoming traffic must be
exceeded in larger quarries because of the size of heavy-duty trucks. As shown in Fig.
5.4-1, the width of roadways is calculated from the allowance at the edge of the roadway,

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7 Factors Affecting Operation and Quality

the allowance for oncoming traffic and the width of a heavy-duty truck. Where large
heavy-duty trucks are used, the allowance at the edge of the roadway and the allowance
for oncoming traffic should each be at least half the width of the truck itself. The width of
quarry roads should then be at least 3.5 times the width of the widest truck.
roadway marking

Figure 5.4-1: Roadways.

6 Health and Safety Practices

22

Safety Rules

Below is a list of common hazards inherent to quarries:

 Advise the production manager of any forthcoming work!
 Store explosives in special bunkers or have them delivered by contractors shortly before blasting.
 Keep the prescribed distance when blasting.
 Do not smoke when charging the boreholes.
 Make the area safe in accordance with the respective instructions when blasting.
 Avoid contact with blasting fumes.
 Examine walls for loose rock before loading.
 Provide roads with crash barriers.
 Avoid tipping loose material backwards down a slope.
 Always wear personal protective equipment.
 Activate the reverse warning signal or similar safety means when driving heavy-duty
trucks.
 Only operate large vehicles and machinery in quarries after first checking that there
are no individuals or equipment in the working area
 Always carry fully operational communication equipment on you.

7 Factors Affecting Operation and Quality

Factors Affecting Operation
Quarries are self-contained production facilities so the operation is virtually unaffected
by external factors. The down-stream operation is only affected when the raw material is
not delivered with the required composition and homogeneity. Special attention should
therefore be paid to quality control.

Quality Control
As the deposits are often inhomogeneous, the quality control department of each plant has
to plan the complete extraction process from start to finish.
For this purpose a production schedule is drawn up so that the quarry operator always
knows exactly and unmistakebly where blasting has to be carried out, i.e. where the shot
rock should be available. The subsequent loading of the material, carried out in accordance

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with quality standards, and the controlled transport to the crusher varies from plant to plant,
but is a constantly recurring process in all plants.
Loading of unsuitable material may be highly detrimental to the operation of the plant up
to the raw meal stage and this will in turn affect the quality of the cement.

8 Maintenance and Inspection

Although quarry equipment is designed to be robust, the machinery is very complex when
viewed in greater detail and should be subjected to an in-depth maintenance and inspection programme. These measures are generally thoroughly organized and are specified in
detail for each individual maintenance area of the plant. The instructions of the respective
supplier must be strictly adhered to. Fig. 8.0-1 shows an example of maintenance of a
heavy-duty truck.

Maintenance and
Inspection Programme

23

Figure 8.0-1: Dumper Maintenance .

9 Environmental Protection
Plant-specific and country-specific environmental protection measures are generally in
place for compliance with noise and vibration limits, to which reference will now be made.
The effects on energy consumption and emissions will only be discussed briefly below.

Energy Consumption
The following factors may influence energy consumption:
 The hardness of the raw material and the particle size of the shot material will influence
the energy requirements of the crushing plant.
 The way in which an individual operates and drives a heavy-duty truck or a wheel
loader may have a significant effect on fuel consumption.

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10 Questions on Course LB 1.1. Raw Material Extraction

Factors Influencing Emissions

Modern quarrying equipment is fitted with engines that are designed to be highly efficient
and only produce low soot emissions.
It is virtually impossible to avoid the formation of dust during blasting, but this often
causes complaints from neighbours. Plant-specific action must be taken.
In dry weather appropriate measures should be taken to prevent vehicles from generating
dust from the roadways. Spraying with water has proven to be an effective countermeasure.

10 Questions on Course LB 1.1. Raw Material

Extraction
Questions on Mineral Deposits
Question 10.0 A:
24

1.
2.
3.

Name the most important raw materials for cement production.

How old are the limestones used in most European cement plants?
Name factors influencing the extraction strategy.

Solutions see p. 25

Questions on Extraction
Question 10.0 B:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Which two methods are used to extract material?

Name the most common drilling methods.
What is large-hole blasting?
What does the borehole diameter depend on?
What is the effect of drilling below the loading level (sub-drilling)?
What safety considerations must be observed when blasting?
What are the advantages of using millisecond detonators for blasting?

Solutions see p. 25

Questions on Loading and Transport

Question 10.0 C:
1.
2.

Which machines are primarily used for loading?

Which machines are used for transport?

Solutions see p. 25

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Solutions
Solution for 10.0 A:
1.
2.
3.

limestone, marl, chalk, sand and clay

20 to 400 million years
rock strength, degree of fissuring, blasting vibration, noise, rock moisture, environmental regulations

Questions see p. 24

Solution for 10.0 B:

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

blasting and ripping

rotary and percussive drilling or a combination of both these methods
During this type of extraction a series of boreholes with diameters between 90 mm
and 150 mm are drilled downwards from the top of the bench to be extracted. The
face heights can measure up to approximately 30 m (Fig. ??). The advantage of
this drilling method is the high level of safety ensured since the drilling machine is
positioned on the ground above the loading level.
The amount of explosive to be loaded and the desired block size of the shot rock
 Improved break-out at the borehole base, a smooth loading floor,
No need to level the ground
 give a warning using sirens, stand at least 300 m from the blasting site, do
not place detonators on the loading level since there is a risk that detonators
that have failed to detonate may do so during subsequent loading of the broken
material, avoid contact with explosion fumes.
The first blast places the surrounding rock under stress and therefore alters the properties of the rock. This makes it easier for the second blast in the next borehole to
fragment the rock already placed under stress by the first blast.

Questions see p. 24

Solution for 10.0 C:

1.
2.

Wheel loaders, hydraulic excavators

Belt conveyors, heavy-duty trucks, wheel loaders

Questions see p. 24

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25

Glossary
boulders
Lumps of rock
compressive strength
Resistance of a material to compressive forces
degree of weathering
Classification of the extent or progress of weathering
dumper
Dump truck
emulsion explosives
Emulsion of aqueous ammonium nitrate solution and mineral oils
erosion
Process of removing weathered rock material
fossils
Evidence of past life from Earths history
payload
The load that a vehicle may carry

27

ROPS
roll over protection system
shear force
Deformation of an object under the effect of a force
tectonics
the study of the structure of the Earths crust
wave velocity
Term used in physics for the speed of propagation of a wave in m/s

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Index
B
boulders 4

C
compressive strength 13

D
degree of weathering 3
dumper 19

E
emulsion explosives 6
erosion 2

F
28

fossils 2

P
payload 14

R
ROPS 15

S
shear force 10

T
tectonics 4

W
wave velocity 13

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