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Chapter 1 Physical tasks -Sensory & cognitive tasks -Ergonomic: A study of people at work- ergos (work) + nomos (natural

law). Concepts in ergo Learning-Individual differences -Motivation-Environment-Task-Scientific management (Taylor, 1911)-Methods design -Time study -Process design.
Design of products, jobs, methods and tools for performing tasks, machine-tool interfaces to suit human capabilities and environment. Activities
Identified by Chapanis 1995-Analysis of similar systems -Activity analysis or sampling-Critical incident study or analysis-Functional flow studyDecision/Action analysis-Action/Information requirements analysis-Function allocation-Task analysis-Failure mode and effects analysis-Timeline
analysis-Simulation-Linkanalysis-Controlledexperimentation-Operationalsequenceanalysis-Workloadassessment.Humancentereddesign(principles).
Select people to fit their machines and jobs. Take advantage of human attributes by expanding requirements for human abilities so that people can better perform
their roles. Overcome human limitations so that those limitations do not become system limitations. Be sure that the problem identified is the right problem and that
it is formulated correctly. Consider the activities of interest as to whether or not people are required to exercise significant levels of skill, judgment, and/or creativity.
Find out the degree to which people enjoy being involved with these activities. Query human operators about their dissatisfaction to see if it is caused by- a need to
feel in control,- a desire for achieving self-satisfaction in task performance, or- perceptions of inadequacies of technology for quality of performance, or ease of use.
To the extent possible, only change the system functions that personnel in the existing system feel should be changed. Consider increasing the level and number of
activities for which personal are responsible so that they will be willing to change the functions of concern. Be sure that the level and number of activities (tasks)
allocated to each person or team forms a coherent set of activities and responsibilities, with an overall level that is consistent with the abilities and inclinations of the
personnel. Avoid changing activities when the anticipated level of performance is likely to result in regular intervention on the part of the personnel involved. Assure
that all personnel involved are aware of the goals of the design and know what their roles will be after the change. Provide training that assists personnel in gaining any
newly required abilities to exercise skill, judgment, and/or creativity and help them to internalize the personal value of these abilities. Involve personnel in planning
and implementing the changes from both a system-wide and individual perspective, with particular emphasis on making the implementation process minimally
disruptive. Assure that personnel understand both the abilities and limitations of the new technology, know how to monitor and intervene appropriately, and retain
clear feelings of responsibility for system operations. Ergonomic criteria -Be used to judge problem solutions and alternative designs- Speed- Accuracy-

Speed-accuracy trade- off.- Time variability- Safety and health- Injuries -Occupational illness. Employee morale- absenteeism-turnover-job
satisfaction. Product quality-defects-usability-customer satisfaction-products liability. Economic- sales. -productivity. costs. Human performance
model- Helsons hypotheses- Communication theory -Information processing theory- Resource allocation theory- Queuing theory-Control theory- Fuzzy set theory.
Macro ergonomics. -Occupational safety & health- Accommodation of disabled workers- Personnel selection & training- Job design & redesign.
Chapter 2- Joints- Hinge joints ends of fingers/knee joints, Gliding joints wrists & ankles, Saddle
joints base of thumb, Spherical (ball-and-socket) joints hip & shoulder, Pivot joints upper end
of lower arm. Joint Disorders- Sprain ligaments are torn/stretched beyond their limits, Dislocation,
Tearing of the protective joint capsule, Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs)- Ulnar deviation-This
disorder occurs when ligaments are stretched to the point that they no longer hold the lower part of the ulna
bone in place, resulting in permanent disability. Work-related tendonitis-inflammation of the tendon sheaths
at the base of the thumb Trigger finger- Thoracic outlet syndrome. a disorder resulting from compression
of nerves and blood vessels beneath the collarbone, which can cause the arms to become numb and interfere
with movement. Spine- Vertebrae- 7 cervical (C1-C7)-12 thoracic (T1-T12)-5 lumbar (L1-L5)Group of sacral (S1),
Vertebrae are separated by disks, with a fibro-cartilage exterior and liquid center, Several muscles and ligaments
run along the spine. Muscles- Be made up of body cells, Contract along a single direction, Categories-

Striped muscles connect to bones, Some fibers within striped muscles are called red fibers, which
are able to store and supply oxygen to the muscle bundle, Smooth muscles be used within organs,
Cardiac muscles in the heart pump blood. Muscle Constraints and Capabilities, Muscles are
positioned in opposing pairs, All-or-nothing basis by motor cells of the nervous system (light force = fewer fibers activated), Muscle contraction (L) is a
function of the maximum possible contraction, the actual muscle force and its maximum. - Contractions/Relaxations of muscle bundles create electrical signals. A signal
F involves at least a single motor cell, Larger signals correspond to greater muscle activation and muscle forces. EMG best on

L MaxL1

MaxF larger muscles, Oxygen in muscle actions- Oxygen debt-When oxygen is not in sufficient supply, lactic acid builds up in the muscle

bundle until more oxygen is available- Repayment with interest. Muscle injuries -Charley horse- Spasms or cramps are a natural body defense against
overexertion. Spasms and cramps are a natural body defense against overexertion. Some other issues-sudden, unexpected, force overexertion-poor
posture- Gender, age, and training effects- Exercise. Anthropometry- The study of body sizes and other associated characteristics, such as length, width,
and shape, other important anthropometric measurements include the weights and inertial properties of body parts Applied Anthropometry: Fitting or SizingClothing, gloves, helmets, Tools & equipment, Seating, desks, VDTs, keyboards, Seat belts and restraint systems, Workplace & office layout, Design & location of controls.
Visual subsystem- Cornea-Anterior Chamber-lense -vitreous humor-retina (nerve ending). Eye movements -Rotation-70 in each direction horizontally40 upward-60 downwards, Saccades-5 about 30 ms, 40 about 100 ms-T (ms) = 21*A00.4, where A0 measured in arc seconds- Fixations. Visual acuity- ability of
people to visually resolve fine details. Snellan E- Landolt C-shaped ring, The smaller the visual angle, the better the visual acuity-Dynamic visual acuity
(DVA)-moving targets. h/ d= tan, Visual acuity = 1/ . Sound-Vibration within a bandwidth that people can perceive- Measurements, Intensity,
Loudness, Perceived loudness. Sound intensity I, at distance r units away from source of power w. Perceived Loudness (in phons & sones), 50 dB loudness at 1000
W
I

cm 2
Lsp 10Log 16 10Log
10

W
I 2
m
1012

Hz = 50 phons- 1 sone = perceived loudness of a sound of 40 phons-A sound of x sones is perceived as x


sone. Metabolism- Metabolism is the sum of those chemical processes that convert food

W
4r 2

times louder than a sound of 1

into useful energy to


support life and operate muscles. Basal metabolism- Metabolic rate- Calorimetry, Indirect measures- Heart rate- Cardiac output
(liters/min)-Respiratory rate- Oxygen consumption (O2 in CO2 out).

Chapter 3- Applied anthropometry- Relate basic measures of human size, strength, and bodily motion to design criteria. Computer modelling-SANTOS-CAD-BUFORD-OSCAR. Design
of workplace -Traffic areas- Aisles and work areas, Turning space, Materials, Markings, Clearance, Stairs, Protruding objects, Obstacles, Blind corners, Path, Doors,
One-way traffic, Emergency exit -Workplace dimensions, Height of the work surface, Height of chairs, Location and distance of objects from the person doing the
task, For high precision work, tables should be up to 10 cm (around 4 in.) higher than the normal elbow height and for heavy work as much as 20 cm below normal
elbow
height.For seated people, the appropriate table height depends on chair height. Das and Sengupta (1996) R is the
R K 2 ( E L )2

extended arms radius in centimeters- K is the arm length in centimeters -E is the shoulder height in centimeters- L is the elbow height in centimeters. Layout principles
Tools, materials, and controls should be located close to the point of use, More frequently used items should be in the normal or primary area of the reach envelop, Less frequently used items
should be placed in the maximum (or secondary) region if space is limited, Items that are very infrequently used may be placed outside the secondary region, However, extreme reaches should
not be required, There should be a definite and fixed place for all tools and materials. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to deliver materials close to the point of use. Materials

and tools should be arranged in the sequence of use: reduces learning time, people can go through the motions without thinking about each step. Seating
More seat depth is needed for long-term seating than for short-term seating, The recommended depth is about 43.551 cm (1720 in.), The bottom of the seat normally is tilted slightly (35)
from front to back. The chair should provide support in the lumbar region of the sitters back, portion of the seat back providing lumbar support be curved with an approximately 41 cm (16 in.)

Tool design- When power is needed in a hand tool, design it for a power grip(external). If precision is needed, design it for a precision grip. Do not let the tool
vibrations travel to the person, In addition to vibration insulation, grips should also insulate from heat and electrical energy. Operation hazard- Install a guard or
barrier that makes it difficult for operators to contact the point of operation of the tool or machine, Make it difficult for operators to activate the tool or machine when
their hands or other parts of their body are in the danger zone, Use machine feeding mechanisms that keep hands or other parts of their body out of the danger zone,
Deactivate the machine or provide a warning if people or body parts are in the danger zone, Provide the operator a way to rapidly deactivate the machine under
emergency conditions, Warn the operator and others who may be in the danger zone of potential dangers. PPE. Physical, sensory, intellectual, emotional disabilities,
Strategies, Fit the job to the person, enhance the remaining capabilities of a disabled person, shift some modes of equipment operation.
radius.

Chapter 4- Some general requirements for housekeeping: Cleaning and maintenance should be scheduled on a frequent periodic, Spilled liquids, dusts, and
other objects should be immediately cleaned up, Washrooms and showers should be provided to workers in dirty jobs, Work and traffic areas should be clearly marked
to separate them from temporary storage areas for work in progress (WIP), Convenient, easily accessible locations should be designated for storing essential items used
in the workplace, Waste containers or other disposal devices should similarly be provided in convenient locations.5S- Sort: to take an inventory of all items currently
in the work area. Set in Order: to arrange the remaining items in an orderly fashion and clearly designate a correct location for each item. Shine: to carefully clean even
traditionally ignored parts of work areas and equipment and then paint them white so that dirt or grime will stand out. Standardize: The tools, dies, fixtures, parts, and
types of equipment needed for a particular process can often be reduced by standardizing. Sustain: to develop ways of sustaining the improvements that have been
made. Lighting- E=I/d. illuminance-source, luminance-reflection. Methods of artificial lighting:-Direct radiant-Indirect lighting-Mixed direct radiant
and indirect lighting-Supplemental task lighting.
Principle of lighting: Less illumination is needed: when the visual acuity
needed to perform the task is low, when the
background luminance is high, when the contrast between a visual detail and
the background is high. Increasing either the contrast between an
object and its background or the size of critical details can be a better strategy
than increasing the amount of illumination. Avoid or minimize extreme transitions in illumination levels between adjoining areas of the task or environment, Match
the color and color-rendering properties of light sources to the task-related needs of the people using the environment. Noise: equipment and machinery that

produce significant levels of noise and


vibration. L is noise level.Noise control: Reduce the noise level of
the source itself, Enclose the source, Increase
the distance between the source and nearby people, Place soundabsorbing and reflecting barriers in the noise path. Heat transfer: the exchange of heat between the human and environment,S -body heat,M- metabolic
heat prod., Cv,Cc convective and conductive heat exchange R-radiative, E-evaporative. Metabolismw-Kg,H-m.

dry bulb air temperature: -measuring outside temperature in the shade.


wet bulb temperature: measuring the cooling effects of evaporation and the relative humidity. globe temperature: measuring a combined effect of radiant heating,
ambient temperature, and air movement Heat stress indexes Sometimes it is important for ergonomists to assess hot environments that expose people to conditions
well outside the comfort zone.
Hazards: Fall and impact hazards, Cutting/ shearing, Crushing/ pinching, Vibration hazards,
CTDs,
fired & Unfired
pressure, Most common electrical injures: shocks and burns, Fire. Toxic: Irritants, Systemic
poisons, Depressants, Asphyxiates, Carcinogens, Teratogens, Mutagens.

Chapter 5- Therblig-Tasks could be described using a smaller set of elemental motions and variables. Improvement
can result in shorter average performance times, smaller

Human performance measurement is to find the


time studies, the focus is on a so-called standard
Method is a prescribed procedure for performing a task or a

time variations (i.e., greater predictability), fewer errors, less effort, and safer actions.

average value of the criteria of interest for a specified population. In typical


operator, working at an average pace under typical environmental conditions.
job. Lifting- Try first, to design lifting out of the task. Failing that, minimize its frequency, weight, and

torque on the body. Lift smart, not hard. Keep the load to be lifted close to the body. Assure that the feet are stable, close to the load, and pointed perpendicularly to the plane of lifting. Lift
the load in that plane using primarily the legs . Learning is a phenomenon where performance improves with experience. Learning effects must be distinguished from other

changes in performance. The term progress curve is often used in cases involving assembly lines, crews, teams, departments, and other smaller groups of people. The
term experience curve is sometimes used when larger organizational groups such as companies and industries are involved. Progress or experience curves both include
improvement due to engineering changes and other factors. In production control, engineers need to identify operations where bottlenecks occur, and then solve the
problems causing the bottlenecks. A learning curve is used to estimate this break- even point. Learning and progress curves are needed by quality control engineers to
predict the defective product units and to help reduce these and other causes of defectives. Why? Most operational data are influenced by factors other than learning.
A learning model can often be fit to various products, within the same product family, by making minor adjustments to model parameters. Learning rates can be
adjusted in a way that reflects expected differences between situations. Learning models simplify the issue. Even if a model oversimplifies the situation, it can be used
as a first-order approximation. If ti is the performance time on the ith cycle, then a
learning curve should predict ti as

a function of N cycles. Power form

learning.

Stanford

model

De
Jongs
Model.
Discrete(alpha 0-1), Continuous.
Time study: amount of time that a worker should take when performing the task in the recommended way. Describe the method to be used in detail. Decide the procedure
for timing a cycle of the job. Break the job cycle into elements that are to be separately timed. Select forms to record time data on the elements over observed cycles. Select an operator who
is typical of the standard operator. Train the selected operator to perform the job using the specified method. Check for learning and continue training until a suitable level of performance is
obtained by the operator. Study that operator for n cycles of the task. Rate the observed operators performance relative to the standard operator. Document the study Elements Break up
the task into elements that they then time individually or in small collections. Another reason for timing task elements rather than simply the whole cycle is that some elements often are
machine paced. Reasons for breaking up the whole cycle of activities into a series of non-overlapping elements also give clues to what those elements should be. The individual elements
should be 2.4 s or longer when using a stopwatch. Leveling-a correction factor that converts the sample mean of the time of a particular operator who was observed in the

time study to the prescribed standard operator, Westinghouse system, which uses four different rating factors: skill, effort, conditions, and consistency.

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