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HEATHER HILL
AND
DEBORAH
LOEWENBERG
BALL
Teaching
mathematics
requires specialized
knowledge about the
subject, which
mathematicians
dont need.
68 Kappan
October 2009
Rule
End with
Subtract 3
The students struggle with this representation. A student ventures that the answer is -1;
another proposes that the answer is 5; and a
third argues for an answer of -2. Many more
note that matching a black with red leaves four
reds, or a result of -4. Ms. Gonzlez checks the
answer in the teachers edition; the answer it
gives is 2. Unclear how to use the chips to
show this, she abandons the model and
demonstrates how to solve -1 - (-3) = 2 by
showing that the minus sign in front of the 3
and the subtraction sign combine to make addition of a positive.
What is the mathematical knowledge
needed to teach this material and to interpret
and use the text? Knowing the conventional
procedure is clearly useful, and Ms. Gonzlez
did know it. She is able to easily use it to solve
problems involving subtraction of integers.
But our analysis of the mathematical demands
of teaching this lesson shows that more is involved.
Modeling Mathematics in Teaching
One of the most easily observable teaching
tasks is constructing representations that are
both mathematically accurate and helpful to
learners. In this case, one of these representations involved using chips to solve subtraction
problems. As the teacher and student confusion shows, this task is far from straightforward. The representation Ms. Gonzlez created while mathematically correct cannot be easily manipulated to arrive at the soluHEATHER HILL is an associate professor at the Harvard
Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts. DEBORAH LOEWENBERG BALL is dean of the
University of Michigan School of Education, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, and also the William H. Payne Collegiate Professor of Education there.
However, only two red chips (-2) are present. How can (-3) be taken away? The solution, as briefly described by the textbook,
would be to add another pair of black and red
chips:
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R&D
As we investigated Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching (MKT), we also began to
notice different domains (Ball, Thames, and
Phelps 2008).
Subject Matter
Knowledge
Common
Content
Knowledge
Knowledge at
the
Mathematical
Horizon
Pedagogical Content
Knowledge
Knowledge of
Content and
Students
Specialized
Knowledge of
Content
Curriculum
Knowledge Knowledge of
Content and
Teaching
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