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T ESIS
Autor:
Kevin P.
G ALLO V EREAU
Asesor:
Dr. Antonio I.
R IVASPLATA M ENDOZA
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Prefacio
The acknowledgments and the people to thank go here, dont forget to include your project
advisor. . .
Contents
Prefacio
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Introduccin
1.1 Grupo de Lorentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 lgebra del grupo de Lorentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Relacin entre la representacin tensorial y espinorial
1.2 Grupo de Poincar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Corrientes y simetras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Transformacion de un campo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 What this Template Includes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Folders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Filling in Your Information in the main.tex File . . . . . . .
1.7 The main.tex File Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Thesis Features and Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.1 Printing Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.2 Using US Letter Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Note on bibtex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.4 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.5 Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.6 Typesetting mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Sectioning and Subsectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 In Closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A lgebra espinorial
A.1 Ecuaciones de campo . . . . . . . .
A.2 Leyes de Conservacin y Simetras
A.3 lgebras Graduadas . . . . . . . .
A.3.1 lgebra de Lie Graduada .
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vii
List of Figures
1.1
An Electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
ix
List of Tables
1.1
xi
List of Abbreviations
LAH
WSF
xiii
Physical Constants
Speed of Light
xv
List of Symbols
a
P
distance
power
m
W (J s1 )
angular frequency
rad
xvii
Chapter 1
Introduccin
1.1
Grupo de Lorentz
Si dos sistemas de referencia se mueven uniformemente uno con respecto al otro, y si uno de ellos
es un sistema inercial, entonces claramente el otro tambin lo es. De esta manera podemos obtener
arbitrariamente varios sistemas de referencia inerciales.
De acuerdo al principio de la relatividad, todas las leyes de la naturaleza son idnticas en todos
los sistemas inerciales, i.e. las ecuaciones que describen a los fenmenos se mantienen sin cambios
cuando son transformados de un sistema inercial a otro sistema inercial, estas transformaciones
son del tipo espacio-temporal.
Cualquier punto en el espacio-tiempo (espacio de Minkowski) es denotado por x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(ct, x), donde x corresponde a las componentes espaciales en 3-D.
Las transformaciones de este grupo son transformaciones lineales actuando en tetravectores.
x0 = x
(1.1)
Aunque las coordenadas individuales de un evento cambian, de acuerdo con (1.1), cuando vamos
de S a S 0 , existe una "combinacin" particular de ellos que permanece sin cambios.
I = x x = x x = t2 x2
(1.2)
(1.3)
det = 1
(1.4)
det = 1
Chapter 1. Introduccin
= T = e(tJ) etJ
derivando con respecto al parmetro t y evaluando en t = 0
0=
d n (tJ)T tJ o
e
e
dt
t=0
0 = JT + J
JT = J
JT = J
O es establecido para grupos ortogonales, es decir que las transformaciones preservan la ortogonalidad de los ejes.
Los nmeros 1,3 representan la componentes temporal "1", las espaciales "3", y R significa que el espacio est definido
en el campo de los reales.
el cual preserva la direccin del tiempo, es decir, no contiene reflexiones temporales, la notacin
SO(1, 3; R), nos indica que los determinantes del subgrupo L+ son iguales a 1. Puede observarse
que tanto L , como L , no forman un subgrupo de L, ya que al ser su determinante det = 1,
el elemento identidad no se encuentra relacionado con los elementos no-ortocronos de Lorentz.
1.1.1
(1.5)
donde 1 y son matrices 4 4, y tiene parmetros infinitesimales. Esta representacin infinitesimal debe cumplir con (1.3). Por lo tanto
= ( + ) ( + )
= + +
= + +
por lo tanto
=
(1.6)
es decir, la matriz con sus parmetros infinitesimales es antisimtrico en los ndices y . Ahora,
considerando (1.5) y reemplazndolo en (1.1)
x0 = x = ( + )x
= x + x
sabemos que x = x0 x , entonces x = x . Por otro lado, podemos considerar la representacin vectorial del grupo restringido de Lorentz L+ y escribimos L+ en la forma
i
= exp M
(1.7)
2
donde M constituyen una base del lgebra de Lie o(1, 3; R). M es antisimtrico en y y el
factor i es introducido de manera que M sea Hermtico. Para transformaciones infinitesimales,
consideremos
i
x x
x = x0 x = x x = exp M
2
i
i
x = 144 M x x = (M ) x
(1.8)
2
2
vemos que
i
= (M )
(1.9)
2
Para que se cumpla esta relacin el generador M del grupo de Lorentz debe tener la siguiente
forma matricial:
(M ) = i( )
(1.10)
Para derivar su forma matricial de manera explcita de (1.10) usamos la definicin del lgebra de
Lie o(1, 3; R), cualquier J o(1, 3; R), satisface la condicin JT = J. De manera explicita esta
condicin implica para los elementos de tal matriz
Chapter 1. Introduccin
a00
a10
J=
a20
a30
a01
a11
a21
a31
a03
a13
a23
a33
a02
a12
a22
a32
la siguientes ecuaciones
a00 = a11 = a22 = a33 = 0
a10 = a01 .
a21 = a12 .
a20 = a02 .
a31 = a13 .
a30 = a03
a23 = a32
0 a01 a02
a03
a01 0 a12 a13
J=
a02 a12
0
a23
a03 a13 a23
0
Escogemos una base del lgebra de Lie o(1, 3; R) de manera que J sea una combinacin de estas,
J = a01 N1 + a02 N2 + a03 N3 + a23 M1 + a13 M2 + a12 M3
(1.11)
Las 3 matrices Mi , i = 1, 2, 3 generan el grupo de rotacin SO(3; R), las matrices Ni generan los
boosts(o rotaciones espacio-temporales) de Lorentz. Un importante resultado se obtiene al tomar
en cuenta estas 6 bases
[Mi , Mj ] = ijk Mk
[Ni , Mj ] = ijk Nk
[Ni , Nj ] = ijk Mk
De (1.11) tenemos que:
Mi = MiT
Ni = NiT
A la vez, podemos construir matrices Hermticas y anti-Hermticas respectivamente
l = 1, 2, 3
Jl = iMl
Jl
= (iMl ) =
iMlT
= iMl = Jl
Kl = iNl
Kl
= (iNl ) =
iNlT
= iNl = Kl
(1.12)
[Ji , Kj ] = iijk Kk
(1.13)
[Ki , Kj ] = iijk Jk
(1.14)
La ec. (1.12) de conmutacin pertenecen al momento angular, es decir estos generan el subgrupo
de rotacin de L+ , SO(3; R). De la ec. (1.13) podemos concluir que los boosts no forman un
subgrupo del grupo de Lorentz, sino que es un vector bajo el grupo de Lorentz. El signo menos en
la ecuacin (1.14) es significante; este expresa la diferencia entre el grupo no compacto SO(1, 3; R)
y su forma compacta SO(4; R) o entre SL(2, C) y SU (2, C) SU (2, C), ya que grupos de Lie
localmente homomrficos tienen lgebras de Lie homomrficas.
Podemos construir un formalismo covariante con las matrices Ki Y Ji , definiendo una matriz
antisimtrica 4 4 M , , = 0, 1, 2, 3, de manera que
ijk Mjk = Ji
(1.15)
M0i = Ki
(1.16)
(1.17)
(1.18)
Proposicin 1.2:
Los generadores M se pueden escribir de la siguiente manera
M = i(x x )
(1.19)
xi
where
ui =
i
=0
donde es un parmetro infinitesimal. Para la obtencin del generador de rotacin, consideraremos una rotacin sobre el eje z, el resultado es
x00 = x0
x01 = x1 cos x2 sin = 1
x02 = x1 sin + x2 cos = 2
x03 = x3
explcitamente tenemos
u0 = u3 = 0
1
= 0 = x2
2
u2 =
= 0 = x1
u1 =
entonces
X = x2 1 + x1 2 = x2 1 x1 2
Chapter 1. Introduccin
este es el generador M3 de la ec. (1.11), podemos ver que agregando un i en la ecuacin tenemos
al operador de momento angular J3 = M12 (de la ec. (1.15)), entonces
M12 = i(x2 1 x1 2 )
se obtiene similar resultado para rotaciones en el plano X Z y Y Z, con J2 y J1 respectivamente.
Ahora consideremos un boost-x, i.e.
x00 = cosh x0 + sinh x1 = 0
x01 = x1 cosh + x0 sinh = 1
x02 = x2
x03 = x3
los valores de ui son
1
= 0 = x1
2
u2 =
= 0 = x0
u1 =
entonces
Y = x1 0 + x0 1 = x1 0 x0 1
el cual es el generador iN1 = K1 = M01 , entonces
M01 = i(x1 0 x0 1 )
para los boost en y y z, se obtienen los K2 y K3 respectivamente. En conclusin tenemos:
M = i(x x )
lo que se quera demostrar
Proposicin 1.3:
Las matrices [(M ) ] definidas en(1.18) son Hermticas, i.e.
[(M ) ] = [(M ) ]
Demostracin: Consideremos
[(M ) ] = [i( )] = i( )T
observamos que las transpuesta de una matriz es el intercambio de por , i.e.
[(M ) ] = i( ) = [(M ) ]
[(Ki ) ] = [(Ki ) ]
entonces las 6 matrices forman un conjunto de generadores Hermticos del grupo de Lorentz.
Proposicin 1.4:
(1.20)
(Ji + iKi )
2
(Ji iKi )
2
las cuales dan las siguientes relaciones de conmutacin
Ti =
(1.21)
(1.22)
(1.23)
[Ti+ , Tj ] = 0
por lo tanto Ti y Ti+ son dos lgebras independientes SU (2). La representaciones finitas e irreducibles de SU (2) son conocidas: estas son las matrices de representacin (2S + 1) (2S + 1) las
cuales corresponden a un espn-s, donde s = 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2.... . Por lo tanto, La representaciones
irreducibles del grupo de Lorentz pueden ser caracterizadas por 2 nmeros (t+ , t ), donde t
es no-negativo y puede ser entero o semi-entero. De acuerdo al teorema de Racah, existe una
operador de Casimir por cada sublgebra su(2, C), i.e.
X
X
Ti+ Ti+
Ti Ti
(1.24)
Los operadores de Casimir conmutan con cualquier elemento del lgebra, con eigenvalores t+ (t+ +
1) y t (t + 1) (similar al eigenvalor de S2 , el operador del espn al cuadrado). Por lo tanto podemos usar la representacin (t+ , t ) para so(1, 3; R), y ya que J3 = T3+ + T3 entonces podemos
identificar al espn de la representacin con (t+ + t ).
1.1.2
Chapter 1. Introduccin
(1.25)
donde 0 es la matriz identidad 122 , y son las matrices de Pauli, cuyas relaciones de conmutacin y propiedades son las siguientes:
{i , j } = 2ij
[i , j ] = 2iijk k
1
T r[i2 ] = 1 i i = 1, 2, 3
2
] es la traza de la matriz. Podemos definir la estructura de ndices de espinor para
T r[i ] = 0
donde T r[
= m uAA
Los ndices puede ser elevados mediante la aplicacin de un tensor GL(2, C) (ver )
( )AA = AB A B (
)BB
(
)AA = AB AB ( )B B
es decir toma la funcin de "tensor mtrico". As mismo, podemos expresar la siguientes propiedades
1.2
T r[
] = 2
(1.26)
(1.27)
Grupo de Poincar
(1.28)
de la definicin de eq. (1.28) podemos llegar a la siguiente relacin de composicin para los elementos del grupo P
x0 = 1 x + a1
x00 = 2 x0 + a2
= 2 1 x + a1 + a2
= 2 1 x + 2 a1 + a2
si denotamos a cada elemento del grupo de Poincar, por g(, a), donde el primer trmino es el
que acompaa al tetravector x y el segundo es el tetravector constante de desplazamiento, podemos concluir que
g(2 , a2 ) g(1 , a1 ) = g(2 1 , 2 a1 + a2 )
(1.29)
a la vez, podemos definir el elemento neutro y el identidad de este grupo usando (1.30)
g(1 , 1 a) g(, a) = g(, a) g(1 , a) = g(1 , 0) = g(144 , 0)
g 1 (, a) = g(1 , 1 a)
El grupo de Poincar se descompone similarmente que el grupo de Lorentz, en 4 partes identificadas por su restricciones det , 00 , i.e.
P+ ,
P ,
P+ ,
P+
(1.30)
donde el segundo trmino pertenece a la representacin infinitesimal de los elementos del grupo
de Lorentz, y a denota 4 parmetros infinitesimales. Sea
g 1 (, 0)g(0 , a0 )g(, 0) = g(1 0 , 1 a)
(1.31)
0
1
0 0
1
g (, 0)g( , a )g(, 0) = g (, 0) 1 M + ia P g(, 0)
2
i 0 1
= 1 g (, 0)M g(, 0) + ia0 g 1 (, 0)P g(, 0)
2
Por otro lado usando la expansin en la parte derecha de (1.31)
i
g(1 0 , 1 a) = 1 (1 ) M + i(1 a0 ) P
2
i 0
= 1
M + ia0 P
2
igualando las dos ecuaciones obtenidas
g 1 (, 0)M g(, 0) = M
(1.32)
g 1 (, 0)P g(, 0) = P
(1.33)
de la ecuacin (1.32) podemos concluir que bajo L+ , M es antisimtrico; mientras (1.33) nos
muestra que P es operador vector bajo L+
10
Chapter 1. Introduccin
(1.34)
donde hemos derivado la relacin de conmutacin de la (1.20). mientras de la ec. (1.33) obtenemos
i
i
g 1 (, 0)P g(, 0) = (1 + M )P (1 M )
2
2
i
= P + [M , P ]
2
i
P = ( )P
2
{ P P }
=P +
2
Por lo tanto obtenemos la relacin de conmutacin de M con P .
[M , P ] = i { P P }
(1.35)
(1.36)
En resumen las ecuaciones (1.34), (1.35), (1.36), representan el lgebra de los generadores del grupo
de Poincar.
Los operadores de Casimir del lgebra de Poincar son distintos de los del lgebra de Lorentz,
esto se debe a la inclusin del operador momento, el cual no conmuta con (T )2 ni con (T + )2 .
Definiendo los operadores de Casimir del lgebra de Poincar, el primero es el cuadrado del vector energa-momento P 2 = P P .
Prposicin 1.4:
El cuadrado del operador energa-momento P 2 cumple las siguientes relaciones de conmutacin
M , P 2 = 0
P , P 2 = 0
(1.37)
(1.38)
Demostracin: la verificacin de (1.38) viene dada por (1.36). Por lo tanto, consideramos la ec.
(1.37). Usando (1.35)
[M , P P ] = [M , P ]P + P [M , P ]
= [M , P ]P + P [M , P ]
= i { P P } P iP { P P }
= i
11
(1.41)
la ec. (1.40), nos dice que el vector de Pauli-Ljubanski es invariante bajo traslaciones, mientras
que (1.41) que es un vector bajo L+ . El cuadrado del vector de Pauli-Ljubanski es dado por la
expresin
1
W 2 = W W = M M P 2 + M M P 2
(1.42)
2
El cuadrado del vector de Pauli-Ljubanski, W 2 conmuta con los generadores del grupo de Poincar
P
M , W 2 = 0
(1.43)
P , W 2 = 0
(1.44)
El vector de polarizacin de Pauli-Ljubanski tiene una propiedad adicional
1.3
Corrientes y simetras
Desde la mecnica clsica propuesta por Isaac Newton hasta la fsica moderna, la leyes de conservacin, i.e. la existencia de cantidades que no cambian en el tiempo, han jugado un rol importante
en la fsica, y se espera que siga siendo as.
La conservacin de la energa, momentum lineal, y momentum angular son leyes fundamentales
que cualquier teora tiene que garantizar si est da una descripcin vlida de la naturaleza. Y
no slo estas propiedades bsicas se conservan, algunos sistemas fsicos poseen cantidades conservadas adicionales, tales como la carga, isospn, y generalizacin de las mismas. Las leyes de
conservacin son consecuencias naturales de las propiedades de simetra de un sistema. En un
sistema donde la "fsica no cambia" cuando se aplica una transformacin continua ya sea de coordenadas o campos se puede deducir la existencia de una cantidad conservada .
El fundamento matemtico de esta conexin fue establecido en los inicios del siglo XX. Esta conexin entre las simetras y las leyes de conservacin es conocido como "Teorema de Noether".
El Teorema de Noether dice lo siguiente:
Si las ecuaciones de movimiento de Euler-Lagrange se mantienen invariantes bajo una transformacin , entonces existe una cantidad de movimiento, i.e. una cantidad conservada.
Consideremos el caso en el que la integral de accin no cambia si estas estn sujetas a una
transformacin continua. Ser suficiente estudiar las transformaciones infinitesimales del espaciotiempo y de los campos (transformaciones internas).
x0 = x + x
i (x) = 0i (x) i (x)
(1.45)
i = 1, ..., n
(1.46)
(1.47)
12
Chapter 1. Introduccin
(1.48)
(1.49)
(1.50)
(1.51)
L
L
i +
( i ) + Lx
i
( i )
(1.52)
S =
i +
( i ) + (Lx ) d4 x
)
i
i
R
(1.53)
L
i
L
( i )
i +
L
i + Lx
( i )
d4 x
(1.54)
Z
S =
L
L
[i + ( i )x ] + L
i x d4 x
( i )
( i )
(1.55)
L
i L
( i )
(1.56)
13
por lo tanto
S =
R
L
L
[i + ( i )x ] + L
i x d4 x
( i )
( i )
entonces, tenemos
S =
R
L
i x
( i )
d4 x = 0
(1.57)
(1.58)
asumiendo que la regin de integracin tiende al infinito, donde no hay campos, entonces
L
=0
(1.59)
i x
( i )
la ec. (A.24) es la ecuacin de continuidad, teniendo en cuenta que los grupos de transformacin
de x y I realizan transformaciones infinitesimales, las variaciones toman la siguiente forma
x = M x
i = i
(1.60)
(1.61)
1.4
Transformacion de un campo
Ahora veremos como un campo , sea escalar, vectorial o espinorial se transforma bajo el grupo
de Lorentz. Como vimos en la seccin anterior, un campo es una funcin de x y t, con propiedades
de transformaciones bien definidas bajo el grupo de Lorentz. Un campo (x) se transforma
1.5
1.5.1
This template comes as a single zip file that expands out to several files and folders. The folder
names are mostly self-explanatory:
Appendices this is the folder where you put the appendices. Each appendix should go into
its own separate .tex file. An example and template are included in the directory.
Chapters this is the folder where you put the thesis chapters. A thesis usually has about six
chapters, though there is no hard rule on this. Each chapter should go in its own separate .tex
file and they can be split as:
Chapter 1: Introduction to the thesis topic
Chapter 2: Background information and theory
Chapter 3: (Laboratory) experimental setup
Chapter 4: Details of experiment 1
Chapter 5: Details of experiment 2
Chapter 6: Discussion of the experimental results
Chapter 7: Conclusion and future directions
14
Chapter 1. Introduccin
1.5.2
Files
Included are also several files, most of them are plain text and you can see their contents in a
text editor. After initial compilation, you will see that more auxiliary files are created by LATEX or
BibTeX and which you dont need to delete or worry about:
example.bib this is an important file that contains all the bibliographic information and references that you will be citing in the thesis for use with BibTeX. You can write it manually, but
there are reference manager programs available that will create and manage it for you. Bibliographies in LATEX are a large subject and you may need to read about BibTeX before starting with
this. Many modern reference managers will allow you to export your references in BibTeX format
which greatly eases the amount of work you have to do.
MastersDoctoralThesis.cls this is an important file. It is the class file that tells LATEX how to
format the thesis.
main.pdf this is your beautifully typeset thesis (in the PDF file format) created by LATEX. It
is supplied in the PDF with the template and after you compile the template you should get an
identical version.
main.tex this is an important file. This is the file that you tell LATEX to compile to produce
your thesis as a PDF file. It contains the framework and constructs that tell LATEX how to layout
the thesis. It is heavily commented so you can read exactly what each line of code does and why it
is there. After you put your own information into the THESIS INFORMATION block you have
now started your thesis!
Files that are not included, but are created by LATEX as auxiliary files include:
main.aux this is an auxiliary file generated by LATEX, if it is deleted LATEX simply regenerates
it when you run the main .tex file.
main.bbl this is an auxiliary file generated by BibTeX, if it is deleted, BibTeX simply regenerates it when you run the main.aux file. Whereas the .bib file contains all the references you
have, this .bbl file contains the references you have actually cited in the thesis and is used to
build the bibliography section of the thesis.
main.blg this is an auxiliary file generated by BibTeX, if it is deleted BibTeX simply regenerates it when you run the main .aux file.
main.lof this is an auxiliary file generated by LATEX, if it is deleted LATEX simply regenerates
it when you run the main .tex file. It tells LATEX how to build the List of Figures section.
main.log this is an auxiliary file generated by LATEX, if it is deleted LATEX simply regenerates
it when you run the main .tex file. It contains messages from LATEX, if you receive errors and
warnings from LATEX, they will be in this .log file.
main.lot this is an auxiliary file generated by LATEX, if it is deleted LATEX simply regenerates it
when you run the main .tex file. It tells LATEX how to build the List of Tables section.
main.out this is an auxiliary file generated by LATEX, if it is deleted LATEX simply regenerates
it when you run the main .tex file.
So from this long list, only the files with the .bib, .cls and .tex extensions are the most
important ones. The other auxiliary files can be ignored or deleted as LATEX and BibTeX will regenerate them.
1.6
You will need to personalise the thesis template and make it your own by filling in your own
information. This is done by editing the main.tex file in a text editor or your favourite LaTeX
environment.
15
Open the file and scroll down to the second large block titled THESIS INFORMATION where
you can see the entries for University Name, Department Name, etc . . .
Fill out the information about yourself, your group and institution. You can also insert web
links, if you do, make sure you use the full URL, including the http:// for this. If you dont
want these to be linked, simply remove the \href{url}{name} and only leave the name.
When you have done this, save the file and recompile main.tex. All the information you
filled in should now be in the PDF, complete with web links. You can now begin your thesis
proper!
1.7
The main.tex file contains the structure of the thesis. There are plenty of written comments
that explain what pages, sections and formatting the LATEX code is creating. Each major document element is divided into commented blocks with titles in all capitals to make it obvious what
the following bit of code is doing. Initially there seems to be a lot of LATEX code, but this is all
formatting, and it has all been taken care of so you dont have to do it.
Begin by checking that your information on the title page is correct. For the thesis declaration,
your institution may insist on something different than the text given. If this is the case, just
replace what you see with what is required in the DECLARATION PAGE block.
Then comes a page which contains a funny quote. You can put your own, or quote your
favourite scientist, author, person, and so on. Make sure to put the name of the person who you
took the quote from.
Following this is the abstract page which summarises your work in a condensed way and can
almost be used as a standalone document to describe what you have done. The text you write will
cause the heading to move up so dont worry about running out of space.
Next come the acknowledgements. On this page, write about all the people who you wish to
thank (not forgetting parents, partners and your advisor/supervisor).
The contents pages, list of figures and tables are all taken care of for you and do not need to be
manually created or edited. The next set of pages are more likely to be optional and can be deleted
since they are for a more technical thesis: insert a list of abbreviations you have used in the thesis,
then a list of the physical constants and numbers you refer to and finally, a list of mathematical
symbols used in any formulae. Making the effort to fill these tables means the reader has a onestop place to refer to instead of searching the internet and references to try and find out what you
meant by certain abbreviations or symbols.
The list of symbols is split into the Roman and Greek alphabets. Whereas the abbreviations
and symbols ought to be listed in alphabetical order (and this is not done automatically for you)
the list of physical constants should be grouped into similar themes.
The next page contains a one line dedication. Who will you dedicate your thesis to?
Finally, there is the block where the chapters are included. Uncomment the lines (delete the
% character) as you write the chapters. Each chapter should be written in its own file and put
into the Chapters folder and named Chapter1, Chapter2, etc. . . Similarly for the appendices,
uncomment the lines as you need them. Each appendix should go into its own file and placed in
the Appendices folder.
After the preamble, chapters and appendices finally comes the bibliography. The bibliography
style (called authoryear) is used for the bibliography and is a fully featured style that will even
include links to where the referenced paper can be found online. Do not underestimate how
grateful your reader will be to find that a reference to a paper is just a click away. Of course, this
relies on you putting the URL information into the BibTeX file in the first place.
1.8
To get the best out of this template, there are a few conventions that you may want to follow.
16
Chapter 1. Introduccin
One of the most important (and most difficult) things to keep track of in such a long document
as a thesis is consistency. Using certain conventions and ways of doing things (such as using a
Todo list) makes the job easier. Of course, all of these are optional and you can adopt your own
method.
1.8.1
Printing Format
This thesis template is designed for double sided printing (i.e. content on the front and back
of pages) as most theses are printed and bound this way. Switching to one sided printing is as
simple as uncommenting the oneside option of the documentclass command at the top of
the main.tex file. You may then wish to adjust the margins to suit specifications from your
institution.
The headers for the pages contain the page number on the outer side (so it is easy to flick
through to the page you want) and the chapter name on the inner side.
The text is set to 11 point by default with single line spacing, again, you can tune the text size
and spacing should you want or need to using the options at the very start of main.tex. The
spacing can be changed similarly by replacing the singlespacing with onehalfspacing or
doublespacing.
1.8.2
The paper size used in the template is A4, which is the standard size in Europe. If you are using this thesis template elsewhere and particularly in the United States, then you may have to
change the A4 paper size to the US Letter size. This can be done in the margins settings section in
main.tex.
Due to the differences in the paper size, the resulting margins may be different to what you
like or require (as it is common for institutions to dictate certain margin sizes). If this is the case,
then the margin sizes can be tweaked by modifying the values in the same block as where you
set the paper size. Now your document should be set up for US Letter paper size with suitable
margins.
1.8.3
References
The biblatex package is used to format the bibliography and inserts references such as this one
. The options used in the main.tex file mean that the in-text citations of references are formatted
with the author(s) listed with the date of the publication. Multiple references are separated by
semicolons and references with more than three authors only show the first author with et al. indicating there are more authors . This is done automatically for you. To see how you use references,
have a look at the Chapter1.tex source file. Many reference managers allow you to simply drag
the reference into the document as you type.
Scientific references should come before the punctuation mark if there is one (such as a comma
or period). The same goes for footnotes2 . You can change this but the most important thing is
to keep the convention consistent throughout the thesis. Footnotes themselves should be full,
descriptive sentences (beginning with a capital letter and ending with a full stop). The APA6
states: Footnote numbers should be superscripted, [...], following any punctuation mark except
a dash. The Chicago manual of style states: A note number should be placed at the end of a
sentence or clause. The number follows any punctuation mark except the dash, which it precedes.
It follows a closing parenthesis.
The bibliography is typeset with references listed in alphabetical order by the first authors
last name. This is similar to the APA referencing style. To see how LATEX typesets the bibliography,
have a look at the very end of this document (or just click on the reference number links in in-text
citations).
2
17
TABLE 1.1: The effects of treatments X and Y on the four groups studied.
Groups
Treatment X
Treatment Y
1
2
3
4
0.2
0.17
0.24
0.68
0.8
0.7
0.75
0.3
A Note on bibtex
The bibtex backend used in the template by default does not correctly handle unicode character
encoding (i.e. "international" characters). You may see a warning about this in the compilation
log and, if your references contain unicode characters, they may not show up correctly or at all.
The solution to this is to use the biber backend instead of the outdated bibtex backend. This is
done by finding this in main.tex: backend=bibtex and changing it to backend=biber. You
will then need to delete all auxiliary BibTeX files and navigate to the template directory in your
terminal (command prompt). Once there, simply type biber main and biber will compile your
bibliography. You can then compile main.tex as normal and your bibliography will be updated.
An alternative is to set up your LaTeX editor to compile with biber instead of bibtex, see here for
how to do this for various editors.
1.8.4
Tables
Tables are an important way of displaying your results, below is an example table which was
generated with this code:
\begin{table}
\caption{The effects of treatments X and Y on the four groups studied.}
\label{tab:treatments}
\centering
\begin{tabular}{l l l}
\toprule
\tabhead{Groups} & \tabhead{Treatment X} & \tabhead{Treatment Y} \\
\midrule
1 & 0.2 & 0.8\\
2 & 0.17 & 0.7\\
3 & 0.24 & 0.75\\
4 & 0.68 & 0.3\\
\bottomrule\\
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
You can reference tables with \ref{<label>} where the label is defined within the table
environment. See Chapter1.tex for an example of the label and citation (e.g. Table 1.1).
1.8.5
Figures
There will hopefully be many figures in your thesis (that should be placed in the Figures folder).
The way to insert figures into your thesis is to use a code template like this:
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics{Figures/Electron}
\decoRule
18
Chapter 1. Introduccin
Sometimes figures dont always appear where you write them in the source. The placement
depends on how much space there is on the page for the figure. Sometimes there is not enough
room to fit a figure directly where it should go (in relation to the text) and so LATEX puts it at the
top of the next page. Positioning figures is the job of LATEX and so you should only worry about
making them look good!
Figures usually should have captions just in case you need to refer to them (such as in Figure 1.1). The \caption command contains two parts, the first part, inside the square brackets is
the title that will appear in the List of Figures, and so should be short. The second part in the curly
brackets should contain the longer and more descriptive caption text.
The \decoRule command is optional and simply puts an aesthetic horizontal line below the
image. If you do this for one image, do it for all of them.
LATEX is capable of using images in pdf, jpg and png format.
1.8.6
Typesetting mathematics
If your thesis is going to contain heavy mathematical content, be sure that LATEX will make it look
beautiful, even though it wont be able to solve the equations for you.
The Not So Short Introduction to LATEX (available on CTAN) should tell you everything you
need to know for most cases of typesetting mathematics. If you need more information, a much
more thorough mathematical guide is available from the AMS called, A Short Math Guide to
LATEX and can be downloaded from: ftp://ftp.ams.org/pub/tex/doc/amsmath/short-math-guide.
pdf
19
There are many different LATEX symbols to remember, luckily you can find the most common
symbols in The Comprehensive LATEX Symbol List.
You can write an equation, which is automatically given an equation number by LATEX like this:
\begin{equation}
E = mc^{2}
\label{eqn:Einstein}
\end{equation}
This will produce Einsteins famous energy-matter equivalence equation:
E = mc2
(1.62)
All equations you write (which are not in the middle of paragraph text) are automatically
given equation numbers by LATEX. If you dont want a particular equation numbered, use the
unnumbered form:
\[ a^{2}=4 \]
1.9
You should break your thesis up into nice, bite-sized sections and subsections. LATEX automatically
builds a table of Contents by looking at all the \chapter{}, \section{} and \subsection{}
commands you write in the source.
The Table of Contents should only list the sections to three (3) levels. A chapter{} is level
zero (0). A \section{} is level one (1) and so a \subsection{} is level two (2). In your thesis
it is likely that you will even use a subsubsection{}, which is level three (3). The depth to
which the Table of Contents is formatted is set within MastersDoctoralThesis.cls. If you
need this changed, you can do it in main.tex.
1.10
In Closing
You have reached the end of this mini-guide. You can now rename or overwrite this pdf file and
begin writing your own Chapter1.tex and the rest of your thesis. The easy work of setting up
the structure and framework has been taken care of for you. Its now your job to fill it out!
Good luck and have lots of fun!
Guide written by
Sunil Patel: www.sunilpatel.co.uk
Vel: LaTeXTemplates.com
21
Appendix A
lgebra espinorial
De las relaciones de conmutacin de los generadores del grupo de Lorentz L+ , pudimos comprobar que tenan una estructura similar al de los generadores del grupo SU (2, C), cuyos elementos
del espacio vectorial complejo son los espinores. Ahora analizaremos el lgebra de los espinores
con el fin de encontrar un relacin entre la clculo espinorial y el tensorial.
Sea el grupo SL(2, C)
SL(2, C) = M GL(2, C) | detM = +1
Consideremos una representacin (lineal) de este grupo el cual es una correspondencia del grupo
SL(2, C) al grupo de automorfismo1 de un cierto espacio vectorial V , i.e.
M SL(2, C)
D(M )
M1 , M2 SL(/2, C)
dimF
X
n |ni
(A.1)
n=1
dimF
X
n0 |ni
(A.2)
n=1
donde
n0 =
dimF
X
Dni (M )i
(A.3)
i=1
U GL(F, K), K = R or
22
M SL(2, C)
A, B = 1, 2
(A.4)
M SL(2, 2, C)
B = 1, 2
A,
(A.5)
donde B V .
las dos representaciones se relacionan mediante la conjugacin compleja, i.e. tomando A F ,
entonces
(A ) = A V
(A.6)
debe observarse que esta ecuacin no exhibe la misma estructura de indice en ambos lados. Por
otro lado, la representacin fundamental y su conjugada compleja son inequivalentes, i.e. no es
posible encontrar una matriz C 2 2, tal que
M = CM C1
Proposicin 1.1
la representacin
D(M ) = M 1T
(A.7)
es equivalente la representacin du
A.1
Ecuaciones de campo
23
Hamilton ser usado en nuestro desarrollo, la importancia de este radica en la obtencin de las
ecuaciones de movimiento, las cuales reciben el nombre de ecuaciones de Euler-Lagrange
d L
L
=
dt q
q
(A.9)
Con el fin de aplicar este principio, definimos la variacin de un funcional F [(x)] como
Z
F []
F [] = d3 x
(x)
(x)
(A.10)
lo cual implica que el cambio total en F bajo una variacin de la funcin (x) es una superposicin
lineal de los cambios locales sumados sobre todo el rango de los valores de x. Aplicando (A.10) al
Lagrangiano (A.8), el cual depende de y
=
L[.]
d x
L
L
(x)
(x) +
(x)
(x)
(A.11)
la cual tambin es una funcional. Medias como en mecnica clsica, definimos la accin S[, ]
ante la integracin sobre un intervalo de tiempo t1 ...t2 , la variacin de la accin es
Z
t2
dtL[, ]
Z
Z
L
3
=
dt d x
(x) +
(x)
t1
Z t2 Z
L
3
=
dt d x
(x)
(x)
t1
(A.12)
S =
t1
t2
L
(x)
(x)
L
(x)
t (x)
(A.13)
(A.14)
t2
S =
=0
dtL[, ]
(A.15)
t1
lo que lleva a
L
L
(x) = 0
(x)
(x)
t (x)
(A.16)
i
X 1 L
1 L
=
i +
i Vi
(A.19)
Vi i
Vi i
i
24
Ya que las variaciones en diferentes puntos espaciales se asumen que son independientes, haciendo una comparacin de (A.19) y (A.14)
L(, t)
1 L(t)
= lim
(x, t) Vi 0 Vi i (t)
L(t)
1 L(t)
= lim
(x, t) Vi 0 Vi i (t)
(A.20)
donde m u = ( 1c t
), . En principio L podra depender tambin de derivadas de alto orden de
, sin embargo esto nos dara resultado ecuaciones diferenciables de alto orden. La restriccin de
densidades de Lagrange locales que contienen derivadas de primer orden ha sido suficiente para
formar las bases de las teoras de campo actuales. Reemplazando (A.21) en (A.15) tenemos
Z
S =
d4 xL((x), (x))
(A.22)
Z
L
L
=
d4 x
+
( )
(A.23)
( )
donde d4 x = dtd3 x y x = x . Usando integracin por partes para el segundo trmino, la relacin
= y teniendo en cuenta que los campos y sus derivadas tienden rpidamente a cero
cuando se encuentra en la superficie (la cual tiende al infinito), obtenemos:
Z
L
L
4
S = d x
+
(A.24)
( )
de (A.15) tenemos que
L
L
=0
x ( )
(A.25)
La cual guarda similitud con la ec. (A.9). Tan pronto como la densidad de Lagrange de un teora
fsica sea conocida las ecuaciones de campo pueden ser halladas, tomando la forma de ecuaciones
parciales en la variables x .
A.2
q = q + q
(A.26)
25
(A.27)
el ltimo paso fue realizado teniendo en cuenta la ecuacin (A.26). Para transformaciones infinitesimales obtenemos
q = q q q q
t dq
dq
dt
+
q =
q
dt
dt
dt
dt
(A.28)
t2
S(t1 , t2 ) =
L(q, q,
t)dt
t1
Y considerando que "la fsica no cambia" bajo una transformacin de coordenadas (teorema de
Noether), tenemos:
Z
t2
S1 (t1 , t2 ) =
t(t2 )
L(q, q,
t)dt = S2 (t1 , t2 ) =
t1
q , q, t)dt
L(
(A.29)
t(t1 )
(A.30)
d(q,t)
dt
(A.31)
L(
q , q, t) = L(q, q,
t) + L(q, q,
t)
(A.32)
(A.33)
(A.34)
Expandiendo el trmino L
L =
X L
i
L
qi +
qi
qi
qi
+
L
t
t
L
L
qi +
q
qi
qi
(A.35)
26
X L
i
L
qi
qi
qi
qi
L
L
qi
qi
qi
qi
+
dL
dt d(
q , t)
+ L(
q , q, t)
+
dt
dt
dt
qi +
qi
t = L(q, q,
t)
+
qi
qi
dt
dt
t
dt
dt
(A.36)
(A.37)
(A.38)
Es decir los trminos dentro de las llaves es una constante del movimiento (cantidad conservada),
as mismo, el segundo trmino dentro de estas es la funcin Hamiltoniana H, entonces
X L
qi Ht + = constante
qi
(A.39)
A.3
lgebras Graduadas
u1 , u2 L0
u L0 , v L1
v1 , v2 L1
Esta lgebra es llamada una lgebra graduada Z2 De manera general, L es la suma directa de
N + 1, N 1, subespacios Lk , i.e.
N
M
L=
Lk
(A.40)
k=0
con un producto ,
: L L L,
tal que si uk Lk , entonces
uj uk Lj+kmod(N +1)
Un producto con la esta propiedad es llamada una gradacin.
A.3.1
27
por lo tanto, el espacio vectorial L puede ser escrito como la suma directa de L0 y L1 , las propiedades
del producto son:
1. Gradacin: para todo xi Li , i = 0, 1,
xi xj Li+j
mod2
(A.41)
28
29
Bibliography
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[2] D.V. Volkov and V.P. Akulov, Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor.Fiz 16, 621 (1972); Phys Lett, 46B, 109 (1973).
[3] P. Di Francesco, P. Mathieu and D. Snechal, Conformal Field Theory, Springer,p. 8 (1997).
[4] J. Wess and B. Zumino, Nucl. Phys, B70, 139(1974).
[5] R. Hagg, J. Lopuszanski and M. Sohnius, Nucl, Phys. B88, 61 (1975).
[6] P. West, Introduction to Supersymmetry and Supergravity, World Scientific, Philadelhpia, 1986.
[7] M.E. Peskin & D.V. Schroeder, An Introduction to quantum Field Theory, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York, 1995.
[8] J. Wess & J. Bagger, Supersymmetry and Supergravity, Princeton University Press, 2 Ed., New
Jersey ,1992.
[9] D. Griffiths, Introduction to elementary Particles, Wyley-Vch, 2 Ed., Weinheim, 2008.
[10] L.H. Ryder, Quantum Field Theory, Cambridge University Press 2 , Reino Unido ,1996.
[11] John Terning, Modern Supersymmetry: Dynamics and Duality, Clarendon Press, New York,
2006.
[12] W. Greiner & B. Mller, Quantum Mechanics: Symmetries, Springer, New York, 1994.
[13] I. Aitchison , Supersymmetry in particle physics, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2007.
[14] R. N. Mohapatra , Unification and Supersymmetry, Springer-Verlag, 3 Ed., New York, 2002.
[15] R. N. Cahn , Semi-Simple Lie Algebras and Their Representations, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, California, 2000.
[16] V. S. Varadarajan , Supersymmetry for Mathematicians: An Introduction, AMS, New York, 2000.
[17] M. Hamermesh , Group theory and its aplication to physical problems , Dover, EE.UU. , 1962.
[18] N. Jevanjee , An Introduction to Tensors and Group Theory for Physicists , Birkhuser,California
, 2010.
[19] H.J.W. Mller-Kirsten & A. Wiedemann, Introduction to Supersymmetry , World Scientific, 2
Ed. ,Londres , 2010.
[20] G. Kane & M. Shifman, The Supersymmetric World , World Scientific,Londres , 2000.
[21] E. Ivanov, Five Lectures on Supersymmetry: Elementary Introduction, JINR , Dubna, 2013.