PHYSICS AS / A

DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAE

Topic 1 Physical Quantities and units

SI base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A), temperature
(K), amount of substance (mol).
Prefixes: p 10-12,
n: 10-9,
: 10-6, m: 10-3,
c: 10-2,
d: 10-1,
3
6
9
12
k: 10 ,
M: 10 ,
G 10 ,
T: 10
A scalar only has magnitude a vector has magnitude and direction
The resolved components of a vector of magnitude V acting at an angle to the
horizontal are Vcos horizontally and Vsin vertically

Topic 2 Measurement techniques

A systematic error is due to the measuring instrument e.g. a zero error and is not revealed
by repeated measurement.
A random error is due to the observer and can be due to lack of perfection by the observer
or the measurement not being reproducible. Revealed by repeated readings
Accuracy is how close the value is to the true/correct value and the systematic errors are
small
Precision is where the range of values is small and therefore the random error is small

Topic 3 Kinematics

Displacement shortest distance between two points (i.e. distance is a straight line in a
particular direction)
Average speed is the total distance / total time taken
Velocity = rate of change of displacement or change in displacement divided by the time
taken
Acceleration = change in velocity / time taken
Velocity is the gradient of a displacement-time graph
Displacement is the area under a velocity-time graph
Acceleration is the gradient of a velocity-time graph
Equations for constant acceleration: recall and use v = u + at, s = (u + v) / 2t
s = vt at2 and use s = ut + at2, v2 = u2 + 2as

Topic 4 Dynamics

Newton's Laws of Motion

1. A body continues at rest or at uniform velocity unless acted upon by a resultant force.
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force
acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the force.
3. If body A exerts a force on body B then body B exerts an equal and opposite force on
body A.
Momentum = mass x velocity.
Force = rate of change of momentum.
Recall and use of the relationship F = ma
weight = mass x acceleration of free fall (W = mg)

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Principle of conservation of momentum

The total momentum of a system of interacting bodies remains constant provided no
external forces act on the system.

Elastic collisions:

Total k.e. in a collision remains constant (momentum also

conserved).
relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation

Inelastic collisions:

k.e. not conserved. k.e. changes to heat or internal energy

Total energy remains constant in all collisions.

Total (energy and mass) remains constant in all collisions.
Topic 5 Forces, density and pressure

The centre of gravity is that single point at which the whole weight of a body may be
considered to act
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of a force
Moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force
and the turning point (pivot)
A couple consists of two forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction whose lines
of action do not coincide
Torque of a couple = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between the forces
Principle of moments states that the sum of the anticlockwise moments about a pivot
equals the sum of the clockwise moments about the same pivot
A system is in equilibrium when the resultant force is zero and the resultant moments of
the forces about any point is zero
density = mass per unit volume
pressure = force per unit area (normal to the force)
Derive and use p = gh

Topic 6 Work, energy, power

Work done = Force x distance moved in direction of force.

(Fcos d) where is the angle between F and d
= force x displacement in the direction of the force
Work done by a gas = PV (P = pressure and V = change in volume)
efficiency = useful work done / total energy input
Kinetic energy = mv2
Potential energy change = mgh.
Power = work done per unit time
Show and use power = force x velocity

Topic 7 Motion in a circle

radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in
length to the radius
(in radians) = arc distance
radius of circle
(2 radians = 360 for 1 complete circle)
angular speed = / t

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recall and use v = r

centripetal acceleration =

A constant force acting perpendicular to the direction of motion is required for

circular motion

Time period T =

v
r

T=

r 2

1
f

Using F = ma

centripetal force F =

mv2
r

= mr 2

in circular motion.

Topic 8 Gravitational field

Newtons Law of gravitation states that two point masses attract each other
with a gravitational force that is proportional to the product of the masses
and inversely proportional to the square of their separation

gravitation force F = G m1 m2
for point masses
r2
definition gravitational field strength g = force per unit mass

Gm
r2

(gravitational field strength)

potential at a point is equal to the work done bringing unit mass from infinity to that
point
Use = - GM for the potential in a field due to point mass
r

Topic 9 Deformation of solids

Hookes law the extension is proportional to the force provided the elastic limit is not
exceeded
The elastic limit is the maximum force that can be applied to a wire such that the wire
returns to its original length when the force is removed.
Spring constant = force per unit extension
Stress = force per area normal to force
Strain = extension divided by the original length
Youngs modulus = tensile stress / tensile strain
In elastic deformation the wire returns to its original length when the load is removed
In plastic deformation the wire does not return to its original length when the load is
removed
The area under a force-extension graph is equal to the work done or the strain energy
stored in a deformed body

Topic 10 Ideal gases

recall and use the equation of state for an ideal gas pV = nRT (T in Kelvin)
n is the number of moles
NA is the number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12
ONE MOLE has 6.02 x 1023 particles

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Basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases:

1 all the molecules behave as identical, hard spheres that have elastic
collisions
2 the volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the volume of the
containing vessel
3 there are no forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules
4 there are a very large number of molecules all moving randomly

deduce and use pV =

number of molecules
k = R / NA
ideal gas <k.e.> of a molecule T (absolute temperature)

Nm<c 2 >
3

and compare with pV = NkT with N the

Topic 11 Temperature

Thermal energy is transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature

Thermal equilibrium exists between regions of equal temperature
T / K = t / o C + 273.15

Topic 12 Thermal properties of materials

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
of unit mass by one degree
c = energy supplied / (mass x temperature change)
Specific latent heat of fusion is the heat energy required to convert unit mass of a
solid to liquid without a change in temperature
Specific latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to convert unit mass
of liquid to a vapour without a change in temperature
Internal energy of a system = all the molecules random kinetic and potential
energies.
First law of thermodynamics states the increase in internal energy of a system is
equal to the heat energy absorbed by the system plus the work done on the system

Topic 13 Simple harmonic oscillations

S.h.m.: motion where the acceleration of a particle is proportional to the

displacement from a fixed point and is directed towards the fixed point (equilibrium
position).
a = - (2 f)2 x = - 2 x where is the angular frequency = 2f
Hence x = xo sin 2 f t
or x = xo cos 2 f t
T = 1/f = 2/
Use v = vocos t and v = (xo2 + x2 )1/2
2
Ek = m 2( x o x 2 )
Ep = m 2x2
2
Etotal = Ep + Ek = m 2 x o
Resonance: maximum amplitude occurs when driving frequency is equal to the
natural frequency.

Topic 14 Waves

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A progressive wave travels outwards from the source, carrying energy but without
transferring matter.
Wave displacement is the distance a particle has moved from the equilibrium position (in
a particular direction)
Amplitude is the maximum displacement
Period is the time taken for one complete oscillation or the time taken for one complete
waveprofile to pass a given point
Frequency is the number of complete oscillations per unit time or the number of
wavefronts passing a certain point per unit time
Wavelength is the shortest distance between two points on a wave that have the same
displacement and are moving in the same direction.
Speed of a wave is the distance travelled by the wavefront or the energy per unit time.
Phase difference between waves is the fraction of a cycle that one moves in relation to the
other e.g. if one wave reaches its crest a quarter of a cycle after another the phase
difference is /2 radians or 90 (one cycle of the wave is equivalent to 2 radians or 360
Deduce and use v = f
Recall and use intensity (amplitude)2
Transverse waves have oscillations of particles perpendicular to the direction of travel of
the wavefronts or energy of the wave
Longitudinal waves have oscillations of particles parallel to the direction of travel of the
wavefronts or energy of the wave
When a source of waves moves relative to a stationary observer there is a change in the
observed frequency. (Known as the Doppler effect)
The observed frequency is given by: fo = fsv / (v vs) [source moving towards observer]
and fo = fsv / (v + vs) [source moving away from observer]
All wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation have the same speed in free space c= 3.00 x
108 m s-1.
Ultrasound may be generated by piezo-electric crystals
Acoustic impedance z = c
Ultrasound is attenuated in matter following the equation I = I0
The intensity reflection coefficient = (Z2 Z1)2 / (Z2 + Z1)2

e x

Topic 15 Superposition

The principle of superposition of waves states that when waves meet at the same point in
space, the resultant displacement is given by the sum of the displacements of the
individual waves.
Constructive interference is obtained when the waves that meet are completely in phase,
so that the resultant wave is of greater amplitude than any of its constituents.
Destructive interference is obtained when the waves that meet are completely out of
phase (in antiphase), so that the resultant wave is of smaller amplitude than any of its
constituents.
To produce a sustained and observable interference pattern the sources must be
monochromatic and coherent (have a constant phase relationship).
Coherent sources have a constant phase difference between them.
Youngs double-slit experiment:
condition for constructive interference: path difference = n
condition for destructive interference: path difference (n + )
fringe width x = D/a, where a is the separation of the source slits and D is the
distance of the screen from the slits.

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A stationary wave is the result of interference between two progressive waves of equal
frequency and amplitude travelling along the same line with the same speed, but in opposite
directions.
Points of zero amplitude on a stationary wave are called nodes; points of maximum
amplitude are called antinodes.
For stationary waves on a stretched string, frequency fn of the nth mode is given by fn =
nc/2L, where c is the speed of progressive waves on the string and L is the length of the
string.
For stationary waves in air in a tube closed at one end, frequency fn of the nth mode is
given by fn = (2n 1)c/4L, where c is the speed of sound in air and L is the length of the
tube.
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves after passing through an aperture or meeting the
edge of an obstacle. It is most obvious when the size of the aperture and the wavelength of
the wave are approximately the same.
Interference and diffraction of light is evidence that light has wave properties.
The condition for a diffraction maximum in a diffraction grating pattern is d sin = n,
where d is the grating spacing, is the angle at which the diffraction maximum is observed,
n is an integer (the order of the image), and is the wavelength of the light.

Topic 16 Communication
In amplitude modulation (AM), the carrier wave has constant frequency. The
amplitude of the carrier wave is made to vary in synchrony with the displacement of
the information signal.
In frequency modulation (FM), the carrier wave has constant amplitude. The
frequency of the carrier wave is made to vary in synchrony with the displacement of
the information signal.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies occupied by the amplitude-modulated
waveform
Signal attenuation is a loss of power
Power levels compared: number of decibels (dB) = 10lg(P1/P2)
Topic 17 Electric field
Electric field strength is defined as the force per unit positive charge
Unit of electric field strength N C-1
Direction of electric field is from positive to negative
A uniform field has equally spaced parallel field lines
Recall and use E = V / d (uniform field between parallel plates)
Unit of electric field strength also V m-1 equivalent to N C-1
Force F on charge Q in a uniform electric field is F = EQ

Force between point charges in free space F =

Q1 Q2
40 r

Electric field due to an isolated point charge q is E = =

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Q
40 r 2

Potential at a point in an electric field is the work done per unit positive charge
brought from infinity to that point
The electric field strength is equal to the negative of the potential gradient at that
point
Use the equation potential V due to a point charge Q is given by V = Q / 4 or

Topic 18 Capacitance

capacitance C = charge Q / potential difference V [C = Q / V]

Unit of capacitance:
one Farad (F) is one coulomb per volt

Derive and use capacitors in parallel CT = C1 + C2 and

Capacitors in series CT = (1/C1 + 1/C2)-1

Energy stored in a capacitor W = QV = CV2 = Q2/C

Topic 19 Current of electricity

charge = current x time

The coulomb is the charge passing a point in a circuit when there is a current of one
ampere for one second
coulomb = ampere x second
I = Anvq where n is the number density of the charge carriers (number per unit volume)
Potential difference = energy transformed from electrical to other forms (e.g. heat)
Charge
V = W/Q
One volt is the potential difference between points when one joule of energy is transferred
by one coulomb passing from one point to the other.
Volt = joule / coulomb
Recall and use P = VI and P = I2 R
Resistance = potential difference / current
Ohm = volt /ampere
Use V = IR
Ohms law states that for certain conductors the current flowing through the conductor is
proportional to the potential difference across the conductor provided the temperature
remains constant
Recall and use R = l / A

Topic 20 D.C. circuits

The e.m.f. of a source is the energy transferred from other forms (e.g. chemical in a cell)
to electrical energy per unit charge driving the charge round a complete circuit
Kirchhoffs first law states the sum of the currents entering a junction equals the sum of
the currents leaving the junction (conservation of charge)
Kirchhoffs second law states that the sum of the e.m.f.s in a complete circuit equals the
sum of the products of IR in that circuit. (conservation of energy)
Derive and use the formula for resistance in series R T = R1 + R2 and resistance in parallel
RT = ( 1/R1 + 1/R2 )-1
The potential divider gives output Vout = (Vcell R1) / (R1 + R2)

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Topic 21 Electronics
properties of an ideal amplifier:
infinite input impedance
zero output impedance
infinite open-loop gain
infinite bandwidth
infinite slew rate
op-amp used as a comparator Vout = A0(V+ V)
voltage gain = Vout / Vin
negative feedback reduces the overall gain of an amplifier circuit to be less than the
open-lop gain
negative feedback increase the bandwidth, produces less distortion and gives greater
stability
gain of inverting amplifier Vout / Vin = RF / Rin
gain of non-inverting amplifier Vout / Vin = 1 +(RF / R1)
Topic 22 Magnetic fields

Magnetic force F = B I L sin B is the magnetic flux density

unit of B: T ( Tesla)
Magnetic force on a charge F = B q v sin
Flemings left-hand rule: if the first two fingers and thumb are held at right angles
to one another with the First finger in the direction of the Field and the second
finger the current, then the thumb gives the direction of the force or Motion
For a long straight conductor carrying unit current at right angles to a uniform
magnetic field, the magnetic flux density is numerically equal to the force per unit
length of the conductor
One Tesla is the unit of magnetic flux density which acting normally to a long
straight wire carrying a current of one ampere causes a force of one Newton per
metre on the conductor
Hall voltage VH = BI / ntq
velocity selector: v = E/B

Topic 23 Electromagnetic induction

Magnetic flux is the product of the magnetic flux density and the area normal to the
direction of the lines of magnetic flux

Unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). One weber is equal to one Tesla metre
squared (T m-2)
Magnetic flux = B A
Magnetic flux linkage = N (number of turns x magnetic flux)
Faradays Laws: An emf is induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux through the
circuit changes or when part of the circuit cuts magnetic flux. The induced
electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
Lenzs Law: the direction of the induced emf is such as to cause effects to oppose the
change causing it.

Induced emf = -
t

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= - N
t

(rate of change of magnetic flux linkage)

Topic 24 Alternating currents

Use x = xo sint for alternating current or voltage

time period is the time taken for one complete cycle of the a.c. = 2 /
the frequency f is the number of cycles per unit time and is 1/
peak value I0 or V0 is the amplitude (maximum value) of the oscillating current or
voltage
An rms a c voltage or current is that same value of d c voltage or current that
produces the same heating effect in a resistor.
2
2
< P > = Pmax / 2 = I 0 R = V 0 / R

<I2> = I 20
<V2> = V 20
Irms = Io / 2
Vrms = V0 / 2
Ideal transformer Ns / Np = Vs / Vp = Ip / Is

Topic 25 Quantum physics

A photon is a packet of energy / quantum of energy when the energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation
Recall and use E = hf
for photons
Photoelectric emission is the release of electrons from the surface of a metal when
electromagnetic radiation is incident on its surface
Photoelectric emission:
occurs instantaneously (there is no delay between illumination and emission)
takes place only if the frequency of the incident radiation is above a certain
minimum value called the threshold frequency f0
does not depend on the intensity of the radiation
for a given frequency the rate of emission of photoelectrons is proportional to the
intensity of the radiation
Recall and use hf = + m v2max Einsteins photoelectric equation
is the work function energy and is the minimum energy required for an electron
to escape from the surface of a metal
= hf0
Recall and use = h / p De Broglie wavelength for a particle
Recall and use hf = E1 E2 for emission and absorption line spectra
Intensity of X-rays is power per unit area
Hardness of X-rays is related to the penetration of the X-ray beam
Attenuation of X-rays follows I = I0 e x where is the linear absorption

coefficient
Topic 26 Particles

Atoms are composed of neutrons and protons in a central nucleus with orbiting electrons
The nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom (most of the atom is empty
space)
The positive charge of the atom is found in the nucleus as is the vast majority of the
atoms mass
Nucleon number A is the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Atomic (Proton) number Z is the number of protons in a nucleus.
Isotopes are nuclei that have same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
nucleonnumber
A
= Z X is the method used for the representing nuclides
protonnumber X

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A nuclide is one type of nucleus which has the same number of protons and the same
number of neutrons.
In nuclear reactions nucleon number, proton number and mass-energy are all conserved
An -particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom
In -decay the proton number of the nucleus decreases by two, and the nucleon number
decreases by four.
-particles are fast moving electrons either positive or negative
In decay (negative electron) a daughter nuclide is formed with the proton number
increased by one, but with the same nucleon number.
In emission a neutron in the nucleus forms a proton, a negative electron and an
antineutrino.
In + decay (positive electron) a daughter nuclide is formed with the proton number
decreased by one, but with the same nucleon number.
In + emission a proton in the nucleus forms a neutron, a positive electron and a neutrino.
-radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 10 11 m and
1013 m.
In -emission no particles are emitted and there is therefore no change to the proton
number or nucleon number of the parent nuclide.
the quark model for hadrons: flavours of quark, are up (u), down (d) and strange (s) and
their respective antiquarks.
Protons are composed of quarks up, up and down and neutrons of quarks up, down and
down.
Protons and neutrons are hadrons and are affected by the strong force.
Electrons and neutrinos are leptons, fundamental particles and are affected by a weak
interaction.
1
(antineutrino)
During -decay:
11 p + 10e (electron) + 00
0n

During +-decay:

1
1

1
0

n +

0
1

e (positron) +

0
0

(neutrino)

Topic 26 Nuclear physics

E = m c2 energy-mass equivalence.
Mass defect of a nucleus is the difference between the total mass of the separate
nucleons and the combined mass of the nucleus
Binding energy is the energy equivalent of the mass defect of a nucleus. It is the
energy required to separate to infinity all the nucleons of a nucleus
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of
approximately the same mass
Nuclear fusion is joining together of two light nuclei to produce a heavier nuclei with
the release of energy
Random decay means that it is not possible to predict which nucleus in a sample will
decay next
Spontaneous decay is a process that is not affected by any external factors such as
temperature and pressure
Activity = number of nuclei (disintegrations) decaying per unit time
A = - (N /t)

unit: s-1 or Bq

decay constant = A
N

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and (N /t) = A = N

activity
number of nuclei

10

A = N
unit of : s-1
The decay constant is defined as the probability per unit time that a nucleus will
undergo decay
Use x = x0 e t for x = A or N
Half life t1/2 is the time for half the number of nuclei of a particular nuclide to decay.
Or the time for the activity of a particular nuclide to halve.

Use = 0.693
t1/2

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