Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-77). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This chapter introduces the cognitive information processing system. Driscoll argues that the
study of the development of complex behaviors (such as reading and language) could not be
adequately explained by behaviorism. Development of the computer metaphor for cognitive
processing in American psychology: Information is input, processed, and stored and learned
information is output. The model contains three basic stages (Sensory memory -> shortterm/working memory -> long-term memory) as well as the processes involved in the movement
between stages. Sensory memory holds very brief sensory information in order for it to be further
processed. Working memory serves to make information ready for long term storage or a
response and has a limited storage/capacity (p75). Long term memory is a permanent
storehouse of information and has unlimited capacity (p75).
Both bottom-up and top-down processing occurs simultaneously (integrating new information
with information already stored in long-term memory). An executive monitor/control process
directs the processing that occurs (whether done intentionally or unconsciously). Implications for
instruction: instruction should build upon learners prior knowledge and help make meaningful
connections to prior knowledge.
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and Historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-27).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Human cognitive psychology is defined as an inquiry into how people acquire and use
knowledge (p.1). This encompasses many concepts including defining consciousness, perception
of the world around us, problem solving abilities, and language usage (p.2). Over the centuries,
the science of human cognitive psychology has changed as the physical and living worlds came
to be seen as governed by physical devices that are biological instead of spiritual. Two
prominent theories emergeddualism and materialism. Essentially, dualism holds that reality is
made up of two parts: ordinary matter that occupies physical space vs. not physical and does not
obey physical laws and does not occupy space. These dualistic views of this relationship between
the mind and body provide a supernatural belief. (6.).
There are different versions of this dualism: substance dualism (this holds that the mindsubstance can exist independent of the body) and property dualism (believes that the brain brings
the entire mind into existence). The doctrine of evolution spawned a widespread rejection of this
dualism with a growing consensus of materialism. Materialism argues that the mind is a label for
the way the brain functions. It was the theory of evolution that helped to catapult the study of the
human mind and saw a growth in the study of nature. The materialist claims no separate realm of
reality and the physical brains function is to do things we label called consciousness. The
doctrine of behaviorism developed out of materialism that environmental factors control
behavior and probability of behavior is increased with reinforcement. Out of these studies came
the term cognitive science.

Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

Cognitive science is a term that encompasses the study of mental processes and the human
mental life. The history of how the thought process was viewed has changed drastically over
time. Beginning in the 1800s, scientists started developing a connection between neural and
cognitive processes. (8.) The two most influential disciplines were cognitive psychology (used
for studies of functional properties of human thinking) and cognitive neuroscience (used for
studying the physiological background of cognitive occurrences). In the 19th Century, the
Darwinian influence was reflected in individual differences in cognitive skill. The first IQ test
(Binet 1911) was based on this complex measure. (9). The 20th century works on functional
descriptions of human cognitive phenomena with great advances made toward our understanding
how different portions of the brain contribute toward perception. (11).
The important characteristic of the relationship between mind and body is the notion that
mechanisms underlie mental phenomena. It views the mind as the actions of a machine (p.12).
The comparison of the function of the brain to the function of different machines and computers
was embarked on. The most important aspect was the comparison that humans like computers
require the activation of rules that manipulate symbols. (14). The end goal was to narrow down
the process of the brain into one specific model. Upon more research, scientists found flaws in
the computer comparison theory as computers have different limitations than the brain. The
brains abilities can improve over time, whereas a computer does not (p. 16). These differences
led to the research of the behaviorism of the brain and explored the impact that free will has on
the brain process (p. 21-24).
Schraw, Gregory & Matthew McCrudden. Information Processing Theory. Jul 12, 2013.
www.Education.com
Students process information with amazing efficiency and often perform better than highly
sophisticated machines at tasks such as problem solving and critical thinking However; it was
not until the 20th century that researchers developed systematic models of memory, cognition,
and thinking, such as the information processing model (IPM). The IPM consists of three main
components, sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory Sensory and working
memory enable people to manage limited amounts of incoming information during initial
processing, whereas long-term memory serves as a permanent repository for knowledge. Several
useful terms have been developed to describe efficient cognitive processing in working memory.
One term is limited attentional resources, which refers to the highly limited nature of information
processing. Another term is automaticity, which refers to being able to perform a task very
quickly and efficiently due to repeated practice. Effective information processing in sensory
memory requires a high degree of automaticity with regard to recognition of familiar stimuli
such as spoken or printed words, faces, and sounds. Unlike sensory and working memory, longterm memory is not constrained by capacity or duration of attention limitations. The role of longterm memory is to provide a seemingly unlimited repository for all the facts and knowledge in
memory. Most researchers believe that long-term memory is capable of holding millions of
pieces of information for very long periods of time. A great deal of research has gone into
identifying two key aspects of long-term memory: (a) what types of information are represented,
and (b) how information is organized. The IPM provides a conceptual model which explains the
different functions and constraints on human memory.

Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

The IPM postulates this three-component model of information processing and is consistent with
empirical findings and provides an excellent framework for understanding principles of effective
learning. Sensory and working memory is limited with respect to capacity and duration, whereas
long-term memory is more or less unlimited. Information processing efficiency is increased due
to automaticity and selectivity. Encoding and retrieval of information in long-term memory is
increased due to efficient organizational strategies.
Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 112). New York: Wiley.
Focus is on Instruction as a subset of education. Instructional design is the systematic and
reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional
materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation (p. 2). Instructional Design is the
process of taking learning principles and instruction turning them into a set of plans that contains
lessons, activities, and evaluation tools. Instructional Design can therefore be viewed as an
elaborate and extensive planning process aligned with specific learning goals (p.3). The second
part is design. Design is the planning and development of materials to solve a problem (p. 5).
Instructional designers should follow a three step process: To perform an instructional analysis;
to develop an instructional strategy; to create an evaluation that will allow the learner to
demonstrate understanding (p. 6). There are many reasons to use this systematic process to
design instruction. Some of the advantages include: it encourages the advocacy of the learner; it
supports effective, efficient, and appealing instruction; it supports coordination among designers,
developers, and those who will implement the instruction; it facilitates dissemination of
information; it supports the development of alternative delivery systems; it facilitates consistency
among objectives, activities, and assessments; and it provides a systematic framework for
dealing with problems. However, as with any process, there are limitations. The systematic
instructional design may not be a method that can be used when goals cannot be identified ahead
of time or when goals are never identified. This process also demands lead time, which may be
considered a limitation.
Instructional design can therefore be viewed as an elaborate and extensive planning process
aligned with specific learning goals. Concentration is on the design and development of activities
directed toward identifying these learning goals. The ultimate goal of the design process is to
create a cycle that allows for designers and implementers to reflect on the process and make
adjustments as needed. A successfully designed set of instruction should have a goal, strategy,
and evaluation tool that match. (p. 8-9).
Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1329). New York: Wiley.
A major part of instructional design is decision-making and is considered an educational
philosophy and theory that contribute to the way educators design instruction. The authors
include three educational philosophies that influence instructional design: constructivism,
empiricism, and pragmatism.

Module 2 Bibliography

Conley WEEK 2

Constructivism theory poses the idea that learning occurs through unique experiences where
knowledge is not transmitted: it is constructed. Constructivists views are based on the idea that
for learning to be successful, the learner needs to be actively engaged in the learning process.
Furthermore, the theory suggests that the learning experience follows a process of experiencing,
and then constructing a version of reality based on previous experiences and the new experience
through personal interpretation (p. 15).
Constructivism is a part of a larger theoryrationalism. Rationalism states that the primary
source of knowledge is reason and that reality is constructed not discovered. Within
constructivism, there is individual constructivism and social constructivism. Some constructivists
would include contextualism in their belief system where testing should not be a separate activity
but it should be built into realistic tasks. Educational philosopher John Locke offers a second
theory, Empiricism, where learners must experience knowledge to gain it; they do not come with
the knowledge. This theory resembles the research and experimentation process; learners
learning by doing, sometimes referred to as objectivism. Pragmatism is often times considered a
neutral, middle-ground between constructivism and empiricism. Similarly to empiricists,
pragmatists believe that knowledge is gained through involvement and is short-term and
uncertain. (p.17). Educational philosopher, John Dewey believes most instructional designers are
Pragmatists.
Promoting cognitive process that lead to learning is what instructional design is all about (p.18.)
Cognitive learning theories appear compatible with constructivism. It focuses on explaining the
development of cognitive structures, processes, and representations that mediate between
instruction and learning. The most influential contribution is the Information Processing Theory
(p.20). When we receive information from our environment through sensory receptors called
sensory perception, then working memory, then long-term memory that transforms this
information to storage. (p.21). This retrieval of information from long-term memory into
working memory allows us to understand information and organize it. This influence of
cognitive psychology is in three phases of instructional design: analysis, strategy development,
and evaluation (p.22). Developmental theories also serve as references for instructional design.
Piagets stage theory may be one of the most influential (assimilation, accommodation,
disequilibrium, and equilibration). However, of all the theory bases, instructional theories are
drawn upon by designers most heavily (p. 24).
Instructional theories then developed from these cognitive theories. These are the most used by
instructional designers. One of the leading influencers in instructional design is Blooms model
of mastery learning. Blooms theory is based on the idea that all students are capable of mastery;
instruction needs to meet a student at his or her own level, and scaffolds need to be put in place
as they progress towards mastery. The goal of design is to develop instruction from which the
majority of students learn very well. Blooms model claims that with the correct tools and
scaffolding, over 90 percent of students are capable of mastery (p. 25).