D C Circuits

Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage

source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network.
Circuit: an electric circuit is an interconnection of the network element and voltage or current
source are formed by a closed path .
Node: Two or more element are connected to a point is called node. The circuit in Fig. 1 has
nodes a, b, c, and g. Generally, a point, or a node in an circuit specifies a certain voltage level
with respect to a reference point or node.

Fig.1 Simple Resistive network.

Branch- A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit containing the electric
elements. These elements could be sources, resistances, or other elements. Fig.1 shows that the
circuit has six branches: three resistive branches (a-c, b-c, and b-g) and three branches containing
voltage and current sources (a-,a-, and c-g).
Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit. Fig. 1 shows three loops or closed paths
namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-cb-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed paths a-c-ga and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.
Mesh- A mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops within it or in its
interior. Fig. 1 indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a) just identified are
also meshes but other two loops (a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g- a) are not.
Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is called passive
element.
Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic
devices that require power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can
amplify power of a signal.
Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example:
Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.

Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral

(example: Diode, Transistor) element.

Meaning of Response: An application of input signal to the system will produce an

output signal, the behavior of output signal with time is known as the response of the
system.
Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with
voltage or current. More specifically, a linear system is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity
property [response of u(t) equals times the response of u(t) , S( u(t)) = S(u(t)) for all ;
and ] (ii) additive property [that is the response of system due to an input (u(t) 1 u1 (t) +2 u2 (t) )
equals the sum of the response of input 1 u1 (t) and the response of input 2 u2 (t) , S(1 u1 (t) +2
u2 (t)) = 1 S(u1 (t)) +2 S(u2 (t)) .] When an input u1 (t) or u1 (t) is applied to a system S, the
corresponding output response of the system is observed as S(u1 (t)) = y1 (t) or S(u2 (t)) = y2 (t)
respectively. Fig. 2 explains the meaning of homogeneity and additive properties of a system.

Fig 2 Input output behavior of a system

Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters change
with voltage or current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and
additive properties. Volt-ampere characteristics of linear and non-linear elements are shown in
Figs. 3.a - 3.b. In fact, a circuit is linear if and only if its input and output can be related by a
straight line passing through the origin as shown in fig.3.2. Otherwise, it is a nonlinear system.

Fig 3a VI characteristics of linear element

Fig 3a VI characteristics of non-linear element

D C Circuit: A direct current (DC) always remains constant with time. The flow of DC
characteristics, the flow of electric charges in one particular direction. The direction of flow of
current is shown in fig below.

A DC Circuit consists of a constant voltage source and their interconnection with resistance only.
AC Circuit: If the current and volage changes with time, then the circuit interconnection is
identified as AC circuit.

Current: Current is the rate of change of charge in a circuit. i.e.

i=

dq
dt

Or in other words the flow of electrons constitute a current. The electrons always flows from
lower potential to higher potential. The unit of current is Amperes
Electro Motive Force (emf): EMF is force which causes current to flow in the circuit. Its
symbol is E and is measured in Volts.
Electric Potential: The electric potential always refers to a point in a charged conduction. The
Electric Potential at any poit in a charged conductor is the workdone to bring a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
Voltage: Voltage is an electromotive force or potential difference expressed in volts.. Its unit is
Volts.
Potential Energy Difference: The voltage or potential energy difference between two points in
an electric circuit is the amount of energy required to move a unit charge between the two points.
OHMs Law:
Ohm's law state that the potential difference or voltage is applied across a resistor of a closed
circuit, to the current flowing through it is constant ,provided temperature is constant.

V 1 V 2
=constant
I
V 1 V 2
=R
I
Where R is the constant known as resistance
V
=R
I
I V
Current is directly proportional to the voltage applied, provided the temperature doesnt change.
Condition for applying Ohms law:
1. Ohms law can be applied either a part of the circuit or to the entire circuit.
2. Ohms law can be applied both AC & DC circuit.
Limitation of Ohms Law:
1. It doesnt holds good for nonmetallic conductor such as silicon carbide
2. It doesnt holds good for nonlinear devices such as voltage regulator, zenor diodes
3. The metals which get heated up due to flow of current through them, ohms law is not
holds good.
Resistance: Resistance is the properties of a substances due to which it opposes the flow of
electric current through it. Its symbol is R ,the unit is ohm ()
Factors depends on Resistances:
The factors depends on resistance are
1. It depends on, directly proportional to length
2. Inversely proportional to area of cross section
3. It depends on type of materials
4. It also depends on temperature
It is mathematically expressed as
l
R
A
R=

l
A

= Specific resistance of the conductor or resistivity

Specific Resistance: Specific resistance is the resistance measured of opposite face of cube of
that material. Its unit is ohm-meter.
Kirchhoffs Laws
Kirchhoffs laws are basic analytical tools in order to obtain the solutions of currents and
voltages for any electric circuit; whether it is supplied from a direct-current system or an
alternating current system.

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law:

In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of products of voltage drops plus the algebraic
sum of all the emfs in that closed path is zero, i.e.

IR+ emf =0

-V1 - V2 -V3 + V = 0
-IR1-IR2-IR3+V=0
or
IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = V
The sign convention for kirchhoffs lwa is (a) the rise in potential will be taken as positive volts
and (b) fall in potentials will be taken as negative volts

Kirchoof current Law: The algebraic sum of all cuurrents meeting at apoint is zero.
Incomming current is taken as positive and out going current is taken as negative.i.e.

I =0

-I1 I2 +I3 I4 = 0
I1 +I2+I4 =I3
Sum of incomming current = Sum of out going current
Series Circuits :
The resistances are connected end to end, and beginning of the first resistance and the end of the
last resistance are taken as to supply terminals then the circuit is said to be resistance in series. A
series circuit is shown in the diagram.
Hence in series circuit (i) the current is the same through each resistor (ii) voltage drop across
the resistance are different

Apply KVl for the network

V = V1 +V2 +V3
By ohms law ,V=IR then,
IR = IR1 +IR2 +IR3
R =R1 +R2 +R3
The total resistance of the circuit is found by simply adding up the resistance values of the
individual resistors:

Equivalent resistance of resistors in series: R = R1 + R2 + R3

Parallel Circuits:
Starting end of all resistances are connected to one junction or node and
finishing end of all the resistances are connected to another junction and
these to junction are taken as terminals for supply, then such arrangement is
called parallel connection of resistance. A parallel circuit is shown in the
diagram

Hence in parallel circuit (i) The voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same. (ii) The
current in a parallel circuit breaks up
Apply KCL ,
I = I1 +I2 +I3
By ohms law I=V/R, then
V V V V
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R 2 R 3
The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up the reciprocals of the
resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of the total:
Equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +...
Voltage Division Method: Two resistances are connected in series as shown in Fig.

V 1=I R1

V 2=I R 2

V =V 1 +V 2
Total resistance R =R1 +R2
I=

V
R 1+ R 2

Substitute I in V1 & V2 Expression

V 1=

V R1
R 1+ R 2

V 2=

V R2
R 1+ R 2

Current Division Method: Two resistances are connected in parallel across a voltage sourse V
as shown in fig.

By ohms law
I1 =

V
R1

R=

R 1 R2
R 1 + R2

I2 =

V
R2

V =IR=I

I 1 =I

R 1 R2
R1 + R 2

R2
R 1+ R 2 , similarly

I 2 =I

R1
R 1+ R 2

Power and Energy:

Power: Power is the rate of doing work or in other words the rate at which, the work is done in 1
second. Or It is the product of voltage and current. Unit of power is Watts
P=VI

P=

V2
R

P=I 2 R
Energy: Energy is the capacity to do work or it is the total amount of work done in an electrical
circuit in a particular time. The unit of energy is Joules.
Energy = Power X Time
E=VIt

E=

V2
t
R

E=I 2 Rt

DOMESTIC WIRING
1. Two-way control

When a single lamp is to be controlled from two different places we use two way control.

Examples: 1. A lamp provided on stair case of an apartment building is controlled by two

switches one installed at the top floor and the other at bottom floor.
2. When a bath-room is common for two rooms, the lamp fitted in the bath-room can be
controlled by the switches installed in the two rooms. The wiring diagram for two way control of
the lamp is as shown below.:

Switching table for the two way control is as shown below:

Switch S1
Switch S2
Condition of Lamp
L1
L1
ON
L1
L2
OFF
L2
L1
OFF
L2
L2
ON
To control a lamp from two different positions it requires two, 2 way switches
Three way control: When a single lamp is to be controlled from three different places we

use 2 two way control switch and one intermediate switch. This type of wiring is used in long
corridors, Big Godown.
When a big verandah has access to many living rooms, to control a lamp in verandah from the
living rooms we can use three way control. We need two 2- way switches and one intermediate
switch to control a lamp in a verandah from three different rooms. Intermediated switch will be
placed in the middle room. The wiring diagram for two way control of the lamp is as shown
below.

Switching table for three way control of lamp is given below

Switch S1
L1

Switch S2
L1

L1
L2
L2
L1

L2
L1
L2
L1

L1
L2
L2

L2
L1
L2

Intermediate Switch
Straight connection
1-2,3-4
1-2,3-4
1-2,3-4
1-2,3-4
Cross connection
1-4,2-3
1-4,2-3
1-4,2-3
1-4,2-3

Condition of Lamp
ON
OFF
OFF
ON
OFF
ON
ON
OFF

Earthing:
Earthing is connecting the outer frame of equipment and its other parts not carrying any current
to earth so as to attain as nearly zero potential as possible. The purpose of earthing is to ensure
that all parts of the system other than live parts (parts which are carrying currents) are maintained
at the earth potential at all times. Earthing provides safety.
NECESSITY OF EARTHING : The main aim of earthing is to maintain a zero potential or
zero voltage of all non-current carrying parts of electrical system which has the probability of
electrified by some fault.

Fundamentally, every electrical installation is required to have a good and reliable earthing
system.
Good earthing systems is important for
1. Safety of human and animal life
2. Protection of building and installation against lightning
3. Limitation of electromagnetic disturbances (EMI)
4. Correct operation of the electricity supply network and to ensure
5. Good power quality
Objectives of earthing:
1. To provide safety of operation:
When the insulation provided in the machines becomes weak, a part of the operating current gets
diverted to the surface. If a person touches such machine, the surface current finds a path through
his body to earth. If this leakage current is high, the person gets a shock. By earthing the
machine, the shock hazard is avoided as the leakage current gets an outlet to earth.
2. Earthing can save conducting material.
Earth provides the return path for the current. in case of automobiles and electronic equipment
avoiding complications in lying the return wire.
3. Earthing helps in protecting high rise building from atmospheric lightning.
A forked metal rod called lightning conductor sticking out from the top of the building and
buried deep into the ground allows the current due to lightning to pass directly to the earth,
protecting the building
Methods of Earthing:
Earthing should be done in a way so that on short circuit, the earth loop impedance is low
enough to carry 3 times the currents if fuses are used and 1.5 times the current if MCB are used.
Earthing requires a metallic plate or pipe (earth electrode)to be embedded in the earth.
Galvanized iron is used as earth electrode. Effective earthing requires the a low resistance
offered by the earth electrode along with the soil. To increase the conductivity of the soil around
the earth electrode, alternate layers of common salt and charcoal are filled.
Plate Earthing:
Figure shows the details of plate earthing. Plate earth electrodes when made of galvanized iron or
steel should not be less than 6.3 mm in thickness and of copper should not be less than 3.15 mm
in thickness. They should be of at least 60 cm x 60 cm size.
The plate should be buried such that the top edge is at a depth not less than 1.5 m from the
surface of the ground. The earth electrode is placed with its face vertical at a depth of 3-4 m in a
pit. The space around the electrode is filled with alternate layers, each of 150 mm height, of

charcoal and common salt. A G.I. pipe of 12.7 mm diameter is connected to the earth electrode.
This G.I. pipe carries the earth wire which is fixed to the earth electrode with nuts and bolts.
A G.I. pipe connects the charcoal and salt filled pit to the concrete housing in which a funnel
with wire mesh is provided. The concrete housing has a cast iron lid. About 3 to 4 buckets of
water should be poured into the funnel' every few days to improve the soil conductivity. This
becomes more essential especially during summer when the soil conductivity tends to decrease
due to decrease in the soil moisture.

Pipe Earthing:
Figure shows the details of pipe earthing. The electrodes are made of metal rod or pipe having
clean surface not coated by at least 16mm in diameter and those of copper should be at least 12.5
mm in diameter. Pipe electrodes should not be smaller than 38 mm internal diameter if made of
galvanized iron or steel and 100 mm internal diameter if made of cast iron. Pipes or rods as far as
possible should be of one piece and not less than 2.5 m in length. These should be driven to a
depth of at least 2.5 m. To increase soil conductivity, artificial soil treatment is need.
The pipe at the bottom is surrounded by broken pieces of coke or charcoal for a distance of about
15 cm around the pipe.A cement concrete work is also done so that 3 to4 buckets of water can be
poured through the funnel to moist the earth. The earth wire is carried in a GI pipe of 12.7 mm
diameter at a depth of 60 cm below ground and connected to the pipe electrode using G.I. nuts
and washers.

Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

FUSE
A fuse is a small piece of conducting wire having low melting point rated for certain current are
connected in series. It is used for protection of entire wiring system. Fuse is always put in live
wire. When the current any sub-circuit exceeds the rated current, fuse melts and breaks the
circuit. This is the cheapest way of protection. For fuses of current rating up to 10 A Lead Tin
alloy(36:64), for higher rating, copper, zinc, lead, tin, aluminum are used. Never use a fuse of
rating higher than the circuit is meant for.

Electric shock:
Contact with a live wire gives a electric shock. Mild shocks produce nervousness. Severe shocks
may produce convulsions which may lead to unconsciousness and death. When a person came in
contact with a live wire, the current finds a path through the body to the earth. Human body can
withstand maximum of 30 mA for duration about 25 milli sec.
Current flowing through human body depends on magnitude of current, duration and frequency
of current.
If the current is high and persists for long, it adversely effect the nervous system, the heart and
respiratory system. Current in the body during shock depends on the voltage and the body
resistance.
Wet body 1 kilo Ohm
Moist body About 5 kilo Ohm
Dry body About 100 kil ohm

Causes of Electric Shock: Electric shock may be caused due to the following reasons
1. By accidentally touching faulty appliances
2. Due to lighting strikes
3. By coming into contact with a high enough voltage source, resulting in the passage of a
high value of current through the muscles or nerves.

Precautions against shock: Following are the precautions against shock:

1. Make sure that all metallic parts of the electrical equipments are effectively earthed.
2. Replace broken switches, plugs etc., immediately.
3. Use line tester to check whether a terminal is live.
4. During maintenance always switch off the supply.
5. Use rubber sole shoes while repairing /testing electrical equipments. Or avoid direct contact
with earth by standing on a dry wooden platform.
6. Use rubber gloves while touching any terminal or while removing insulation from a live
Conductor.
7. In case of electric fire, disconnect the supply and through sand on fire.