Dolomite: Perspectives on a

Perplexing Mineral

Dolomite is a metastable carbonate. It forms in a variety of distinctly different settings

and can change as conditions change. The mode of formation influences dolomite
morphology and thus impacts exploration and production strategies. New approaches
to carbonate evaluation are helping geoscientists unearth reservoir-quality dolomite,
despite its heterogeneous and often enigmatic nature.

Mishari Al-Awadi
Kuwait Oil Company
East Ahmadi, Kuwait
William J. Clark
William Ray Moore
Denver, Colorado, USA
Michael Herron
Tuanfeng Zhang
Weishu Zhao
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Neil Hurley
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Djisan Kho
East Ahmadi, Kuwait
Bernard Montaron
Dubai, UAE
Fadhil Sadooni
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar
Oilfield Review Autumn 2009: 21, no. 3.
Copyright 2009 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to
Tony Smithson, Northport, Alabama, USA.
Carbonate Advisor, CMR, EcoScope, ECS, ELAN,
Litho-Density and MDT are marks of Schlumberger.

I think you should be more explicit

here in step two.
Modified with permission from Sidney Harris, copyright ScienceCartoonsPlus.com.

32

Oilfield Review

Dolomite is a complex mineral. It can precipitate

directly from solutions containing magnesium,
calcium and carbonate ions to form cement or
unlithified sediment. However, most dolomite
forms through the chemical alteration of precursor carbonate rock or sedimentprimarily limestone or calcareous muds. These carbonates tend
to be unstable, composed chiefly of calcite or its
more thermodynamically unstable polymorph,
aragonite. When these precursor materials are
exposed to magnesium-rich fluids, a portion of
the calcium ions may be replaced by magnesium
ions to form a more stable magnesium calcium
carbonate known as dolomite.
Dolomite is found in a wide range of settings
including hydrothermal veins, lakes, shallow
oceans, lagoons and evaporative basins. Theories
surrounding the origins of dolomite continue to
evolve. Amid controversy and speculation, many
modes of origin have been proposed over the years,
and nearly as many have been discarded.1
A common sedimentary rock-forming mineral, dolomite is not merely an assemblage of
magnesium, calcium and carbonate (right).
Rather, it is a metastable mineral of dubious lineage with a variable chemical composition and
atomic structure. For a given span of geologic
time, it may reside in one form, only to pass to a
more stable state when its equilibrium is disturbedprimarily through changes in pressure,
temperature or chemistry. The crystals may
even grow in size. Thus, early generations of
crystals may subsequently be recast into ever
more stable forms.
This process can be repeated numerous times
during burial and diagenesis, with each new
phase forming through partial or complete dissolution of an earlier dolomite. Recrystallization
can be beneficial to reservoir formation when it
generates intercrystalline porosity, but porosity
gains can later be negated by the precipitation of
pore-filling dolomite cement or by dolomite crystal growth that forms large interlocking crystals.
Because the morphology of a dolomite body is
controlled by processes that created it, geoscientists usually try to integrate the mode of origin into
their exploration strategies. Over time, however,
the recrystallization of metastable dolomite can
obliterate all traces of the minerals earliest mode
of origin, with subsequent generations reflecting
only the latest environment of recrystallization.2
By masking its mode of origin, dolomite recrystallization can hamper exploration efforts.

Some dolomites host exceptional reservoirs

characterized by high porosity and permeability.
E&P companies therefore endeavor to predict
where their drill bit will stand the best chance of
encountering reservoir-quality dolomitedespite
its chemical complexities and hidden modes of
origin. This article describes various modes and
settings in which dolomite is formed, as well as
processes that are responsible for enhancing or
destroying its porosity. It also reviews problems
encountered when interpreting data from conventional logging suites and provides a glimpse
into advanced tools and methodologies used for
evaluating reservoirs in this enigmatic rock.

A Metastable Lexicon
Because it is a descriptive science based on
observations made in the field, geology depends
on a precisely tuned lexicon. When transferred
from one analog to another, geological terminology tends to evolve. Dolomite geology is rife with
such terms.
Dolomite is named in honor of Dodat Gratet
de Dolomieu (17501801), a colorful and somewhat controversial geologist who described calcareous rock exposures in the southern Alps of
northeastern Italy.3 Dolomieu observed that these
rocks looked like limestone but failed to effervesce as limestone does when treated with weak

Calcite
CaCO3

Dolomite
CaMg(CO3)2

Ankerite
CaFe(CO3)2

FeCO3
Siderite

MgCO3
Magnesite

> Solid-solution series. In its purest state, dolomite falls along the
calcite-magnesite line in the solid-solution series of calcite,
magnesite and siderite. Although the composition of dolomite is
written as [CaMg(CO3)2], naturally occurring dolomite ranges from
about Ca1.16 Mg0.84(CO3)2 to about Ca0.96 Mg1.04(CO3)2.

1. Despite more than 200 years of research, the origin of

dolomite remains the subject of considerable controversy,
partly because critical chemical, biological and
hydrological conditions are poorly understood and partly
because petrographic and geochemical data permit more
than one interpretation.
For more on this controversy: Machel HG: Concepts and
Models of Dolomitization: A Critical Reappraisal, in
Braithwaite CJR, Rizzi G and Darke G (eds): The Geometry
and Petrogenesis of Dolomite Hydrocarbon Reservoirs.
London: Geological Society, Special Publication 235
(2004): 763.
2. Warren J: Dolomite: Occurrence, Evolution and
Economically Important Associations, Earth Science
Reviews 52, nos. 13 (November 2000): 181.

3. de Dolomieu DG: Sur un genre de pierres calcaires trs

peu effervescente avec les acides et phosphorescentes
par la collision, Journal de Physique 39
(October 1791): 310.
For an updated perspective: Zenger DH, Bourrouilh-Le
Jan FG and Carozzi AV: Dolomieu and the First
Description of Dolomite, in Purser BH, Tucker ME and
Zenger DH (eds): Dolomites: A Volume in Honor of
Dolomieu. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell
Scientific, International Association of Sedimentologists,
Special Publication 21 (1994): 2128.

MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_1_2
Autumn 2009

33

> Smallest to largest. The dolomite label can be applied to the mineral (left),
rock (center) and mountain range (right ).

acid. So although the dolomite label was first

applied to the rock, it also names the chief mineral constituent as well as the mountain range in
which it was first described (above).
To distinguish between rock and mineral, the
term dolostone was introduced in 1948.4 This
name refers to rock formed of the mineral
dolomite (more than 75%), along with other minerals.5 Dolomicrite is formed when dolomite
replaces very fine crystalline muds.
Other researchers felt it necessary to distinguish between different types of dolomite and
introduced new terms to account for variations in
magnesium and calcium content. The ideal composition of dolomite consists of equal amounts of
Ca and Mg in alternating layers separated by CO3

layers. The designation of high-calcium dolomite

is given to the mineral when calcium carbonate
[CaCO3] increases by 10% or more above its ideal
composition; alternatively, it may also be called
calcitic dolomite or lime dolomite. With a
decrease in magnesium carbonate [MgCO3] content, such that CaCO3 ranges from 50% to 90%, the
rock may be called dolomitic limestone. Further
reducing MgCO3 to between 5% and 10% results in
magnesian limestone, though some consider
this term obsolete. With less than 5% MgCO3, the
precursor rock is simply called limestone.
Protodolomite is a common metastable precursor of dolomite. Although it approximates
dolomite in chemical composition, it is said to
be poorly ordered, or lacking the well-developed

4. Shrock RR: A Classification of SedimentaryMattV_ORAUT09_Fig_2

Rocks,
12. Lucia FJ: Origin and Petrophysics of Dolostone
The Journal of Geology 56, no. 2 (March 1948): 118129.
Pore Space, in Braithwaite CJR, Rizzi G and Darke
G (eds): The Geometry and Petrogenesis of Dolomite
5. The popularity of this term has waxed and waned over
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs. London: Geological Society,
the years, mainly because the designation of dolomite
Special Publication 235 (2004): 141155.
has historical priority for the rock. However, dolostone
may once more gain acceptance as researchers seek to
Halley RB and Schmoker JW: High-Porosity Cenozoic
avoid ambiguity.
Carbonate Rocks of South Florida: Progressive Loss
of Porosity with Depth, AAPG Bulletin 67, no. 2
6. Machel, reference 1.
(February 1983): 191200.
7. Machel, reference 1.
13. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste lie de Beaumont used a model
8. Machel, reference 1.
of mole-for-mole exchange of calcium by magnesium
9. Rodgers J: Terminology of Limestones and Related
to account for vuggy porosity in the dolostones of the
Rocks: An Interim Report, Journal of Sedimentary
Tyrolean Alps. lie de Beaumont J-B: Lapplication du
Petrology 24, no. 4 (December 1954): 225234.
calcul lhypothse de la formation par pigenie des
10. Warren, reference 2.
anhydrites, des gypses, et des dolomies, Bulletin de la
Socit Gologique de France 8 (1837): 174177.
11. Sun SQ: Dolomite Reservoirs: Porosity Evolution and
Reservoir Characteristics, AAPG Bulletin 79, no. 2
(February 1995): 186204.

34

crystal lattices found in mature, ordered, stoichiometric dolomite.6 Like other terms in this
discussion, some would strike it from the dolomite vocabulary, while others find it useful.
The plural term dolomites may be used to collectively describe different types of dolomite that
vary in texture, composition or genesis.7 When
describing a carbonate that has been subjected
to replacement, the adjective dolomitized may
be used.
Dolomites can be divided into two major families. Penecontemporaneous dolomites form soon
after deposition of carbonate precursors as a
result of geochemical conditions that prevail
within the precursors environment of deposition.
Most penecontemporaneous dolomites are of
Holocene age and are restricted to certain
evaporitic lagoonal or lacustrine settings.
Postdepositional dolomites form after carbonate
sediment has been deposited and subsequently
removed from the active zone of sedimentation.
This may happen through progradation of the
sedimentary surface, burial and subsidence,
uplift and emergence, or eustatic sea-level fluctuations. Almost all examples of massive, regionally extensive dolostones are postdepositional.8
Important but sometimes confusing distinctions have been drawn between various types of
dolomite, based on how they form. A dolomites
mode of origin is an important concept that can be
tied to its general orientation and areal extent in
the subsurface. Primary dolomite consists of
particles that first formed as dolomite by direct
precipitation from seawater or other aqueous solution. This process creates unlithified dolomite
sediment. However, later researchers assigned the
designation of primary to dolomite on the basis of
its position in the rock fabric.9 Primary, in this
case, came to refer to dolomite that has directly
precipitated above, at or within the sediment,
while also forming at the same time as that sediment. Thus, the geochemical term primary takes
on a stratigraphic context.
14. Powers RW: Arabian Upper Jurassic Carbonate
Reservoir Rocks, in Ham WE (ed): Classification of
Carbonate RocksA Symposium. Tulsa: The American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Memoir 1
(1962): 122192.
This relationship between dolomitization and porosity is
also reviewed by Lucia, reference 12.
15. Murray RC and Pray LC: Dolomitization and Limestone
DiagenesisAn Introduction, in Pray LC and
Murray RC (eds): Dolomitization and Limestone
Diagenesis: A Symposium. Tulsa: Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists, SEPM Special
Publication 13 (1965): 12.
16. Murray and Pray, reference 15.
17. Weyl PK: Porosity Through Dolomitization:
Conservation-of-Mass Requirements, Journal of
Sedimentary Research 30, no. 1 (March 1960): 8590.

Oilfield Review

Autumn 2009

30N
0
30S

60S

> Distribution of basins (blue dots) that host production from dolomite reservoirs.
Most of these basins occupy a position along a broad belt between 60 north and
south of the equator. (From Sun, reference 11.)

to dolostone results in a 12% porosity increase bulk-volume dolomite, it has acquired a grainbecause the molar volume of dolomite is smaller dominated fabric in which dolomite crystals
essentially support the overburden, thereby subthan that of calcite.13
Modern-day studies from different parts of stantially inhibiting compaction.17 This is one
the globe show interesting changes in porosity reason ancient or deeply buried dolomite is often
and permeability with increasing dolomite vol- much more porous than associated limestone
ume. For example, an evaluation of Jurassic (below). Higher porosity and permeability are
Arab-D carbonates in Ghawar field, Saudi Arabia,
indicated a steady decrease in porosity and per0
0
meability as dolomite volume increased from 10%
to 80%.14 However, as 80% to 90% of the rock is
2,000 75% to 100%
75% to 100%
replaced by dolomite, both intercrystalline porosdolomite
limestone
1,000
ity and permeability increased. Beyond 90%,
4,000
porosity and permeability decreased again as
6,000
more dolomite was added to the rock. A
2,000
similar result from Mississippian carbonates of
8,000
Saskatchewan, Canada, showed that maximum
porosity was developed in carbonates
that con3,000
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_3
10,000
tained 80% to 90% dolomite.15 These examples
highlight important processes that take place as
12,000
4,000
dolomite is formingprocesses that can affect
14,000
reservoir quality.
Most dolomites are thought to form through
16,000
5,000
the replacement of preexisting calcite or aragonite
sediments. Dolomitization occurs more readily in
18,000
lime muds than in coarser carbonate sands
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
because muds have greater numbers of nucleation
Porosity, %
sites on which dolomite crystals can form.16 During
early stages of dolomitization in mud-dominated > Progressive loss of porosity with depth. As
carbonates, porosity decreases slightly as dolomite expected, limestone and dolomite units from
the South Florida basin both show decreases in
crystals encroach upon space previously occupied
porosity with depth. The limestones tend to be
by mud. As dolomite is buried, mechanical com- more porous at shallower depths. Below 5,600 ft
paction caused by the steadily increasing weight of (1,700 m), however, the rate of porosity decline
actually slows for dolomites (blue) as they
overburden will further reduce porosity.
become less susceptible to diagenesis and
However, as dolomitization continues, the recrystallization than the more reactive
dolomite crystals begin to develop a supporting limestones (green). (From Allan and Wiggins,
framework. By the time a carbonate reaches 80% reference 19.)

Depth, m

Mineralization and Reservoir Quality

Exploration efforts specifically targeted at dolomite reservoirs have paid off in the form of
numerous oil and gas fields around the world. It
is estimated that up to 50% of the worlds carbonate reservoirs are in dolomite, and in North
America that estimate ranges to 80%.10 Dolomite
reservoirs also host significant volumes of hydrocarbons in Russia, northwestern and southern
Europe, northern and western Africa, the Middle
East and Far East (above right).
Dolomite formation has a marked effect on
reservoir quality, though not all dolomites make
good reservoirs. In some reservoirs, it is a detriment to production. The permeability, solubility
and original depositional fabric of a carbonate
rock or sediment, as well as the chemistry, temperature and volume of dolomitizing fluids, all
influence dolomite reservoir quality. Given these
variables, dolomitization can enhance, preserve
or destroy porosity.11
There are at least two trains of thought concerning dolomite porosity: Some geologists maintain that dolostone porosity is inherited from its
limestone precursor.12 Others cite a long-held
claim that the chemical conversion of limestone

60N

Depth, ft

Not all precipitates fall into the primary classification. A different type of precipitate has
more negative implications in the oil field. This
dolomite precipitates from aqueous solutions in
the form of pore-filling cement.
Secondary dolomites are formed through the
replacement of CaCO3 by CaMg(CO3)2. Currently,
the term replacive, or some variation thereof,
appears to be eclipsing secondary.
Thus, precipitation is responsible for both
primary dolomite and pore-filling cement. On the
other hand, dolomitization forms secondary or
replacive dolomite. Unfortunately, the latter term
is frequently used to describe distinctly different
processes. Many use this term loosely to describe
either the process in which magnesium ions
replace calcium ions or settings where precipitation leads to unlithified sediment or pore-filling
cements. Some experts feel that too much latitude is granted by such usage. To them, dolomitization should not be applied to dolomite
cementation or to cases in which hydrothermal
fluid leads to recrystallization of preexisting
dolomites. They reserve the term solely for the
replacement reaction.
This brief glimpse into the dolomite lexicon
chronicles attempts by geoscientists to grasp the
nature of a perplexing mineral. Despite the complexity inherent in dolomite, E&P companies have
a history of success in exploiting these formations.

35

Euhedral

Subhedral

Anhedral

Increase in temperature

> Dolomite textures. Dolomite can be divided into planar and nonplanar
textures (top). The planar texture is further subdivided into euhedral and
subhedral classes. Euhedral (planar-e) dolomite is characterized by welldeveloped crystal faces with sharp boundaries, with the area between
crystals being either porous or filled by another mineral. Subhedral (planar-s)
dolomite grains are still planar but less distinct than planar-e grains and show
compromised boundaries between crystals. Nonplanar dolomite consists of
anhedral grains that lack well-developed crystal faces. These anhedral grains
are closely packed, with curved, lobate, serrated or otherwise irregular
crystalline boundaries. (Adapted from Sibley and Gregg, reference 20.) Actual
examples of these textures are captured in polished thin-section micrographs
obtained through a petrographic microscope under polarized light. Euhedral
dolomite (bottom left ) from a Cretaceous reservoir of the Middle East exhibits
well-developed faces associated with intercrystalline porosity. Subhedral
dolomite (center bottom) was obtained from a Triassic reservoir of the
northern Arabian Platform. Anhedral dolomite from a Jurassic reservoir of the
Arabian basin (bottom right) shows a lack of crystal faces and interlocked
crystals that destroy porosity. (Photographs courtesy of Fadhil Sadooni.)

Planar-e (euhedral) dolomite: This texture,

often referred to as sucrosic, forms important
reservoirs worldwide. Permeability varies strongly
with porosity. Uniform pore-throat sizes and
well-interconnected pore systems are found in
planar-e dolomite, as seen in capillary pressure
data and scanning electron microscope (SEM)
pore-cast analysis.
Planar-s (subhedral) dolomite: Permeability
is lower than in planar-e dolomite and does
not increase as rapidly with increasing porosity. Uniform throat sizes and well-connected
pore systems are not seen in this dolomite,
probably because of continued cementation
during diagenesis.
Nonplanar dolomite occurs in the subsurface at
temperatures greater than 50C [122F]. This dolomite exhibits no significant correlation between
permeability and porosity (below). Permeability in
105
104
Permeability, mD

Nonplanar texture

Planar texture

36

r = 0.99

103
102
101

r = 0.99

100
101
0

10
15
20
25
Total porosity, % by volume

30

105

Permeability, mD

104

more likely to be preserved in dolostone than in

Because the quality of a dolomite reservoir is
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig6_2
limestone because the supporting framework
of characterized by its texture, this interrelationdolomite crystals provides greater compressive ship of crystal shape and grain size, orientation
strength, thus the limestone is more susceptible and packing within a rock can also affect reserto compaction.
voir quality. Textural classification schemes help
Beyond 90% dolomitization, the loss of poros- geologists infer processes that controlled crystal
ity can be attributed to the addition of carbonate nucleation and growth.20 One widely accepted
and magnesium, through a process known as dolomite classification scheme is based on crysoverdolomitization. After an initial replacement tal boundary relationships and divides textures
phase during which calcite is replaced by dolo- into two types: planar and nonplanar. The planar
mite, a pore-filling phase may occur, whereby crystals are further divided into euhedral and subdolomite precipitates to form crystal overgrowths hedral classes (above).
or pore-occluding cement. Thus, overdolomitizaPlanar dolomite forms in both shallow and
tion causes young dolostones to have less porosity burial diagenetic environments. Texture develops
than associated limestones.18
when crystals undergo faceted growth with plaDolomite crystal formation plays another role nar interfaces, characteristic of dolomite crystals
in reservoir quality. Dolomite frequently forms formed during early diagenesis and, under cerlarger crystals than the calcite it replaces. tain conditions, at elevated temperatures in the
Enlarged crystal size is associated with increases subsurface. Two porosity-permeability populain pore-throat size and pore smoothness, which tions exist for planar dolomite.
boost permeability in dolostones.19

Planar-e dolomite
Planar-s dolomite

Nonplanar dolomite

103
r = 0.15

102
10

100
101
0

10
15
20
25
Total porosity, % by volume

30

> Porosity versus permeability. Quantitative

analysis of different textural types indicates that
permeability in dolomites is not directly related to
total porosity or crystal size, but rather to the
connectivity of pore throats. There is a strong
relationship between increasing porosity and
permeability in planar-e dolomites (top, green),
and an apparent strong relationship in planar-s
(blue). The correlation coefficient (r) between
porosity and permeability in nonplanar dolomites
(bottom, yellow) is low, as permeability in this type
of dolomite is a function of secondary features
such as connected vugs and fractures. Points
plotted at 0.5mD represent measurements that fell
below the lower determination limit of the
permeameter and are not part of a statistical
trend. (From Woody et al, reference 21.)

Oilfield Review

MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_7

nonplanar dolomite is often attributed to secondary

porosity features such as fractures or interconnected vugs, rather than intergranular porosity
found between crystals.21
Researchers continue to unravel the mysteries
of dolomite mineralization. The discovery that
dolomite is metastable was a revelation that
helped geoscientists explain the variations in
chemical proportions and structural order that are
seen as the mineral evolves. Dolomitization is not
a single event; it is a sequence of responses caused
by changing geologic conditions.
Modes of Dolomite Formation
Many environments of dolomitization have been
identified. Some result in unique reservoir geometries that bear directly on exploration strategy.
Rather than describe every type of dolomite
formation, the following discussion focuses primarily on modes that permit dolomites that are
thick enough to be targeted for exploration. This
also implies that the discussion mainly covers
secondary, or replacive, dolomite. In some cases
the distinction between modern and ancient conditions must be drawn, because current settings
do not necessarily reflect the conditions in which
ancient dolomites were formed. Three wellestablished hydrologic models and settings, along
with some of their variants, are discussed first,
and the section concludes with hydrothermal and
bacterial cases.
Brine-Reflux ModelPerhaps the most popular concept of dolomite formation is embodied in
the brine-reflux model and similar variations. In
this instance, seawater in a restricted lagoon evaporates to form a hypersaline brine that sinks to the
lagoon floor and seeps through underlying lime
sediments as it escapes, or refluxes back to the sea
(above). As it filters through the pores of the
underlying rock, magnesium from the brine
replaces part of the calcium contained within the
aragonite and calcite components of the limestone, converting it to dolomite.
This scenario was proposed in 1960 to explain
extensive lagoonal and reefal dolomites associated with platform evaporites of the Permian
basin in West Texas, USA.22 Reflux dolomitization
has since been recognized in cores from other
areas, where the intensity of dolomitization
decreases with distance from the evaporitecarbonate contact. Today, hypersaline environmentswhere water salinity rises above that of
normal seawaterare widespread in a belt
between about 30 north and south latitude. In
the Permian basin, lagoons developed behind

Autumn 2009

Evaporation
Free flow

Increasing water density

Sill

Seep

Open marine

age refl
ux

> Brine reflux in an evaporitic setting. A sill to seaward restricts circulation of waters. Some of the
seawater evaporates, causing water density to increase. The dense brines sink below the sediment,
reflux through the basin or lagoon floor and dolomitize any carbonate sediments that they pass
through. (Adapted from Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.)

barrier reefs on a broad shelf inundated by the seen to be caused by primary permeability and
shallow waters of Permian seas. The reefs crystallinity, rather than by dolomitization.
In this model, the down-and-out migration of
impeded the surface exchange of water between
lagoon and sea. Restricted circulation, combined the hypersaline brine was responsible for dolomiwith loss of water by evaporation, lowered water tizing broad expanses of carbonate rock in the
levels in the lagoon, raised the salinity of brines Permian basin. Within the carbonates, the brineand promoted the precipitation of evaporites. As reflux pathways shifted seaward as the shelves
the specific gravity of the concentrated brine regressed. The lagoons, which sourced the brines,
increased, it sank through the water column and also followed progressively forestepping reef
migrated to the lowest depressions in the carbon- deposits. As established escape zones for the
brine became sealed off by advancing evaporites,
ate floor of the lagoon.
Displacing the connate water in the underly- they would be replaced by similar outlets farther
ing rock, the dense hypersaline brine seeped seaward. With each forestep, previously unindownward along vertical migration pathways, fol- vaded reef limestones were exposed to the
lowing bedding planes only when vertical paths dolomitizing brines. The pace of regression was
were exhausted. In rocks with varying permeabil- geologic, and so slow that most of the limestones
ities, the seeping brines migrated mainly through were dolomitized before the supply of brine was
porous zones while bypassing denser limestone cut off.
Most modern dolomite is associated with
lenses. Thus, coarse-grained and porous Permian
dolomites are limited to beds previously com- hypersaline solutions.23 Modern brine-reflux conposed of coarse-grained and porous limestones. ditions have been documented on a smaller
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_8
By contrast, fine-grained dense dolomites
occupy scale in settings such as the San Andrs Islands
open-shelf positions, where extremely fine- offshore Colombia, the Canary Islands, Spain
grained, mud-based lithographic limestones and the Caribbean island of Bonaire in
would normally form. Dolomite textures were Netherlands Antilles.24
18. Lucia, reference 12.
19. Allan JR and Wiggins WD: Dolomite Reservoirs:
Geochemical Techniques for Evaluating Origin and
Distribution. Tulsa: The American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Continuing Education
Course Note Series 36 (1993).
20. Sibley DF and Gregg JM: Classification of Dolomite
Rock Textures, Journal of Sedimentary Research 57,
no. 6 (November 1987): 967975.
21. Woody RE, Gregg JM and Koederitz LF: Effect of
Texture on Petrophysical Properties of Dolomite:
Evidence from the Cambrian-Ordovician of
Southeastern Missouri, AAPG Bulletin 80, no. 1
(January 1996): 119132.
22. Adams JE and Rhodes ML: Dolomitization by Seepage
Refluxion, AAPG Bulletin 44, no. 12
(December 1960): 19121920.

23. Land LS: The Origin of Massive Dolomite, Journal of

Geological Education 33, no. 2 (1985): 112125.
24. Kocurko MJ: Dolomitization by Spray-Zone BrineSeepage, San Andrs, Colombia, Journal of
Sedimentary Research 49, no. 1 (March 1979): 209213.
Mller G and Teitz G: Dolomite Replacing Cement A
in Biocalcarenites from Fuerteventura, Canary Islands,
Spain, in Bricker OP (ed): Carbonate Cements.
Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.
Deffeyes KS, Lucia FJ and Weyl PK: Dolomitization
of Recent and Plio-Pleistocene Sediments by Marine
Evaporite Water on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles,
in Pray LC and Murray RC (eds): Dolomitization and
Limestone Diagenesis: A Symposium. Tulsa: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, SEPM
Special Publication 13 (1965): 7188.

37

Evaporation

Storm
flood

Supratidal
High water

Intertidal

Low water

Water level
Seep

age refl
ux

Subtidal

> Sabkha reflux environment. This schematic of peritidal sediments on a Qatar peninsula sabkha
shows another variation on the reflux theme. Seawater is pushed onshore during storm surges,
becomes concentrated through evaporation, then seeps into the underlying sediment to reflux to its
source. (Adapted from Warren, reference 2.)

Perhaps an even better-known variation on brine-reflux dolomites never approach the scale
lagoonal brine reflux is seen on a localized scale of processes that caused dolomitization of shelf
in the sabkha model. In this arid-climate sce- carbonates adjacent to ancient evaporites. In
nario, storm surges or high tides push seawater modern settings, reflux dolomites have been
landward, over the peritidal sediment of a sabkha found beneath evaporite crusts, but the areas of
flat. As the surface water sinks into the sediment, evaporite precipitation are both small in scale
some of the pore waters are lost to capillary evap- and localized.27 Modern analogs to ancient dolooration, leaving a hypersaline brine. Here, hydro- mite deposits are often hard to find. As with other
dynamic pressure provides the hydrologic pump modes, this popular conceptual construct must
for moving Mg through the system. As it becomes be applied judiciously, on a case-by-case basis.
more concentrated, the brine precipitates aragoMarine-Meteoric Mixing ModelThe stratinite and anhydrite or gypsumminerals that graphic position, related fossil assemblages and
sometimes form an updip seal in dolomite reser- lack of associated evaporite indicate that some
voirs. Precipitation of these minerals removes dolomites do not form within a restricted-marine,
calcium from the solution but leaves the magne- supratidal setting. Instead, they are found in
sium content unchanged, thus raising the Mg/Ca areas where Mg-rich saline waters mix with fresh
ratio and promoting dolomite precipitation or meteoric water. Modern and ancient dolomite
dolomitization.25 The dense brine continues to formations around the world support variations
percolate downward into underlying lime sedi- on this theme.
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_9
One such variation is grounded in widespread
ments and refluxes back to its source
(above).
Sabkha dolomite is commonly associated with dolomitic facies associated with shallow epiconsupratidal sediments and features, such as algal tinental shelves or structural highs, where
stromatolites, nodular anhydrites and wind- unlike the previous modelsevidence of saline
brine evaporation is not seen.28 The origin of
driven interbedded deposits.
A prime example of the sabkha model is the these dolomites is explained by the dorag model,
Ordovician Red River dolomite in the Williston in which dolomitization occurs in the brackish
basin of the USA and Canada. Modern-day zone that forms when fresh groundwater is mixed
sabkhas are undergoing extensive study in the with seawater.29 In this zone, seawater supplies
Trucial Coast of the United Arab Emirates. There, Mg2+ ions, and dissolution of CaCO3 occurs as the
dolomitization takes place only in the storm two waters mix. Calculations show that mixing
recharge zone, and the amount of dolomite cor- meteoric groundwaters with 5% to 30% seawater
relates with the frequency of recharge.26
can cause undersaturation with respect to calResearchers have, however, raised doubts as cite, while dolomite becomes supersaturated.
to whether reflux can operate on a regional scale, Within this range, calcite can be replaced by
as originally proposed. The hydrologies of modern

38

dolomite. In general, the dolomitization process

can be expressed by the chemical equation:
2CaCO3 + Mg2+ => CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca2+.
This model is based on Mifflin carbonate
outcrops of the Platteville Formation, in the
Middle Ordovician Champlain Series of Wisconsin,
USA. Here, the carbonates appear homogeneous
over a broad area, and the thickness of the unit
and general structure suggest a broad, shallow
open-marine environment. The open-marine
fossils, along with a lack of mud cracks, algal
mats and evaporites, preclude supratidal deposition and dolomitization in a physically restricted
lagoonal environment.
Dolomitization of the Mifflin Member was the
result of a relatively early diagenetic process following subaerial exposure of uplifted limestone
and subsequent establishment of freshwater
lenses. Dolomitization occurred in the brackish
zone where seawater and fresh waters mixed,
with a dolostone-limestone boundary established
along the lower margin of the groundwater lens.30
In a somewhat different mode, dolomite may
be created through the circulation of saline
groundwaters deep within a carbonate platform.
In southern Florida, USA, cold, dense seawater is
drawn through the platform margin from the deep
Straits of Florida. Geothermally driven circulation
causes the Mg-rich seawater to rise into the interior of the Florida carbonate platform, where it
mixes with fresh meteoric water before discharging through an extensive aquifer system.
The interplay of fresh and saline waters
with geothermal heat flow is known as Kohout
convection.31 In this scenario, the resulting pore
waters become undersaturated with respect to
calcite and aragonite but still saturated with
respect to dolomite, which is precipitated in the
permeable aquifers.
Another environment for mixing of fresh and
saline waters is found along the coastal plains of
southeastern Australia. From the present, and
extending throughout the Quaternary Period,
microcrystalline dolomite and other carbonate
minerals have been forming in shallow ephemeral
lakes of the Coorong region. These lakes develop
along a 100-km [62-mi] belt, in an interdune corridor located immediately inland from the present
coastline, behind a calcareous sand barrier. The
lakes are considered to be outcrops of the water
table, and free water, resulting from rainfall and
regional or local aquifer recharge, is found at their
surface only during winter and spring.32
Modern dolomite is found only in lakes subjected to an annual desiccation phase. Those lakes
occur mainly in areas receiving less than 500 mm

Oilfield Review

30. For more on this type of dolomite: Folk RL and

Siedlecka A: The Schizohaline Environment: Its
Sedimentary and Diagenetic Fabrics as Exemplified by
Late Paleozoic Rocks of Bear Island, Svalbard,
Sedimentary Geology 11, no. 1 (May 1974): 115.
31. Kohout FA: Ground-Water Flow and the Geothermal
Regime of the Floridian Plateau, Transactions, Gulf
Coast Association of Geological Societies 17
(1967): 339354.

Autumn 2009

ane

25. Warren, reference 2.

26. Land, reference 23.
27. Warren, reference 2.
28. Epicontinental shelves are flooded continents, created
through flooding by ancient seaways.
29. The term dorag is said to be loosely translated from
the Farsi language, and is used to infer mixed blood
or hybrid.
Badiozamani K: The Dorag Dolomitization Model
Application to the Middle Ordovician of Wisconsin,
Journal of Sedimentary Research 43, no. 4
(December 1973): 965984.

Dolomite
Limestone

up
fau
lt p
l

ously formed dolomites by basinal fluids can

reset the crystal characteristics, producing crystals with low 18O values, modified 87Sr/86Sr ratios
and saline high-temperature fluid inclusions.34
In these subsurface environments, dolomitization of limestone is facilitated by higher temperatures as burial depth increases. In turn, higher
temperatures enable dolomitization by solutions
with lower Mg/Ca ratios than the previously mentioned hypersaline brines. Temperatures of 60 to
70C [140 to 158F] are sufficient for burial dolomites to form, and these conditions can usually be
met within just a few kilometers of the surface.
With sufficient temperature increase, many subsurface waters can become dolomitizing solutions,
including residual evaporite brines, seawater and
shale-compaction waters. In the latter case, pore
water is expelled from fine-grained sediments during burial and compaction. Clay minerals release
Mg+2, which may pass through carbonates, resulting in their dolomitization.
However, dolomitization in the deep subsurface is not extensive because pore fluids and ions
are progressively lost with continued compaction. The case for shale compaction is another
contentious topic. Some experts hold that the
precipitation of chlorite within shales may be a
local sink for Mg. As with other models, large volumes of Mg-bearing fluids are necessary for this
model to be viable.
Hydrothermal ModelOne fairly popular
model, hydrothermal dolomitization (HTD),
stems from an older idea that has been reincarnated in refined form. HTD commonly forms massive dolomites that are localized around faults
(above right). Hydrothermal dolomite is formed
by deep basinal waters as they travel upward
through relatively permeable conduits, such as
faults and thrust planes, or even zones beneath
impermeable seals. As waters circulate downward in basinal convection cells, they warm in
accordance with the local geothermal gradient.
With heating, they become more buoyant, move
upward and flow outward along faults and bedding planes.
Buoyancy and viscosity affect the ascent rate
and geometry of the rising fluid. Where buoyancy
forces are stronger, the rising fluid forms a

Flu
ids
flo
w

[19.7 in.] of rainfall per year, and typically fill to a

water depth of 0.5 to 1 m [1.6 to 3.3 ft]. When
filled, these lakes have a carbonate-mud bottom
that contains algae and other organic matter. As
lake levels fall, the waters become increasingly
saline before eventually exposing the mud bottom
to sunlight and consequent desiccation. Ensuing
brines form during the drying phase and are
refluxed out of the system into seaward-flowing
groundwaters. Fine-grained dolomites and other
carbonates remain behind, while saline and sulfate evaporite minerals are flushed out of the system. This dolomite is thought to precipitate from a
carbonate gel suspension, not through replacement of a preexisting carbonate.
The dolomites in this system accumulate above
shallow continental groundwaters that flow toward
the sea. During their coastward migration, the
groundwaters traverse large volumes of predominantly carbonate aquifer sediments. The source of
the Mg is poorly understood but is believed either
to be supplied by a local Quaternary volcanic province or to be scavenged by groundwater flow from
other sources.
Burial Diagenesis ModelDolomite can form
in environments where pore-fluid chemistry is
dominated by subsurface diagenetic processes or
where interactions between water and rock have
modified the original pore waters. Such environments are removed from active surface sedimen
tation by intermediate to deep burial and are
characterized by chemically reducing conditions.
Burial dolomites form in the subsurface after
lithification of lime sediments. These dolomites
can either directly precipitate as cement or form
as replacements in permeable intervals flushed
by warm to hot magnesium-enriched basinal and
hydrothermal waters. Since burial dolomite
replacement occurs after lithification of a carbonate host, this dolomite may crosscut depositional facies as well as formation boundaries.33 In
addition to structural position, oxygen and strontium [Sr] isotopes are useful in determining how
such dolomites originate. These dolomites tend
to have negative 18O oxygen isotope values,
indicating precipitation from fluids at somewhat higher temperatures than those of earlier
platform dolomites. The recrystallization of previ-

> Hydrothermal dolomitization. Fluids from deep

within a basin can rapidly move up fault planes to
dolomitize carbonates at shallower depths.

concentrated, predominantly vertical plume.

Within this plume, temperatures, flow rates and
chemical potential may be expected to decrease
from the center toward its margins. For relatively
cool systems, in which viscosity dominates, fluids
rise slowly and plume geometry is determined by
the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability.35
Deep waters become hydrothermalmeaning
they are at least 5C [9F] higher than the ambient formation temperatureas they are transmitted upward into cooler, shallower parts of the
basin. Pressures of hydrothermal fluids also tend
to be higher than ambient fluid pressures.
Hydrothermal fluids, therefore, are those that
ascend to cooler strata before their heat has had
time to dissipate appreciably into the formation.
They flow rapidly upward through permeable
conduits, rather than migrating slowly through
low-permeability strata. Active faults make the
best conduits because they have not been mineralized. Some faults may even breach the seals of
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_10
deeper aquifers,
tapping geopressured fluids that
flow at a high rate up the faults.36
A similar processfault-related hydrothermal alterationhas long been recognized by the
mining industry as an important aspect of carbonate diagenesis. However, until recently, this
process was largely overlooked in the evaluation
of carbonate reservoirs. As a result, some features that were probably produced by faulting
and hydrothermal fluid flow have been interpreted as having formed in meteoric mixing
zones, deep burial and other environments.37

32. von der Borch CC and Lock D: Geological Significance

of Coorong Dolomites, Sedimentology 26, no. 6
(December 1979): 813824.
33. Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.
34. Warren, reference 2.
35. Warren, reference 2.
36. Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.
37. Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.

39

A prime example of an ancient fault-related

dolomite is found in the Ordovician Trenton
Black River limestones of Michigan, USA, and
southwestern Ontario, Canada.38 There, dolomite
defines zones of faulting and fracturing within
the surrounding limestone.
Microbial Mediation ModelPresent-day
low-temperature dolomite most often forms in
restricted-marine or hypersaline coastal environments; however, these modern settings produce
only a small fraction of the total dolomite found
in the rock record. Although dolomite is abundant in rocks of the Paleozoic era (250 to 540Ma),
it becomes increasingly scarce in younger rock or
sedimentparticularly in recent (Holocene)
settings. By contrast, ancient massive dolomites
are believed to have formed in a wide variety of
settings, described previously. This disparity leads
some researchers to question whether presentday conditions actually reflect those that allowed
the formation of massive ancient dolomites.
To understand the rarity of dolomite in the
recent rock record, researchers sought to discover how dolomite forms. Until recently, they
have struggled to synthesize the mineral in their
laboratories. Reasoning that seawater contained
the right ingredients needed for the creation of
dolomite, geochemists used brine concentrations
and pressure-temperature conditions thought to
exist in nature during the formation of dolomite.39
The inability to produce dolomite in the laboratory goes to the very heart of the problem that has
plagued geoscientists for years (see The
Dolomite Problem, page 1). Although magnesium, calcium and carbonate ions are common in
seawater, the conditions necessary to arrange
them in the neatly ordered, alternating layers
that formed stoichiometric dolomite have apparently changed. Once geoscientists understand
how dolomite forms in a controlled environment,
they may come closer to learning how it forms in
nature and why it was once so prevalent and yet
is so uncommon today.
The dolomite problem is tied to a number of
interrelated processes involving thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, hydrology, host-rock
texture and mineralogy. Discoveries in the
1990s revealed that another processmicrobial
actionshould be factored into the equation
(above right). Microbes became the focus of
attention in the sulfate-rich sludges of shallow
isolated lagoons, when it was discovered that
calcium-rich dolomite precipitates under anoxic,
hypersaline conditions.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria in the Brazilian
Lagoa Vermelha play an important role in the formation of primary dolomite in lagoons along the

40

0.5 m

> Scanning electron microscope photomicrograph of rod-shaped microbial

cells inhabiting the surface of a basalt sample. These microbes have
precipitated dolomite after three months in anaerobic groundwater.
Differences in crystal encrustation may be due to microbial residence time on
the basalt surface or may simply reflect differences in metabolic activity.
Each cell is approximately 1 m long. (From Roberts et al, reference 43.)

coast east of Rio de Janeiro.40 There, lagoonal as evidenced by the fact that dolomite is not prehydrological cycles vary with alternating wet and cipitating in most other anoxic, organic-carbondry seasons. During the wet season, precipitation rich marine sediments.
Laboratory experiments were able to simulate
and continental groundwater raise water levels;
during the dry season, seawater recharges the the chemistry of the dry-season anoxic hypersaline
lagoon, which becomes increasingly saline as lagoonal waters. Bacteria taken from the lagoonal
evaporation intensifies. This dynamic system sludge were used to inoculate a cultural medium.
helps supply the ions needed for dolomite pre- They were incubated for one year in a refrigerator
cipitation and anaerobic microbial activity. at 4C [39F]. After incubation, a dolomite preDolomite precipitation requires Mg2+, Ca2+ and cipitate was recovered. Scanning electron microCO32 ions, whereas a continuous supply of SO42 scope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
ions provides oxygen required to sustain the showed that a ferroan dolomite with a fairly high
metabolic activity of the sulfate-reducing bacte- degree of cation order had been precipitated.
Subsequent laboratory experiments using two
ria. The most favorable time for dolomite precipitation is the dry season, when the main source of aerobic bacteria cultures, Halomonas meridiana
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_11
groundwater recharge is seawater, which delivers and Virgibacillus marismortui, were shown to
the ions necessary for both dolomite precipita- precipitate dolomite in just 30 days at 25C and
35C [77F and 95F], respectively.41 These experition and sulfate reduction.
In some geochemical models, sulfate is thought ments also showed that the time required for inito inhibit dolomite production. Experiments have tiation and precipitation of dolomite decreased
shown that in a purely inorganic system without with increasing temperature, while the quantity of
benefit of bacterial action, the sulfate does indeed crystals increased with greater incubation time.
inhibit dolomite precipitation. However, this is just Here, bacterial metabolic activity involves producthe opposite of the Lagoa Vermelha case, in which tion of ammonia [NH3], which creates an alkaline
sulfate is necessary to maintain the microbial microenvironment around the bacteria cells. The
activity required to produce dolomite. The hydro- bacteria also produce CO2, which dissolves and
logic system furnishes sulfate ions to the zone of transforms into either HCO 3 or CO23 at higher pH.
active sulfate reduction where sediments become In the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+, the culture
enriched with dolomite, which, once nucleated, medium becomes supersaturated with respect to
continue to grow with burial. The right strain of dolomite. These physiochemical changes influbacteria is also a key to dolomite precipitation, ence the geochemical environment and promote

Oilfield Review

dolomite precipitation. Other related experiments

are helping researchers develop oxygen isotope
paleothermometers to evaluate conditions of
ancient dolomite formation.42
These analyses proved that microbial mediation of dolomite production can be achieved
under low-temperature anoxic conditions, and in
a relatively short time. When dolomite is associated with sediments that are rich in organic
carbon, biological influences should therefore
be investigated.
A different type of biomineralization was
reported in 2004 when methanogens, rather than
sulfate reducers, were found to be responsible for
dolomite nucleation and precipitation. Rather
than examining a hypersaline lagoon, groundwater researchers conducted a long-term evaluation
of a petroleum-contaminated freshwater aquifer
in Minnesota, USA. There they discovered dolomite on the cells of methanogenic microbes that
colonized a subsurface basalt layer in a highly
reducing environment.43
In this setting, dolomite formation is seen as
part of a two-step process in which microorganisms first weather the basalt and incidentally
release Mg, Ca and Fe. Microbial consumption of
CO2 then results in dolomite crystal nucleation
on their cell walls.
Field observations showed low-temperature
dolomite precipitation by microbial action after
three months. Subsequent experiments were
conducted in a controlled laboratory environment in which methanogenic bacteria were incubated in an anaerobic chamber at 25C for eight
months. Once again, dolomite crystals nucleated
on microbe cells that colonized the basalt surfaces. This study expands the range of environments in which dolomite precipitation is found to
occur at low temperature, opening the possibility
for new models to explain the origin and diagenetic history of ancient dolomites.
The preceding review of dolomite formation
provides only a general orientation and does not
cover the full range of environments that support
the creation of dolomite. Variations and combinations of different modes are espoused by many
researchers. Furthermore, a survey of dolomite
literature would reveal that each model is only as
good as the latest technical paper, and all models
have been roundly debated, criticized and in
some cases, rebuked.
Each dolomite reservoir is created under
unique circumstances, and some reservoirs may
consist of multiple generations of dolomite
formed by different flow systems and mechanisms. All dolomite reservoirs should be investigated and characterized on a case-by-case basis.

Autumn 2009

Lithology
and porosity

Pore system
and permeability

Relative permeability

Spectroscopy
Density
Thermal neutron
Epithermal neutron
Photoelectric factor
NMR
Gamma ray

NMR T2 distribution
Image log

Laterolog resistivity
Induction resistivity

and saturation

Core data

Grain density
Porosity
Permeability

> Carbonate Advisor sequential workflow. The first step incorporates results
from tools that provide lithology and porosity information: spectroscopy,
density, thermal neutron, epithermal neutron, photoelectric factor, NMR and
gamma ray. The data are examined by petrophysicists and serve as inputs to
the next step, which involves evaluation of the pore system and permeability
using NMR T2 distribution or image logs. Next, relative permeability and
saturation are obtained from array laterolog or array induction resistivity
measurements. Also, core data, such as grain density, porosity and
permeability, can be added to the analysis.

Reservoir Evaluation
contained in their pore spaces. Nuclear magnetic
Evaluation of dolomite reservoirs is never resonance (NMR) porosity and bound-fluid volume
straightforward. The heterogeneous pore systems are sensitive to fluid type and pore-space geomein dolomitic rock can easily confound petrophysi- try, but less sensitive to the rock matrix. Relative
cal evaluation efforts. Even the quantification of permeability, which pertains to the effective flow
dolomite can be difficult. The carbonate precur- of oil or gas and water, affects shallow resistivity
sors of dolomite, deposited primarily as a result measurements more than deep resistivity meaof biological activity and composed of fossil frag- surements. All these measurements are intements and assorted rock grains, tend to create grated with others into a simultaneous solution.
rocks with very complex textures and a wide
Porosity, in particular, is a focal point of any
range of pore shapes and sizes. These rocks may reservoir evaluation. However, calculating porosbe further beset by multiple physical, biological ity values in carbonates, which include calcite
and chemical processes, each operating at differ38. Hurley NF and Budros R: Albion-Scipio and Stoney
ent scales. Once converted, dolomite may later
Point Fields, U.S.A., Michigan Basin, in Beaumont
EA and Foster NH (eds): Stratigraphic Traps I. Tulsa:
be subjected to multiple stages of dissolution,
American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
precipitation and recrystallization.
AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology, Atlas of Oil and
Gas Fields (1990): 137.
Dolomite reservoir evaluation must
account
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_12
39. Land LS: Failure to Precipitate Dolomite at 25C from
for heterogeneity in lithology, rock pores, grains
Dilute Solution Despite 1000-Fold Oversaturation
After 32 Years, Aquatic Geochemistry 4, nos. 34
and textures. The Carbonate Advisor petrophys(September 1998): 361368.
ics and productivity analysis process was devel40. Vasconcelos C and McKenzie JA: Microbial Mediation
oped to help geoscientists evaluate these complex
of Modern Dolomite Precipitation and Diagenesis Under
Anoxic Conditions (Lagoa Vermelha, Rio de Janeiro,
reservoirs. Carbonate Advisor analysis relates
Brazil), Journal of Sedimentary Research 67, no. 3
logging data to producibility using texture-sensi(May 1997): 378390.
tive logs and borehole imaging to characterize 41. Snchez-Romn M, Vasconcelos C, Schmid T, Dittrich M,
McKenzie JA, Zenobi R and Rivadeneyra MA: Aerobic
pore geometry.44 The interpretation methodology
Microbial Dolomite at the Nanometer Scale: Implications
for the Geologic Record, Geology 36, no. 11
involves an integrated sequence to determine
(November 2008): 879882.
lithology, porosity, pore type, permeability, rela42. Vasconcelos C, McKenzie JA, Warthmann R and
tive permeability and saturation (above).
Bernasconi SM: Calibration of the 18O Paleo
thermometer for Dolomite Precipitated in Microbial
Lithology and porosity are derived by combinCultures and Natural Environments, Geology 33, no. 4
ing measurements from various tools, each with
(April 2005): 317320.
sensitivity to different factors, including rock 43. Roberts JA, Bennett PC, Gonzlez LA, Macpherson GL
and Milliken KL: Microbial Precipitation of Dolomite in
matrix, fluid properties and porosity. Neutron capMethanogenic Groundwater, Geology 32, no. 4
(April 2004): 277280.
ture spectroscopy and photoelectric factor (PEF)
data are used to quantify rock mineralogy. Bulk 44. Ramamoorthy R, Boyd A, Neville TJ, Seleznev N, Sun H,
Flaum C and Ma J: A New Workflow for Petrophysical
density and neutron porosity measurements are
and Textural Evaluation of Carbonate Reservoirs,
Transactions of the SPWLA 49th Annual Logging
sensitive to both the lithology and the fluids
Symposium, Edinburgh, Scotland, May 2528, 2008,
paper B.

41

Total porosity
Mesoporosity

Microporosity
~ 0.5 m

Macroporosity
~ 5 m
for
All pores
distribution
< 50 to 100 m
> long
T2 cutoff have the same T2

for
NMR distribution
response < short
T2 cutoff
Image
response

Vug
porosity

Nonvug porosity

Blind to pores
smaller than
tool buttons

100%
macroporosity

Macroporous

Micromacro
Microporous
100%
microporosity

Macromicro

Micromeso

Macromeso
Mesomicro

Mesoporous
100%
mesoporosity

> Pore geometries. Total porosity (top) can be

divided into different types of pores based on
NMR and image log data. Micropores, with
pore-throat diameters less than 0.5 m, usually
contain mostly irreducible water and little
hydrocarbon. Mesopores, with pore-throat
diameters between 0.5 and 5 m, may contain
significant amounts of oil or gas in pores above
the free-water level (FWL). Macropores, with
throats measuring more than 5 m in diameter,
are responsible for prolific production rates in
many carbonate reservoirs but often provide
pathways for early water breakthrough, leaving
considerable gas and oil behind in the mesopores
above the FWL. The three different types of pores
can be further divided into eight pore system
classes (bottom).

and dolomite, can be a rather convoluted process. Neutron porosity measurements must be
corrected for the rock matrix. If the matrix contains only dolomite or only calcite, the porosity
transform is fairly simple. But if the rock
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_13
contains a mixture
of both minerals, then the correct proportions of each must be determined to
accurately calculate porosity values.
Matrix complexity also affects the computation of density porosity because the equation
used to convert porosity from bulk density measurements requires matrix density as an input.
Should the rock be a mix of dolomite and calcite,
the porosity calculations will be incorrect unless
an accurate matrix density is obtained. Thus,
underestimating or ignoring the presence of
dolomite can lead to low computed porosity values that mask potentially productive zones.
In some cases, calcite and dolomite can be
readily distinguished using PEF data from a

42

Litho-Density tool.45 The PEF matrix value for

pure sandstone is 1.81; for dolomite it is 3.14 and
for limestone it is 5.08. From the PEF measurement, the percentage of dolomite can be directly
calculated if the matrix contains only two minerals; unfortunately, rocks often contain a mixture
of minerals. Adding to the complexity is the fact
that even small concentrations of relatively common minerals, such as siderite (with a PEF of
14.7), pyrite (with its PEF of 16.97) or anhydrite
(with a PEF of 5.03), distort the measured PEF
values and shift the value toward calcite. There
are too many unknowns in this case to determine
the matrix type and the matrix porosity from a
standard logging suite.
An additional problem with using PEF for
lithology determination is the effect of barite,
which is commonly added as a weighting material
to drilling mud systems. Barite, with its PEF of
266.82, overwhelms other PEF measurements in
these mud systems.
The ECS elemental capture spectroscopy tool
can help to fill some of the gaps in the interpretation process. Neutron capture spectroscopy measures elemental yields of minerals found in the
formation. Recent advances in elemental capture
spectroscopy have resulted in improved magnesium yield measurements to help petrophysicists
quantify the amount of dolomite and other minerals contained in reservoir rocks. ECS measurements also provide yields of calcium and sulfur,
which are critical for most carbonate lithology
determination. In addition, ECS spectroscopy
data provide relative yields of elements such as
iron, silicon, barium, hydrogen and chlorine. ECS
data thus reduce uncertainty in porosity measurements derived from basic logging suites.
Pore geometry comes into play when evaluating reservoir quality and fluid-flow properties. For
the Carbonate Advisor system, the pores are partitioned into different types based on pore-throat
size. Partitioning is based on NMR transverse
relaxation time (T2) distributions augmented by
borehole images. Even though NMR is sensitive to
pore-body size distribution, the Carbonate Advisor
system calibrates the results to appear as porethroat size distribution. Two cutoffs are applied to
T2 distributions relating relaxation time to poresize distribution (above left).
The short cutoff defines the microporosity
fraction, and the long cutoff defines the macroporosity fraction, while the mesoporosity fraction
falls between the two. The macroporosity component is also determined from borehole images by
converting the resistivity image into a porosity
image and extracting the fraction of large pores
present. From the three porosity partitions, eight
petrophysical pore system classes are identified.

Matrix permeability is also estimated using

transforms optimized for each pore class.
Permeability estimates can be validated or calibrated using data from formation testing tools or
core measurements.
Simultaneous solutions of saturation and relative permeability are obtained through forward
modeling. The full model accounts for radial variations in resistivity caused by the distribution of
drilling fluids that invaded the formation, which
influences resistivity tool response. Both array
induction and array laterolog measurements can
be used for the analysis. With their multiple
depths of investigation, the resistivity tools can
accurately characterize the invasion front, which
is inverted to determine imbibition relativepermeability curves. The saturation front and
salinity front are simultaneously solved to determine fractional flow, relative permeability versus
saturation and true formation resistivity.
The Carbonate Advisor system was recently
put to the test in a reservoir in northern Kuwait.
Reservoir evaluation in this area can be complicated by drilling fluids weighted with barite, used
to increase drilling safety in fields known for high
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and high reservoir pressures.46 Geoscientists with the operator Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) found that zones
of improved porosity and permeability were associated with dolomitization in this field. The quantification of dolomite content was therefore
important in classifying reservoir quality.
However, the estimation of dolomite content
from conventional measurements can be hindered
by a variety of factors, such as barite mud effects,
complex lithologies and sensitivity of logging tool
measurements to dolomite, as well as differences
in each tools vertical resolution and depth of
investigation. To overcome these formation evaluation challenges, an ECS tool was used to obtain
elemental relative yields for mineralogy computation. Magnesium measured by this tool was a key
element for dolomite quantification in this complex reservoir. The CMR combinable magnetic
resonance tool was also run to obtain pore geometry information. The Carbonate Advisor system
provided formation evaluation results that closely
agree with core data (next page).
45. The PEF log is recorded as part of the density
measurement. The PEF measurement is unitless, but
because it is proportional to the photoelectric cross
section per electron, it is sometimes expressed in
barns/electron.
46. Kho D, Al-Awadi M and Acharya M: Application of
Magnesium Yield Measurement from Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy Tool in Formation Evaluation of Northern
Kuwait Fields, presented at the SPWLA 50th Annual
Logging Symposium, The Woodlands, Texas,
June 2124, 2009.

Oilfield Review

Moved Water
Moved Hydrocarbon
Water
Oil
Dolomite
Macroporosity

Calcite

Macro-meso
Anhydrite
10-in. Resistivity
0.2

Limestone Grain Density

2.7

0.2

g/cm3

0.2

lbf/lbf

0.25

Core Grain Density

2.7

g/cm3

DT Compressional

ohm.m

2000

109

0.2

Depth,
ft

ohm.m

2000

1.95

ohm.m

29

g/cm3

2000

0.45

0.5

2.95

100

3.5

Computed Grain Density

ELAN VOLUMES
- 0.15

g/cm3

2.5

g/cm3

Micro-macro

Macroporosity

Core Grain Density

2.5

Meso-micro

Mesoporosity

Computed Porosity

Chlorite

Neutron Porosity

90-in. Resistivity
0.2

s/ft

0.5

Illite

Density

60-in. Resistivity

Rel. Dry Weight Mg

Microporosity
Core Porosity

Kaolinite

2000

30-in. Resistivity

Dolomite Grain Density

2.7

ohm.m

Macro-micro

Pyrite

2000

20-in. Resistivity
3

g/cm3

ohm.m

Mesoporosity

3.5

T2 Distribution

0.5
0.015

ft3/ft3

Carbonate Advisor
Total Porosity

0.015
0.5

ft3/ft3

0.1

Micro-meso

MDT Mobility
0.1

Microporosity
Carbonate Advisor
Permeability

0 0.1

mD

Core Permeability
10,000
mD
mD/cP

10,000

Carbonate Advisor
Estimated Permeability

10,000 0.1

mD

10,000

X,050

X,100

X,150

X,200

X,250

> Appraisal of a complex carbonate reservoir. In Track 1, a strong

correlation is seen between the relative dry weight Mg measurement
obtained by the ECS tool (green curve) and grain density measurements
obtained through core analysis (red dots). The array induction resistivity
data (Track 2) and conventional density (pink curve), neutron (blue curve)
and sonic (green curve) data in Track 3 are used for computing porosity and
water saturation. Track 4 shows the resulting lithology, porosity and fluid
volumes computed by the Carbonate Advisor service. A good match
between core data (red) and computed grain density (blue curve) and
computed porosity (black curve) are seen in Track 5. The T2 distribution
measurement from the CMR combinable magnetic resonance tool (Track 6)
is used for porosity partitioning, pore system classification and permeability

computations. When the porosity partitioning result (Track 7) is compared

with the computed lithology (Track 4), dolomite content shows a close
correlation with the mesoporosity (green shading) and macroporosity (red
shading). This formation shows a general correspondence between
increases in dolomite content and pore size. Porosity is further related to
permeability (Track 8). High permeability values generally correspond to
zones of macroporosity (red shading). The computed permeability can be
compared to core and MDT modular formation dynamics tester data (Track 9).
Carbonate Advisor estimated permeability (black curve) matches the core
permeability (red dots) and is confirmed by the MDT mobility reading
(blue dots).

MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_14

Autumn 2009

43

tools used to investigate the reservoir; standard

capture spectroscopy tools are not sensitive to proportions of Mg and Ca in a formation. Although
photoelectric factor measurements can be used
for this purpose, the shallowness of the PEF measurement makes it sensitive to borehole conditions, barite muds, and invasion by drilling fluids.
However, ECS measurements obtained by the
EcoScope multifunction LWD service are sensitive to the proportion of Mg in a formation. This
capability is key to determining calcite and dolomite content in a carbonate formation. This LWD
collar obtains a broad array of measurements.
Designed around a pulsed neutron generator, the
EcoScope tool measures resistivity, neutron
porosity, azimuthal gamma ray, density, neutron
gamma density and formation sigma, in addition
to elemental capture spectroscopy.
Another approach, based on wellbore imaging and high-resolution computed tomography
(CT) scans, is helping E&P companies to better
predict fractures and high-permeability trends

in highly heterogeneous formations. With the

aid of sophisticated conditional simulation algorithms, this approach analyzes wellbore images
to determine where pores and conductive
patches lie in relation to rock matrix.47 Gaps in
the wellbore imagean inherent feature of pad
coverage provided by imaging toolsare filled
using a multipoint statistical (MPS) conditional
simulation to create a fullbore image of the
wellbore (below right). The multipoint conditional simulation incorporates micron-scale CT
scans of actual core to create digital rock samples that train the MPS program.48 This patternbased approach honors all data obtained by the
pad device; it also extends patterns from within
the pad measurement into the gaps, thereby
creating a 3D pseudocore.49 The new fullbore
image can then be divided into different petrophysical facies that are used for estimating
porosity and permeability.

Depth,
ft
dolo

X00

0.300

0.9

0.01

0.1

mite
1.0

e of
0.5

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4

Volu
m

0.7

1,000

10

Cor

100

ility, m

eab
e perm

0.8

Expanding the Scope

Despite efforts to determine environmental settings, modes of origin and conditions that impact
dolomite quality, exploration and production of
these formations are fraught with uncertainty.
Refinements in distinctly different approaches to
formation evaluation technology are helping E&P
companies to reduce some of these unknowns.
As previously discussed, petrophysical evaluations of dolomite reservoirs require detailed mineralogy and matrix properties to correct density
and neutron porosity calculations. These inputs
depend, in part, on the ability to distinguish calcite from dolomite. The first step in obtaining
these inputs rests with the selection of logging

0.6

Core analysis confirmed the relationship

between dolomite content and reservoir quality in this northern Kuwait field. The 3D
crossplot shows a general trend of increasing
dolomite content with increases in porosity
and permeability (below left).

0.30

0.270

0.27

0.240

0.24

0.210

rosity, %

X02

Core po

rosity, %

Core po

0.21
0
0.18
0
0.1
50
0.1
20
0.0
90
0.0
60
0.0
30
1,00.000
00

0
0.18
0
5
0.1
0
0.12
0
9
0.0
0
0.06
0
0.03
0
0.000.0 .1
0.2

0.4

0
10

lu
Vo

0.3

X04

0.8

0.

te

mi

olo

fd

i
eab

0.6
0.7

0.9

re

Co

per

X06

0.0

1.0

,m
lity

10

o
me

0.5

> Effect of dolomitization on reservoir quality. Core analysis data from a

field in Kuwait were used to plot dolomite volume, core porosity and core
permeability. These data showed strong correlations between increasing
dolomite volumes and increases in porosity and permeability. The scatter
within this 3D crossplot reflects the heterogeneous nature of the pore
system within the dolomitic rock.

44

X08

> Filling the gaps. Images through a layered, fractured interval were
obtained in a single pass (left ) of a pad-type borehole imaging tool.
Data from one pad have been removed to emphasize the area
normally measured by each pad (green dotted line, left ). Gaps
between pads have been filled in the fullbore image using MPS
pattern-based geostatistical modeling (center ). Dark conductive
patches are outlined by green contours (right ). These contours help
identify complex 3D fluid-flow pathways in heterogeneous carbonates.

Oilfield Review

Dia
m

. [22
5 in
, 8.
r
e
et

cm]

1 ft [0.3
m]

Diameter, 4 in.

[10
]
cm

0.17

Oil saturation

0.86

> Flow simulation. These results have been produced after 0.72 pore-volumes
of water were injected through a numerical pseudocore in an oil-wet
dolomite. Bulk remaining oil saturation is 58%; water cut is 77%. Water is
injected through the pseudocore from outside to inside. Colors represent oil
saturations. Heterogeneity is obvious in the nonuniform breakthrough of water
(B) shown in some parts of the flow pseudocore, whereas in other areas the
flood front (F) has barely moved into the rock.

model heterogeneities ranging from centimeters

to meters in scale. By defining regions of high or
low resistivity, the imaging technique can help
determine whether the vugs form a connected
and therefore permeable network.
Capillary pressure and relative-permeability
curves can be assigned to different petrophysical
facies, based on laboratory special core analysis
and mercury-injection capillary pressure tests run
on actual reservoir rock core samples. Numerical
simulations using these results provide the key to
quantifying the impact of carbonate rock heterogeneity on fluid flow during primary production,
waterflooding or gasflooding. Such simulations are
carried out on the previously constructed numerical pseudocores to estimate important effective
parameters such as water cut, oil recovery factor
and recovery efficiency on a pseudocore or well
logging scale (left).
CT scans and microscale observations can
help geoscientists predict attribute characteristics on a macroscale. The size, shape and height
of the numerical pseudocore are limited only by
the amount of computer memory that is available. This allows researchers to quickly perform
numerical experiments on large samples that
could not be duplicated in a laboratory, given any
amount of time or money.
Although formation evaluation techniques
can readily distinguish sandstones from carbonates, the capability to identify and quantify dolomite in reservoir rocks poses a distinct challenge.
While laboratory-based measurements may not
address ongoing controversies regarding dolomite formation, they are able to accurately characterize the wellbore to provide valuable insights
that will help E&P companies develop these
notoriously heterogeneous reservoirs.
MV

For example, it can be used to evaluate imaging pads appear as dark high-conductivity
vugslarge, irregular pores visible to the naked regions, rather than as discrete pores.
Fullbore images allow closed contours to be
eyecommonly seen in carbonate rocks. Zones
of enhanced porosity and permeability exist in drawn around resistive or nonresistive regions in
the vicinity of vugs, as confirmed by thin sections, the image. Such regions provide important meaSEM images and minipermeability
measure- sures of reservoir heterogeneity and are generMattV_ORAUT09_Fig_17
ments. Swarms of small vugs are commonly seen ally much larger than the core plugs or digital
in the vicinity of large vugs. On borehole-imaging models generated from CT scans of rocks. Thus,
logs, small vugs that fall below the resolution of borehole images are critical for identifying flow
47. For more on core evaluation using X-ray computed
tomography: Kayser A, Knackstedt M and Ziauddin M:
A Closer Look at Pore Geometry, Oilfield Review 18,
no. 1 (Spring 2006): 413.
48. Zhang T, Hurley NF and Zhao W: Numerical Modeling of
Heterogeneous Carbonates and Multi-Scale Dynamics,
paper JJJ, presented at the SPWLA 50th Annual Logging
Symposium, The Woodlands, Texas, June 2124, 2009.

Autumn 2009

49. Hurley NF and Zhang T: Method to Generate Fullbore

Images Using Borehole Images and Multi-Point
Statistics, paper SPE 120671, presented at the
SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference,
Bahrain, March1518, 2009.

45