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... SO WHAT?”
Lucian Harriman
6,318 Words
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................................. p3
Learning .................................................................................................................... p9
2
Introduction
assessing an intervention and its relationship to the context that it engages. Adopting
underlying rationale. It also involves the agency planning and articulating how it will
set out to understand the impact of the intervention, and determine whether or not, or
to what extent, it has been effective or successful. This all relates to how the agency
will obtain, document, interpret and share information related to the project, and also
how information obtained during the course of the project will be used to make
unofficial dialogue project which will be conducted in Sudan over two years, starting
British NGO.2 The objective of the project will be to facilitate dialogue addressing
scale armed violence, particularly in the areas of transition between Northern and
Southern Sudan. The primary component of the project will be the facilitation of a
1
OECD, 2008, p26
2
The author of this paper is the Research Manager of Concordis International.
3
Sudanese constituencies. The consultations are intended to encourage cooperative
The paper suggests that Concordis uses the research process that will determine how
it applies its method during the course of the project as the basis for monitoring. This
means that the collection of information described as “monitoring” will not simply be
to determine and document the decisions the agency makes regarding who it will
bring into dialogue, and on which issues. Therefore the “monitoring” process will
decisions.
Making explicit the project’s method and rationale, along with any values or
principles which are supposed to guide the work, and documenting how these have
been applied during the course of the project, particularly how they have determined
the making of specific decisions, will provide a basis for internal accountability and a
means of making the work structured and systematic, as opposed to being simply ad
exercise and planning and evaluation should take into consideration potential
constraints and challenges and possible limitations of the method. It should also be
4
recognised that the project will likely face unanticipated challenges and that there may
the monitoring and evaluation process should be, therefore, to identify strengths and
limitations of the method, and lessons to inform future work. The extent to which the
documentation [to] find out whether an activity has been performed as intended
and/or whether the expected results have been achieved”3. This is accountability for
something; it relates to whether an organisation has done what it has said it would do
and, also, whether it has achieved what it has said it would achieve. Accountability,
related to the use of resources and the immediate impact of a project but they can also
take a longer term and “strategic” approach, related to the broader impact of an
intervention.4
report to a recognized authority (or authorities) and are held responsible for their
more likely to perform well if it is held accountable and its activities are evaluated. In
3
OECD, 2008, p86
4
Conradi, 1998
5
Edwards and Hulme 1996 cited in Conradi 1998
5
turn, the way in which an organisation is held accountable, can define standards of
performance.6
and laws, and informal accountability, which may be defined by the relationships that
Concordis is accountable to many different entities in both the formal and the
informal sense. What the agency is accountable for is determined by the specific
relationship.
sign formalised agreements, and to whom it will have to provide regular reports on
project implementation. There are rules and guidelines which Concordis has or will
in Sudan. Formalised agreements are also necessary with UN agencies who provide
6
Conradi, 1998
7
IBID
8
IBID
6
The agency is also dependent on relationships with many other groups and actors,
government for indigenous political support and facilitation of its activities. This
NGOs working on similar issues, in order to access information essential for the
success of its work, and also for other forms of support. Ultimately, for Concordis to
dependent if it is to function.
Overall, Concordis aspires to be acting in the interest of all Sudanese, or at least those
who are negatively effected by violent conflict. Whether or not there is a mechanism
formally accountable to governing authorities. However, one could argue that out of
Concordis’ relationship with its neighbours and the way it is perceived as it carries out
its activities will affect the agency’s security and its overall ability to operate.
to allay suspicions, and maintain positive public relations. This involves being aware
9
Van Brabant, 2000
7
of how local communities or specific actors perceive Concordis, and not only to how
In order to be able to manage so many different and complex strands of formal and
informal accountability to external actors, Concordis could benefit from ensuring that
it is first and foremost accountable to itself. Representations of the work may need to
vary in emphasis and detail when provided to external actors, but Concordis should
also have its own internal, consistent and frank understanding and narrative of the
principles which have guided its decisions and the factors which have constrained or
enabled its operations. This should be the basis from which accounts to external
parties, and external evaluators, are drawn. This paper, therefore, concerns itself with
how Concordis is accountable to itself - how it conceives and applies its method, how
it makes decisions and how it seeks itself to understand the impact of its work.10
be recorded in a way that enables Concordis to account for its decisions. The agency
should record, for example, why it has chosen to approach a certain individual to
participate in a consultation. The record should note the principles that determined
the decision as well as the pieces and sources of information that informed it. This
will enable the agency to trace and show how and why it has acted. This will form a
making.
10
This is for ethical as well as practical or methodological purposes. There is a real and significant
pressure to represent all of one’s activities as successful, in order to assert credibility, attract funding
and continue to be able to operate; the income and reputation of an organisation and its staff depend
upon it.
8
Learning
and improvement [to] systematise knowledge of results and performance, which can
help improve [the specific project in question] or similar activities.”11 In this latter
sense it may be used to develop knowledge and theory,12 to serve “internal learning
what extent a method is being consistently applied, as well as whether the applied
implementation, determining if the agency has done what it has said it would do.
being used in a specific context. Once the rationale is articulated, one can observe
11
OECD, 2008, p86
12
Lederach et al, 2007, p2
13
Church and Rogers, 2006, p179
14
OECD, 2008, p40
15
Conradi, 1998
9
and compare whether in practice the project has had the effect that was anticipated
and last up to five days. They are intended to take place out of the public and media
eye and are supposed to be attended by senior individuals, who can influence policy,
consultation and participants, as much as possible, are given equal status within the
leaders, and respected within their constituencies, are seen to have the potential of
“building bridges” across conflict lines on the basis of shared interest. The
relationships across conflict or social divisions, both of which are hoped to contribute
16
Tilly, 2000
10
concerned with the role of ideas and perceptions in causing violence, and the third
structures. The latter, relational perspective emphasises that both incentive structures
and perceptions are shaped by and exist in the context of social relations. “In this
and groups”.17
Concordis explicitly takes such a relational approach and it uses the definition of
inclusive relationships free from direct and indirect violence and the threat of such
change their individual relationships and for change in broader structures of social
relations to be possible.
Lederach et al, identify four dimensions of conflict related change: the personal
“impacts systems and structures—how relationships are organized, and who has
access to power”; and the cultural dimension, which relates to “the norms that guide
17
Tilly, 2000
18
Mac Ginty, 2006, p10
11
patterns of behaviour”.19 Curle indicates one way in which these dimensions might be
facilitate structural change in their society. Participants are selected on the basis of
their position within social structures, and it is intended that any potential changes in
the working practices and into the explicit policies of their broader groups and
institutions.
properly, might provide the key to creating an infrastructure for achieving and
sustaining peace.”22
19
Lederach et al, 2007, p17
20
Curle, 1995, p54
21
Fisher, 2005, pp2-3
22
Lederach, 1997, ch4
12
In its consultations, Concordis seeks to apply thinking about the dynamics of
multiplexity, a term used to describe the “breadth and quality of information” shared
between the parties, which allegedly leads to an experience of being known and
through parity, which is said to be the “fair use of power”, said to produce the
characterised by commonality, the “building of shared purpose”, which can create the
Concordis sets out to encourage “relational proximity” amongst the participants in its
environment to usual for participants to interact, face to face, not only during
facilitated discussions but also during opportunities outside of the sessions to speak
23
Ashcroft et al, forthcoming
24
IBID
13
according all participants equal opportunities to contribute, regardless of their relative
personal capacities and also by asking participants not to attribute statements made
Any realistic attempt to evaluate the Peace Building Initiative should recognise that
predictable process. The project’s character and success, and whether it is even
which will be beyond the agency’s control. As much as possible, these challenges
should be anticipated in plans to conduct and monitor the project, and considered in
any evaluation.
For the project to go ahead at all, it will need to be authorised, politically accepted and
not obstructed by the governments in North and South Sudan. Concordis has
the Government in the North, including signing a Technical Agreement and obtaining
work and travel permits. Political obstruction and bureaucratic delays could severely
14
Concordis has registered with the SSRRC, it is not clear whether further registration is
The challenge for Concordis in negotiating these issues will be to represent and
describe to government authorities its planned work in a manner that will not arouse
suspicion and will encourage them to allow it to happen. This is not to suggest that
the nature of the project be misrepresented, rather that elements of the project which
should take these challenges into account and record the approaches that Concordis
takes and the responses of the respective authorities and how this has affected activity.
Recording this will enable the agency to account for how it has negotiated
government constraints.
Although it has nine years of experience in doing so, Concordis should not assume
agency will need to establish, or re-establish, relations and credibility and earn the
acceptance and trust of the parties it wishes to engage. Influential individuals will
have many demands on their time and they live in a politically tense environment,
where there is a history of suspicion, animosity, violence and loss. The project will be
15
questions and concerns, encouraging them to participate themselves. The agency has
relevant Sudanese civil society groups, political parties, armed movements and other
participants and other contacts will be approached and included in the forthcoming
initiative. However, Concordis’ network will still need to develop new relationships.
resuming bi-lateral relationships with them should be recorded and considered in the
documentation and evaluation of the project, not only so Concordis can account for
how this has been conducted but also because these meetings will be a source of
initial, ‘baseline’ data regarding the various parties’ perspectives and positions.
section on method and rationale above. It should be recognised, however, that the
agency has no real power to enforce the principles of the process either inside or
outside of the facilitated meetings. Participants’ consent is required for the process to
go ahead according to the terms that Concordis intends. The agency cannot guarantee
to participants that others will uphold the rules of the process. They will need to be
confident themselves that this will be the case, or, at least, be prepared to accept the
risk that the rules guiding the meetings might not be upheld.
Non-attribution of statements
16
A good example of a rule exposed to such a risk is the principle of non-attribution of
statements made “off the record” during the course of consultations. Individuals are
invited to attend consultations in their personal capacity and discussions are supposed
participants with flexibility to explore ideas and positions that they might not be able
guarantee that participants in the meeting will not report publicly or attribute what
they have heard said in the meetings. The agency can express the intention that
statements are not attributed, and it can undertake to refrain from attribution itself, but
ultimately the broader implementation of this rule rests with participants themselves.
Participants will need to trust Concordis, and more importantly each other, to respect
the principles of the process. Concordis will need to ensure that all participants
understand what the principles are, but also that participants understand the limits of
participant feels that they are at risk of being reported and facing negative
systematic practice of the national security services.27 How Concordis conveys the
principles of the process and its limited means of enforcement, as well as how
participants react to this, should be documented and reflected upon in the evaluation
of the project.
25
“When a meeting, or part thereof, is held under the Chatham House Rule, participants are free to
use the information received, but neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speaker(s), nor that of
any other participant, may be revealed” - http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/about/chathamhouserule/
26
This was raised to a member of Concordis staff by a participant of a past consultation, who said that
the presence of members of state security meant that participants were cautious about what they said
for fear of potential difficulties in the future.
27
UNHCHR, 2008
17
Inclusion and exclusion
Concordis will need to restrict the number of participants in each consultation, not
least for practical reasons. However, the agency may encounter pressure to include
Furthermore, Concordis may be unaware of, or choose not to engage, certain groups
or constituencies who have become aware of the process and may wish to participate.
appearing biased. Those denied the opportunity to participate may become frustrated,
suspicious or even hostile to the process. This could pose a risk to the organisation’s
reputation, and pose potential political difficulties in conducting the work. At the
furthest end of the spectrum it could pose security risks both to Concordis and to
process should address how Concordis will deal and has dealt with this issue and what
Maintaining a low-profile
minimising publicity or public awareness of the process may arouse suspicion and
compromise some people’s acceptance of the project’s legitimacy. Again, how this
issue is managed and the implications of the approach taken, should be addressed in
18
Material and political pressures on participants
environment is achieved, it does not eliminate the real material, political, social and
noting that participants’ social status, political influence and means of livelihood may
depend upon their position within systems of patronage or their conformity to the
what they may have agreed to be an appropriate policy within the confines of the
consultations.
Producing parity
parity between participants; that they are able to engage with each other on equal
nevertheless will be unable to redress and some of these may be unknown to the
19
agency. This may relate to potential threats that some participants could pose to
they may not feel secure enough to express it openly or even to Concordis on the
promise of confidentiality.
As an overall goal, the project seeks to contribute improving of the security situation
in Sudan, or, at least, preventing its deterioration. Ensuring staff security may on
some occasions limit where staff are able to travel and therefore reduce their access to
some groups or individuals whom the project should ideally be seeking to engage.
The documentation and evaluation of the project should convey if and how the
Concordis should try to ensure that it does not expose participants or others to security
threats that they would otherwise not incur. Partially this relates to how the initiative
is perceived and the implications for those involved. It also relates to the choice of
locations of consultations and the means of transport that participants use to get to
them. It may also relate to how participants understand the information they disclose
attack specific participants. Concordis should at the very least establish a system
whereby it seeks to prevent the disclosure of any information it has recorded that may
20
make participants vulnerable. This should be documented and considered in
evaluation.
The discussion of these challenges provides an insight into some of the complexities
the project should recognise these complexities, and identify how Concordis has
All of these challenges indicate the limitations and fragility of the process that
An outcome of an evaluation of the project may be to draw lessons about how the
evaluation should also identify unanticipated challenges which arose during the
course of the project. This may produce some generally applicable lessons about
how to manage such challenges and it may also point to elements of the organisation’s
21
Whereas, the section above has described some of the challenges to the
factors and actors effecting the context. Therefore, the context is dynamic. “Change
impossible in part because NGOs operate in contexts in which so many factors are
beyond their control.”32 This relates to the challenge of determining causality between
situation that would have occurred if an intervention had not taken place.33 Such
challenges make it all the more necessary to be clear about how an agency will seek to
28
Lederach et al, 2007, p2
29
Church and Shouldice, 2002, p2
30
OECD, 2008, p38
31
Lederach, 1997, p136
32
Conradi, 1998
33
Lederach et al, 2007, p2
22
When seeking to determine how an intervention has affected a situation, one can look
from the implemented activities. Investigations at the “micro” level relate to how
the activity. Impact at the “meso” level refers to how participants’ reference groups
and constituencies have been affected. Identifying impact at the “macro” level relates
to seeing how the intervention has affected the broader society and context.34
to start at project implementation and the “micro” level and investigate “outwards”,
seeking to trace how the “meso” and “macro” levels have been affected. It should
also be recognised that changes in the broader context will affect the possibilities and
priorities for project implementation and the characteristics of change at the “mico”
and “meso” levels.35 Therefore, it is necessary also to monitor the “macro” level
situation and try to trace how that affects the situation “inwards”.
to determine how a situation has changed following the activity. This can be done at
the “micro” level by “pre-testing” the attitudes of participants and at the “macro”
and monitoring the overall context, as well as the project’s implementation and
outcomes, will all be integral elements of the implementation and development of the
34
USIP, 2004
35
Lederach et al, 2007, p59
36
USIP, 2004
23
work. They will be necessary to determine how the agency decides to apply its
method, and so, more than just being part of a retrospective assessment of the project,
these activities will actually determine the direction the work takes.
Concordis will carry out a research process to determine what should be the specific
issues addressed in the consultations. The agency will also need to investigate and
to establish, or re-establish, credibility with them and also to secure their interest and
The initial thematic development and participant identification process will involve a
will contribute to the project’s “baseline” analysis of the overall “macro” context.
archive and database in order to identify with whom the agency already has a
relationship.
The “baseline” at the “micro” and “meso” levels - concerning the positions,
37
This process is already underway.
24
Decisions regarding who should participate in subsequent consultations and which
during consultations, further bi-lateral discussions with participants and others, and on
Over the course of the project, data for “micro” and “meso” analysis will primarily
come from meetings and interviews with participants, before, during and after
consultations. These will also inform context analysis, but context analysis will also
As mentioned above, the primary reason for monitoring and analysing the context,
will be to inform decisions about the conduct of the project. The primary logic for
recording this information, will be to discipline decisions and ensure a record of how
decisions have been made. Records from specific meetings, and records of relevant
points of reviewed literature, will be stored in a way in which Concordis can retrieve
them in order to provide evidence of the process and sources which informed its
decisions. This information will at the same time provide a means for the agency to
attempt to determine the relationship between the project and the context, both
whether the project is affecting the context, and, how the context is affecting the
project.
Identifying success
25
Rather than seeing “success” as something absolute, it would seem more useful and
arbitrary determination of progress and can be set at any point along the continuum in the
impact enables an observer to identify its achievements and its limitations, possibly
tracing which factors constrained the work. This can help draw lessons about the scope
A degree of success could be attributed to the project’s activities simply being conducted
“correct” implementation.39
However, this would not verify whether consultations had produced what was intended.
reflections and feedback on consultations could all shed light on whether, within the
This still, however, would not indicate whether the project had made a difference at the
broader level of society. As noted above there are different types of conflict related
change which Concordis’ seeks to induce. The agency should therefore investigate if any
of these types of changes have taken place, at which levels, and if they can be attributed
from the project, starting with observations of proceedings and discussions with
38
Church and Rogers, 2006, p12
39
Berry Associates, 2006
26
participants, and investigating how a broader impact has followed, if at all. This could be
unofficial sphere of the intervention into official negotiations and agreements, which can
for resolution”.40
following on from this; the introduction into official negotiations of proposals and
frameworks for resolution which were developed in the more flexible context of informal
possible in unofficial contexts, which may facilitate “more open and accurate
communication, more accurate and differentiated perceptions and images, increased trust
and a cooperative orientation”.41 According to this model, transfer can occur across
“decision and policy making interfaces” between leaders, official and unofficial
However, the notion of “success” should not be limited to the project’s influence on
official negotiations or agreements. One could more broadly investigate the project’s
40
Fisher, 2005, p3
41
IBID, p4
42
IBID, p6
27
strengthen the prospects of peaceful coexistence and decrease the likelihood of the
assess it in terms of its “violence impact”: how it effects the likelihood that conflict
Conclusion
This paper has set out some parameters for how its author intends to conduct and
comprehend his and his colleagues’ work over the coming two years. It is a proposal,
the final approach will have to be agreed by his colleagues and be workable in
made decisions, including the principles and evidence that have informed them, it is
hoped will provide an internal resource that should be useful for the purposes of
assess to what extent the agency was able to implement its methodology, how it dealt
with anticipated and unanticipated challenges and how its work impacted on the
situation in Sudan. Evaluation could also produce lessons about the limits of
43
Fisher et al, 2000, p162
28
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