CEMENT and CONCRETE RESEARCH. Vol. 3, Pp. 363-388, 1973. Pergamon Press, Inc Printed in The United States

CEMENT and CONCRETERESEARCH. Vol. 3, pp. 363-388, 1973.
Pergamon Press, Inc

Printed in the United States.
F R A C T U R E M E C H A N I S M S OF C O N C R E T E U N D E R C O M P R E S S I V E L O A D S
Samuel Diaz S a n t i a g o
Puerto Rico P l a n n i n g Board
H u b e r t K. H i l s d o r f
U n i v e r s i t y of K a r l s r u h e
ABSTRACT
The n a t u r e of p r o g r e s s i v e c r a c k g r o w t h in plain c o n c r e t e
under c o m p r e s s i v e loads was investigated. A c o n c e p t u a l
m o d e l was f o r m u l a t e d to d e s c r i b e c r a c k e x t e n s i o n at a given stress as well as the m a n n e r in w h i c h u l t i m a t e failure of c o n c r e t e takes place. C o m p r e s s i o n tests were perf o r m e d on c o n c r e t e prisms to i n v e s t i g a t e the n a t u r e of
crack g r o w t h at the m a c r o s c o p i c level. In addition, analytical and e x p e r i m e n t a l m o d e l studies were c o n d u c t e d
using fracture m e c h a n i c s c o n c e p t s in w h i c h the b e h a v i o r
of isolated cracks under c o m p r e s s i v e loads was studied.
In d i e s e r Studie w u r d e das W a c h s t u m von R i s s e n in Beton

unter D r u c k b e a n s p r u c h u n g u n t e r s u c h t . Es w u r d e ein M o d e l l
entwickelt, das die R i B e n t w i c k l u n g bei einer g e g e b e n e n
S p a n n u n g und den Vorgang, der zum B r u c h des Betons f~hrt,
beschreibt. Mit Hilfe yon D r u c k v e r s u c h e n an B e t o n p r i s m e n
w u r d e der R i B f o r t s c h r i t t auf m a k r o s k o p i s c h e r Ebene untersucht. F e r n e r w u r d e n a n a l y t i s c h e und e x p e r i m e n t e l l e Mod e l l u n t e r s u c h u n g e n auf der G r u n d l a g e der B r u c h m e c h a n i k
d u r c h g e f ~ h r t , in d e n e n das V e r h a l t e n e i n z e l n e r Risse unter D r u c k b e a n s p r u c h u n g s t u d i e r t wurde.
363
364
Vol. 3, No. 4
FRACTURE MECHANICS, CRACK PROPAGATION, COMPRESSION
Introduction
Considerable
r e s e a r c h w o r k has been d e v o t e d
m i n a t i o n of the b e h a v i o r of p l a i n
loading.
to the d e t e r -
c o n c r e t e under v a r i o u s modes of
Such studies have c o n c e n t r a t e d on the s t r e n g t h - d e f o r m a -
tion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the m a t e r i a l .
w o r k has been done to d e t e r m i n e
c o n c r e t e on its m a c r o s c o p i c
By c o m p a r i s o n ,
less
the e f f e c t of the s t r u c t u r e of
behavior.
c e r n e d w i t h the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
much
Such studies have been con-
of m a t e r i a l
behavior
and/or w i t h
m o d e l i n g of such behavior.
Investigators
of the m a t e r i a l
w i t h the d e t e r m i n a t i o n
tion u n d e r
load.
even b e f o r e
It is g e n e r a l l y
load is a p p l i e d
cracking
o r d e r of 25-55
acknowledged
(1,2).
significantly
% of the s h o r t - t i m e
One i n v e s t i g a t o r
ce of large a g g r e g a t e s
at s t r e s s e s
to form c o n t i n o u s
although
develop
stress
levels
bilizes,
it has been o b s e r v e d
causes
cracks p r o p a g a t e
into t h r e e g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s :
dels
at the interfa-
starts
to occur
(6,3).
(3,7) that for
c r a c k i n g never sta-
Similarly
until
for cyclic
loa-
failure occurs
(3).
b e h a v i o r can be c l a s s i f i e d
lattice m o d e l s
(11,12,13,14),
(2,3,5);
that i n c l i n e d cracks
failure
failure.
to s i m u l a t e the o b s e r v e d
cial b e h a v i o r m o d e l s
load
(1,5). O n c e m i c r o cu
l e n g t h they are o r i e n t e d p r e d o m i -
in the o r d e r of 7o-90 % of fcu,
ding at high stresses,
(1,3).
% of f
loading it has been found
and e v e n t u a l l y
Models
concentrated
l e a d i n g to i m m e d i a t e
For s u s t a i n e d
cu
c r a c k i n g under
close to the d i r e c t i o n of loading
in some tests
suddenly,
strength f
crack p a t t e r n s
in the o r d e r of 70-9o
in a d i r e c t i o n
in the
B r i d g i n g of i s o l a t e d bond cracks
cracks e x c e e d a c e r t a i n m i n i m u m
nantly
Under short-
to 25 from the loading di-
are m o s t l y
(1,3).
setting and
at stresses
has p o i n t e d out that initial
(4). T h e s e cracks
through mortar
during
compressive
is r o u g h l y o r i e n t e d at angles close
rection
changes
can be a t t r i b u t e d
c h a n g e s d u r i n g hydration.
increases
deteriora-
that c o n c r e t e cracks
Such c r a c k i n g
such as v o l u m e
and t e m p e r a t u r e
time loads,
have been c o n c e r n e d
of i n d i c a t o r s of the m a t e r i a l
to a n u m b e r of factors
hardening
behavior
(8,9,1o),
interfa-
and f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s
mo-
(16,15).
In the lattice m o d e l s
structural
system.
Although
concrete
is s i m u l a t e d by a lattice
some s o p h i s t i c a t e d
lattice models
Vol. 3, No. 4
365
FRACTURE MECHANICS, CRACKPROPAGATION,COMPRESSION
have had success

crete
in m o d e l i n g
(9) their physical
ximate.
resemblance
They do not furnish

Interfacial
the s t r e s s - s t r a i n
ness of the a g g r e g a t e - m o r t a r
basis of such weakness,
In general
terms
depending
In some models
lure, while
that the interfacial
of tensile
the formation of tensile
in others
fail.
Whereas,
ding the p r o g r e s s i v e
terfaces,
governed
fore,
slender
these models
the interface
cracks
cracks
follows
shortly.
is equated to fai-
compression
are helpful
down the
elements which
in understan-
models,
fracture m e c h a n i c s
to concrete.
at crack tips.
lure model w h i c h considers

mechanics
te under c o m p r e s s i v e
Although
(16) has proposed
and Walsh
of
a fai-
factor
in the
and cement pas-
loads.
crack growth
by Bombolakis
McClintock
emphasize
Glucklich's
voids as the significant
not directly related
work on p r o g r e s s i v e
there-
for the a p p l i c a t i o n
of crack growth and failure of concrete
is
crack growth.
on the other hand,
Zaitsev
in-
crack growth
attention must be given to individual
(15) has laid down the foundations
in rock,
After
that subsequent
the effect of stress concentrations
tributed
interface orientation,
by the stress fields at the crack tips and that,
Fracture mechanics
work
comes about.
formation of cracks at aggregate m a t r i x
they fail to recognize
special
on the
bond is broken
it is just one step in breaking
system into a number of weaker,

eventually
deterioration
local stresses.
the formation
the inherent weak-
and try to explain,
level for each particular
on the existing
bond is broken,
recognize
interface
is very appro-
on crack growth.
how progressive
they propose
at a given stress
w i t h concrete
information
behavior models
behavior of con-
to concrete,
in c o m p r e s s i o n
some n o t e w o r t h y
fields was con-
(18) in the field of rock mechanics.

(17) analysed
under the assumption
the effect of inclined cracks
that load t r a n s m i s s i o n
across cracks
occurs.
Based upon this background
information
an attempt was made
to describe more closely the nature of crack p r o p a g a t i o n

crete,
and specifically
microcracking
to investigate
leads to actual
Experimental
the m e c h a n i s m s
in c o n -
by which
failure.
Study of the Process of Crack Growth
Five series of plain concrete
prisms,
lo by lo cm cross
366
Vol. 3, No. 4
FRACTURE MECHANICS, CRACKPROPAGATION, COMPRESSION

section,
and
sustained
3o cm high,
compressive
were
tested
under
load h i s t o r i e s
in o r d e r
of p r o g r e s s i v e
crack growth
and
tested
as s p e c i m e n s
from w h i c h
were
as well
removed
surfaces
on two
was
to e x p o s e
US Type
ratio
as d e t e r m i n e d
details
on
The
prisms
were
cracks
using
This
used
technique
fluorescent
particles
Since
the
fluorescent
crack w i d t h
they
are
a line d e l i n a t i o n
violet
light.
to take
pictures
To take
held
constant
Fig.
stages
covered
a picture
30 seconds.
med.
of the
the
out
The o t h e r
growth
were
particle
of
fine
fluid,
surface
being
smaller
of a crack,
by a crack.
larger
than
surface,
seen
with orange
under
of
level,
taken
and the
of a sawed
surfaces.
strain
to set
was
for
loading
surface
used
loading.
the
and a l l o w e d
ultra-
were
of the v e r t i c a l
stress
the
forming
filters
stages
equip-
fluorescent
area o f f e r e d
is r e a d i l y
then
of the
method.
interior
in g e n e r a l ,
ink was a p p l i e d
on two op-
sides
by o b s e r v i n g
to the
third
a water-
and p h o t o g r a p h i c
at v a r i o u s
the center
series.
(19).
at the c r a c k
such p h o t o g r a p h s
resu-
at v a r i o u s
of loading.
Crack p a t t e r n s
ly from
fying
are,
equipped
The p h o t o g r a p h s
1 shows
in
of the
at a p r e d e t e r m i n e d
while
the
of the c o n c r e t e
were measured
absorption
surfaces
sawing
230 k g f / c m 2. F u r t h e r
filtered
crack w h i c h
Two c a m e r a s
The p h o t o g r a p h s
crack
are a t t r a c t e d
filtered
of the
was
strains
as the
particles
were
5 mm thick
with
strength
of a d i s p e r s i o n
as a r e s u l t of the i n c r e a s e d
layers
1:3.9:4.5
28-day
The m o l e c u l e s
crack,
as-cast
of
and
the n a t u r e
for all test
ink p e n e t r a n t
is known
in a fluid.
were
specimens.
ink c o n s i s t s
than a p a r t i c u l a r
used
can be found
to i n v e s t i g a t e
a fluorescent
Specimens
surface
30 cm d y l i n d e r s
of the
to study
The p u r p o s e
was
average
and lateral
sides
cyclic
aggregates.
proportions
15 by
Longitudinal
vertical
The
Cement
of the test p r o g r a m
posite
ment.
the coarse
the m i x
of o.78.
failure.
by sawing.
I Portland
For m o s t mixes
cement
sides
short-time,
the p i c t u r e
lens
For
negatives
(8 x) was u s e d
the t r a c i n g s
at v a r i o u s
were obtained
quantitative
stages
cking was m o s t l y
with
transparent
plastic.
the
of the e x t e n t
direct-
A magni-
cracks.
From
of c r a c k i n g
w e r e made.
sawed
concentrated
the cracks
in i d e n t i f y i n g
evaluations
of l o a d i n g
specimens
onto
to help
by t r a c i n g
surfaces,
at a g g r e g a t e
load
independent
interfaces.
For
craspe-
(d) fc/fcup=O.92
(down)
(b) fC/fcup=o.94
(e) fc/fcup=O.63
(down)
direction
of loading
(c) fC/fcup = o.99
FIG. 1
Surface cracking at different stages of loading; short-time test,
sawed surfaces
(a) fC/fcup=O.O
0
Z
--I
~-~
0..~
~-4
m
C~
C~
W
0%
~4
4~
z
O
.<
o
368
V0]. 3, No. 4

cimens
with
surfaces
and had r a n d o m
orientation.
(fcup = s h o r t - t i m e
small
increase
terfacial.
was
longer
were observed
stages
of
orient
themselves
ned
crack
into
stresses
wide
one
loading,
a tendency
overall
test
stages
cyclic
fcup
(minimum
before
cracking
failure.
was
at late
there was
stages
at o.95
was
cup
cases the
wide
For
Close
cracks
with
related
the e x t e n s i o n
well
For
of the curve,
usually
to failure.
increase
stress
increase
Wide
appeared
of
3o .
at early
at o.85
stages
did
than
a maximum
growth
tests
from
cracks,
immedia-
fcup m o r t a r
sustained
loa-
in the e x t e n t
of
for c y c l i c
tests
similar
to that of c y c l i c
initial
application
some
crack
cracks
increase
tests
of loading
extending
was
on sawed
into
spe-
at o.85
caused
the m o r t a r
significant,
and also
developed.
specimens
load was
a marked
growth
with
to f a i l u r e
at early
strai-
loading.
of crack
In b o t h
cup"
considerable cracking
phase.
of
with
tests,
load
were
A cnsiderable
close
loa-
in o r i e n t a t i o n
crack
short-time
of
curve.
portion
specimens
to
The rate of
load by more
interfacial.
observed
!ate
tendency
orientation
of a p p l i e d
sustained
At these
specimens
varied
level ~ o),
in the
cracking
:cuD'
stress-strain
average
at stages
For
already
The n a t u r e
cimens
cracks
on sawed
was m o s t l y
In addition,
cracking
These
stress
seen
the
in-
interfacia!
stages.
when
a signi-
to the d i r e c t i o n
in the d e s c e n d i n g
was o b s e r v e d
to those
At 0.95
cup
only
was
caused
had a m a r k e d
of the
but their
tests
of c y c l i n g
similar
ding.
found.
caused
previous
closer
largest
portion
fcup,
level
at e a r l i e r
from the d i r e c t i o n
in c r a c k i n g
tely
o.9o
to another,
For
of o.85
not o b s e r v e d
to 0.85
the mortar.
cracks
voids
of w h i c h m o s t
stress
into
around
of prism)
to interfaces;
was
load
of cracking.
were
not d e v i a t e
the
the g r o w i n g
the d e s c e n d i n g
cracks
of
to e x t e n d
increase
below
strength
in the extent
cracks
the
of cracking,
increase
restricted
concentrated
Increasing
compressive
Further
increase
ding,
it was
in the e x t e n t
ficant
no
as-cast,
surfaces
to voids,
of e x i s t i n g
as e x t e n s i o n
as-cast
both with
cracks.
of e x i s t i n g
rection.
Linking
of cracks
limited
to cracks
located
surface
along
was
stages
a nearly
growth
to new cracks
Orientation
cracks
at late
regard
crack
under
and to
of new cracks,
close
to the
of l o a d i n g
common
as
loading
di-
was m o s t l y
straight
line.
At
Vol. 3, No. 4
369
FRACTUREMECHANICS,CRACKPROPAGATION,COMPRESSION
1.00
=V)
W
n,"
FIG.
O.L,O .
Crack d e n s i t y on con-
iI
O_
crete surfaces
020
. . . . . . . .
~-
. . . . . . . .
b
0
0.5
1,0
TOTAL CRACK LENGTH / TRACED AREA.

failure,
served.
wide cracks of the type p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d ,
In Fig.
2 the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r e l a t i v e
cmlcm
were ob-
stress and total
crack length of the traced area of a s h o r t - t i m e test is given.

The same figure shows the crack length at failure
for s u s t a i n e d
and cyclic tests at d i f f e r e n t m a x i m u m stress levels.

It was
found that,
in general,
the m a c r o s c o p i c
terns at failure w e r e very similar for cyclic,

short-time
loading.
cracks was o b s e r v e d
crack pat-
sustained,
and
In most cases a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of wide

in the v e r t i c a l
surfaces of the prisms.
Most
of these cracks had an average o r i e n t a t i o n close to that of loading.
For the m a j o r i t y of specimens,
w h i c h almost
invariably occurred
long and wide inclined cracks,
in pairs,
were also o b s e r v e d
(Fig. 3). The average o r i e n t a t i o n of such inclined cracks varied

between
2o and 3o with r e s p e c t to the d i r e c t i o n of applied
load.
In some tests the wide cracks c o i n c i d e d with the p h o t o g r a p h e d

surfaces;
this p r o v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y to o b s e r v e the f o r m a t i o n
of these cracks.
For specimens w i t h sawed surfaces,
the h i s t o r y
could be t r a c e d back to smaller cracks w h i c h p r o g r e s s i v e l y
linked
to form the large and wide cracks.

These tests a s c e r t a i n e d the e x i s t e n c e of cracks
te b e f o r e loading
(1,5). They d e m o n s t r a t e d
tests the t r a n s i t i o n
in c o n c r e -
that for s h o r t - t i m e
from local i n t e r f a c e c r a c k i n g to the more ex-
tensive m o r t a r c r a c k i n g o c c u r s at stresses
o.85 to o.95 fcup" Also the p r o g r e s s i v e
in the n e i g h b o r h o o d of
a l i g n m e n t of c r a c ~ with the
370
Vol. 3, No. 4
FIG.
Concrete
failure
direction
of
with other
with
Although
pairs
of w i d e
servations
inclined
had been
is not
come about.
The f o r m a t i o n
cracks
the
that
existence
platens.
al.
(5) r e i n f o r c e
clined
failure
will
the w r i t e r s "
a consequence
cial
loading
belief
platens,
that
which
that m a j o r
provide
inclined
the
before
Some
least
in-
resis-
in an a z t e m p t
attributed
their
loading
and Richard,
formation
failure
et al
little
fur-
as a con-
by stiff
(21)
Kupfer,
cracks,
of
have
form of
very
3).
approach,
et al
is a f u n d a m e n t a l
of end restraint.
as soon
of p l a n e s
proveded
ob-
but w h a t m a k e s
(see Fig.
(3,6,12,15)
of Kupfer,
Similar
immediately
occur
friction
invariably,
What merizs
exist,
cracks
is formed
Others
the w o r k
surface
only
they o b s e r v e d
failure
to the end r e s t r a i n t
However,
at failure.
they
inclined
internal
behavior.
solely
that
to use t h e o r i e s
as C o u l o m b ' s
almost
(3,5,6,14,15,19).
tried
tance,
this
in
found
surface
have
to e x p l a i n
surfaces
is in a g r e e m e n t
vertical,
crack
vestigators
such
were
were
fact
of w i d e
suggests
inclined
on p a r a l l e l
is i n c r e a s e d
cracks
reported
them
failure
loading
most wide
discussion
tinuous
as
after
(3,5,2).
ther
or'at
specimens
i n c l i n e d cracks
loading,
studies
et
of an inand not
(19) used
spe-
restraint,
yet
at a p p r o x i m a t e l y
30
Vol. 3, No. 4
371
FIG.
Cement paste cylinders after failure
to the applied load, a p p e a r e d at failure

specimens.
Furthermore,
by p r o g r e s s i v e
for u n i a x i a l l y loaded
failure of cement paste c y l i n d e r s o c c u r s
spalling of thin v e r t i c a l
are tested w i t h stiff platens
sheets even when they
(Fig. 4).
Failure Model
On the basis of previous
tions d e s c r i b e d
in the previous
tual model of crack p r o p a g a t i o n

(a) M i c r o c r a c k s
investigations
sections,
and the o b s e r v a -
the f o l l o w i n g c o n c e p -
in c o n c r e t e
is proposed:
form initially at m o r t a r - a g g r e g a t e
interfaces;
most of these cracks are inclined w i t h respect to the d i r e c t i o n

of loading.
Under load,
mortar,
preferentially
cracks,
however,
the interface cracks p r o p a g a t e

in the d i r e c t i o n of the a p p l i e d
into the
load.
The
follow the weakest surfaces of the system.
(b) P r o g r e s s i v e
f o r m a t i o n of m i c r o c r a c k s
leads to a s y s t e m
c o m p o s e d of a large number of small c o n c r e t e elements w h i c h are

s e p a r a t e d by cracks with a p r e d o m i n a n t l y v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n .
(c) Failure,
however,
does not occur by p r o g r e s s i v e
the small individual elements,

to form one continuous,
This
but by the joining of small cracks
inclined fracture
failure c o n c e p t is d i f f e r e n t
since it c o n c e i v e s
failure of
surface.
from C o u l o m b ' s
approach,
failure as a c o n s e q u e n c e of p r o g r e s s i v e
cking, w h i l e C o u l o m b ' s a p p r o a c h assumes sudden
cra-
failure to occur
372
Vol
No.
'~

along
a given
The
tions
~lane
question
inclined
the
conditions
under
a limiting
to be a n s w e r e d
fracture
Therefore,
major
when
surfaces
interaction
which
small
Study
of
is h o w
form
cracks
and
from
was
individual
the M e c h a n i c s
Failure
An
analytical
to d e t e r m i n e
is the
surfaces
lead
stress
is r e a c h e d .
under
what
individual
studies
cracks
condi-
microcracks.
to d e s c r i b e
join
the
to form one
crack.
Model
tion
of
shear
The
their
of
analytical
infinite
which
surfaces.
is s h o w n
Only
in Fig.
such
study
proposition
the
formation
and
the
was
that
of
undertaken
crack
inclined
conditions
interacfailure
which
may
a surface.
consisted
isotropic,
Here,
transmit
straight
Propagation
Field
model
body.
can
the
for
model
in a h o m o g e n e o u s ,
to be c r a c k s
of
and
formation
dimensional
experimental
cause
in c o n c r e t e ,
Crack
in a C o m p r e s s i o n
the v a l i d i t y
primary
to the
cracks
and
of
of
and
inclined
linearly
frictional
forces
cracks
elastic,
cracks
across
were
frictional
are
and p a r a l l e l
considered.
two-
understood
to
The m o d e l
5.
PC ~.
p, "8
q -qo
-...'
CRACK
q-rq-V
-i
FIG.
Definition
of
t t-J
FIG.
5
crack
parameters
Extension
6
of
a crack
Vol. 3, No. 4
373
Cotterell
(21) proposed
direction w h i c h maximizes
of crack extension.
that a crack will propagate
the strain energy released
For a crack,
(22) that under t h e s e
leased is given by
{~
Ud = (U-uP) =
as a result
such as the one shown in Fig.
further extension were to move along curve

It can be shown
in the
(u+-u~)
n = no from 0 to P.
conditions
+ ~
[an
6,
the energy re-
-)]
(i)
d~
n (u~-u~
%
where
U d = strain energy released
upon extension
from O to P.
U p , U = strain energy of system at P and O, respectively

o
n'
a
= stresses
~n
&s the axial
~n
that exist on OP when crack is at O;

stress normal
is the shear stress along the same curve
: ),
(u+-u
(u~-u~)
= the relative d i s p l a c e m e n t s
surfaces
For the energy released

tive of eq.
to the n curve,
of the crack
on OP when the crack is at P.
to be a m a x i m u m
(i) must be equal to zero,
the first deriva-
and the second derivative
must be negative.
Suppose that there is a single frictional
2c, inclined at an angle ~ as shown in Fig.
crack of length,
5. The body is loa-
ded uniaxially with a stress
a I. When a I is transformed
equivalent
in the planes parallel
boundary
to the crack,
stresses
the following
stresses
into
and normal
are obtained:
a~ = alsin2 ~
a~+~/2
(2)
= alsin2(~/2+~)
x#,~+~/2
= alsin~ cos~
Since it was postulated
earlier
that stresses can be trans-
m i t t e d across and parallel
to the crack surface,
a normal
ua# will be generated
at the crack.
and a frictional
resulting
Using superposition
separated
stress
system of boundary
stresses
principles
The
7.
the system shown in Fig.
into two systems A and B
tem B result
is shown in Fig.
stress
7 can be
(Fig. 8). The stresses of sys-
in a u n i f o r m stress d i s t r i b u t i o n
throughout
the bo-
374
Vol. 3, No. 4
~~,c:. "r[/2
/f%
FIG.
0"~ ,,"1"[/2
Transformed
stresses
boundary
on a system
with a single,
tional
dy
(19). Thus no stress
tips.
Solutions
concentrations
for the stresses
tips of system A are generally

lar coordinates
(23):
r = 2 - ~
~2~
0 = 2 ~ r
~2~
rr0 = 2--~[~m2~
There,
Fig.
to
KI I = r
cos
8). Utilizing
sed as follows:
intensity
factor
for sliding mo-
The terms r and 0 are defined
~, at infinity
crack of length
in
2c
is:
The boundary
(Fig.
shear,
in po-
(3)
(23) KII for a straight
with u n i f o r m boundary
of the crack
cos
KII is the stress
5. A c c o r d i n g
at the crack
sin
(3cos0-1)
vement of the crack surfaces.
in the v i c i n i t y
crack
known and can be expressed
(3cos@-l)
(3sin@)
are g e n e r a t e d
fric-
(4)
shear of system A is T = ~,+~/2-p~
eqs.
2 and 4, KII for system A can be expres-
Vol. 3, No. 4
375
FRACTURE MECHANICS,CRACKPROPAGATION, COMPRESSION
Ill,.
~.'R/2
- -
T
System A
System B
FIG.
Stresses
KII =
and systems used in analysis.
(sine cos~ - u-sin2~)
The stresses
direction
given in eq.
aI
(5)
3 can be used to d e t e r m i n e
of initial crack extension.
The two most
tions in such a field are the directions

stress,
(ae)max,
likely direc-
of m a x i m u m
tensile
normal to the radial vector r, and the direc-
tions of m a x i m u m shear stress,
Tre.
It was
found
this system the direction of m a x i m u m tensile

occurs
(19) that for
stress,.
(ae)ma x,
at an angle of 8 = 70.5 , which is independent
tial crack orientation,

8 = O , i.e.
in the same direction
orientations
they will.
it was not possible
values
crack.
for the energy relea-
to show c o n c l u s i v e l y
It w o u l d have been necessary

in all directions
is the direction
at
are tested against Cotterell's
lead to local m a x i m u m values
the energy r e l e a s e d
direction
as the original
they both give stationary
sed. A l t h o u g h
of the ini-
4. The m a x i m u m value of rr8 occurs
When these two directions

criterion,
the
it is most
that both
likely that
to obtain expressions
for
in order to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h
of global m a x i m u m energy released.
Such study could best be approached
using techniques
such as the
finite element method.

It is of interest
to determine
the critical
~max' w h i c h is the initial crack o r i e n t a t i o n
orientation,
for w h i c h branching
376
Vol. 3, No. 4
f r o m the m a i n
crack occurs
would
have
tical
crack orientation
first.
to be a m a x i m u m .
In this e v e n t
It has b e e n
found
the v a l u e
(19)
for the case of a s i n g l e
that
crack
of KII
the criis g i v e n
by
~max
where
= @rc' t a n
2
p is the f r i c t i o n a l
crack surfaces.
Walsh
(i/u)
This
(17) u s i n g
result was
= arc tan
When
two or m o r e
in Fig.
from t h o s e d e t e r m i n e d
if the c r a c k s
s e n c e of m o r e
procedure.
by M c C l i n t o c k
It can be s h o w n
and
(19)
at an a n g l e
equal
in t e r m s
straight
(I/u)
(7)
cracks
are p r e s e n t
5, the s t r e s s e s
for a s i n g l e
are c l o s e
of s t r e s s
cracks,
line,
crack.
i.e.
(24) f o u n d
= T(~a)i/2
| K(k)
(b _ a 2) I/
tips
The effect
factors,
which
field,
differ
is p a r t i c u l a r l y
tip s t r e s s e s
two c r a c k s
b2E (k) _ a 2
KII(N)
This
to e a c h o t h e r .
intensity
Wilmore
in a c o m p r e s s i o n
at the c r a c k
than o n e c r a c k on the c r a c k
of two c o l l i n e a r
mon
also obtained
the two a d j a c e n t
not p r o p a g a t e ~ ~ is o r i e n t e d
~min
be s h o w n
between
than
such as s h o w n
true
coefficient
a different
that a c r a c k w i l l
to or h i g h e r
(6)
of the precan best
KII.
Take
fall
along
the case
a com-
that :
(8)
L
for the near
ends of the crack,
K I I ( F ) = r(~b) I/2
for the far ends,
and,
(9)
kK (k
Where,
k =
(l-a2/b2) I/2
K(k)
= complete
elliptic
integral
of the
E(k)
= complete
elliptic
integral
of the s e c o n d
a, b = c r a c k
For an i n f i n i t e
following
parameters
number
result
KII(~ ) = T
of
defined
collinear
has b e e n o b t a i n e d
2(a+c)
tan
in Fig.
cracks
with
first
kind.
kind.
5
equal
spacing
the
(25),
( ~ )
(io)
Vol. 3, No. 4
377
3.0
30 . . . .
2.0
~...
K I ] ~:,o]
K It [SINGLE)
(0 CRACKS )
K,,I
-~\
_
u.0LE,
1.0
:_1 o;
i". . . . . . . . . , 2 ~
'--h Ku (FJm END)
K i t (SINGLE)
(2 CRACKS)
's"0LE
) 2CRACKS)
K I I (SINGLE)
i
~zl-- o0
RELATIVE
Z.
CRACK SPACING
FIG.
2a
2c
RELATIVE
/.
CRACK SPACING. ~'c

FIG.
Io
Effect of crack spacing on
E f f e c t of c r a c k spacing on
KII - c o l l i n e a r cracks.
KII
Fig.
p a r a l l e l cracks.
9 shows the ratios of the KII values
cracks to the KII values
for c o l l i n e a r
for a single c r a c k as a function of 2a/
2c, w h i c h is indicative of the d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n cracks.
It is
evident that as the cracks b e c o m e closer and as the n u m b e r of

cracks increase the stresses at the c r a c k tips increase.
When a similar a p p r o a c h is used for the case of p a r a l l e l
cracks of equal l e n g t h
of various authors
obtained.
~ig.
Io), using the results of the work
(6,7), r e l a t i o n s
Once again the stresses
such as shown in Fig.
io are
increase w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r o x i -
mity and n u m b e r of cracks.

On the basis of these results
p r e s e n c e of several cracks
it can be c o n c l u d e d that the
in a s y s t e m s u b j e c t e d to c o m p r e s s i v e
stresses causes an increase in the crack tip stresses.

A n u m b e r of q u e s t i o n s
still are unanswered:
In w h i c h way
does crack i n t e r a c t i o n i n f l u e n c e the d i r e c t i o n of crack extension? Will the f o r m a t i o n of an initial b r a n c h crack lead to failure? To p r o v i d e answers to these q u e s t i o n s an e x p e r i m e n t a l m o d e l
study was performed.
378
Vol. 3, No. 4
Experimental Model.Study
- Single Cracks
P l a s t e r of Paris s p e c i m e n s
to study crack p r o p a g a t i o n
mulate
23 by 7.5 by 1.3 cm were used
in a c o m p r e s s i v e
stress
f r i c t i o n a l c r a c k s thin m e t a l pieces,
embedded
into the specimens.
thus the crack ~ n g t h ,
o.oi
To si-
cm thick, were
The l e n g t h of the m e t a l pieces and
2c, w e r e varied.
For each p a r a m e t e r under
study at least t h r e e s p e c i m e n s w e r e tested.

w e r e o.4:1 w a t e r to g y p s u m by weight.
s t r e n g t h of e l e v e n c o n t r o l
field.
The mix p r o p o r t i o n s
The a v e r a g e c o m p r e s s i v e
specimens without metal
i n c l u s i o n s was
165 k p f / c m 2. The s p e c i m e n s w e r e cast h o r i z o n t a l l y
in b a t c h e s of
four,
the fourth for
three specimens
c o n t r o l purposes.
b e f o r e testing.
for the crack g r o w t h
A c u r i n g time of four to five hours was a l l o w e d
Further
thods can be found in
i n f o r m a t i o n on the c a s t i n g and curing me-
(19).
In the tests the load was a p p l i e d

of a p p r o x i m a t e l y
40 k g f / c m 2 / m i n .
one of the v e r t i c a l
The v a r i a b l e s
crack inclination,
2c = 1.52;
continuously
for the s i n g l e c r a c k study were the initial
~, and the c r a c k length,
2c. Three crack in-
~ = 45 , 3o , 15 and t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
2.o3 and 2.54 cm were
under
(branching off the m a i n crack)
ably,
the b r a n c h c r a c k d e v i a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y
of the o r i g i n a l crack by an angle
According
0ie for the d i f f e -
to Table
1 0ie varied
and for ~ = 15 and

in the
For ~ = 15 the a v e r a g e v a l u e s of 0ie were
f o u n d to be c o n s i d e r a b l y
lower than -70.5 This d i f f e r e n c e
in part to s e c o n d a r y
stresses b e c o m e m o r e p r o m i n e n t
ses since the shear s t r e s s e s
can
s t r e s s e s w h i c h are i n t r o d u c e d
b e c a u s e of the finite t h i c k n e s s of the m e t a l

secondary
from the i n c l i n a t i o n
for 0ie are close to 7o.5 as p r e d i c t e d
study.
be a t t r i b u t e d
A l m o s t invari-
0ie.
l i t t l e w i t h r e s p e c t to the c r a c k length,
30 the values
a small b r a n c h
was observed.
1 shows the a v e r a g e v a l u e s of the angle

u n d e r study.
load r e a c h e d a given
study,
crack
rent p a r a m e t e r s
crack lengths,
investigated.
v a l u e d e p e n d e n t on the p a r a m e t e r s
analytical
using the fluores-
earlier.
It was o b s e r v e d that w h e n the a p p l i e d
Table
at a rate
C r a c k e x t e n s i o n was studied on
s u r f a c e s of the s p e c i m e n s
cent ink t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d
clinations,
study,
inclusions.
These
as the angle ~ d e c r e a -
also d e c r e a s e .
Vol. 3, No. 4
379
TABLE 1
Results
from Model Tests w i t h Single C r a c k s
8ie = A v e r a g e O r i e n t a t i o n of Initial B r a n c h E x t e n s i o n
Kiiie
= Stress
Intensity
Factors
fpu = F a i l u r e Stress k g f / c m
Crack Length
(o)
(kpcm - 3 / 2 )
Crack O r i e n t a t i o n
2c
(cm)
= 45
@ = 30
~ = 15
8ie
ie
KIIie fpu
8ie
KIIie fpu
KIIie f8u
1.52
-66
55.6 165
-6o
5o.5
159
2.o4
-64
52.6
159
-64
43.8
152
-52
45.8
157
2.54
-62
48.1
128
-62
45.5
147
-44
48.2 431
The i n i t i a t i o n of b r a n c h c r a c k i n g did not c o i n c i d e w i t h

failure since the b r a n c h cracks c o n t i n u e d to g r o w in a stable
manner with
increasing
progressively
load. As they grew their o r i e n t a t i o n became
aligned w i t h the d i r e c t i o n of a p p l i e d
For the tests w h e r e the initial
inclination,
load.
~, was either
45 or 3o two d i s t i n c t modes of failure were observed.

tests the b r a n c h cracks c o n t i n u e d to e x t e n d
until a g i v e n load was reached,
cracks b e c a m e unstable.
In some
in a stable m a n n e r
at w h i c h e x t e n s i o n of the
The cracks then p r o g r e s s e d
branch
to the
ends of the s p e c i m e n s p l i t t i n g it into two s e p a r a t e c o m p r e s s i o n

elements.
In most
instances these two e l e m e n t s
failed by out of
p l a n e shear or bending,
at a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same load at w h i c h
splitting occurred(Fig,
lla). This mode of failure was r e f e r r e d
to as s p l i t t i n g failure.
In other tests,
a second u n s t a b l e b r a n c h
crack formed and c a u s e d i m m e d i a t e failure.
A l t h o u g h the initial
o r i e n t a t i o n of these s e c o n d a r y b r a n c h cracks was not always exactly in the d i r e c t i o n of the initial cracks,
growth,
they c o n t i n u e d
m o s t cases the cracks

(Fig.
in the later stages of
in the d i r e c t i o n of the initial crack.

s e p a r a t e d the s p e c i m e n
llb and llc). This o c c u r r e d a l m o s t
In
into two blocks
i n s t a n t l y i n d i c a t i n g the
u n s t a b l e g r o w t h of the second b r a n c h crack.
Since the d i r e c t i o n
of g r o w t h tended to c o i n c i d e w i t h the d i r e c t i o n of the initial
380
Vol. 3, No. 4
FIG.
Failure
of P l a s t e r
of P a r i s
Specimens
Element
45
and
this
thus
i.e.
Branch
Failure
;
2,54
crack,
2c
was
taken
as
an
referred
to
as s h e a r
combinations
other
crack
inclinations.
shear
branch
cracks
splitting and
by
local
Failures
common
for
of
the
stress
used
Both
fie'
were
were
cm
extension
modes
of
also
different
branch
manner.
at
Although
failure,
observed.
than
for
and
the
cracks
observed,
were
initial
crack
crack
length.
factor,
Study
growth
The
KII,
KII
the
in r e f e r e n c e
In the p r e v i o u s
tensile
crack
Mixed
above
lengths.
1 suggests
Model
shear
somewhat
failures
to c r a c k
Experimental
was
in a s t a b l e
crack
intensity
is g i v e n
of
Crack
2c =
2,o4
cm
failure.
the
Branch
in a few
most
failu-
crushing.
increasing
in T a b l e
procedure
tension
larger
stress,
with
as g i v e n
Cracks
= 300;
mentioned
growth
shear
related
the
compressive
decrease
grew
Shear
2c =
indication
of the m o d e s
~ = 15 , c r a c k
occurred
Crack
2,o4
For
res
single
llc
= 3oO;
cm
was
instances
with
llb
lla
ii
found
values
The
of
at
applied
were
closeness
found
extension
property.
initial
branch
The
ex-
(19).
- Crack
section
it was
Interaction
pointed
out
to
of the v a l u e s
crack
a material
KII v a l u e s
the
extension
at i n i t i a l
to be
to be m o r e
that
initial
Vol. 3, No. 4
381
crack
extension
the d i r e c t i o n
sion.
It was
ly f o r m i n
ry b r a n c h
tension
with
predicted
also
crack,
predicted
such
nant mode
portant
of
fashion,
stant
were
crack
For
3o , w e r e
cings,
were
inclined
studied
collinear
arranged
cracks
investigated;
2a = 0 . 7 6 ,
1.52
found
for
and
that
similar
to s i n g l e
ching was
in m o s t
cases
to d e c r e a s e
As
in the
with
growth.
used
crack
failure
to be
stres-
that
to p l a y
an im-
models
step-like
hypothesis.
A con-
tests.
~ = 45 and
each
crack
3.o4
inclination
cm w e r e
cracks.
than
a decrease
single
The
three
spa-
used.
of
initial
stress
for
cracks
FIG.
Failure
near
crabran-
and
it w a s
spacing.
the b r a n c h
ris
branch
at i n i t i a l
single
in c r a c k
cracks,
if
the p r e d o m i -
Therefore,
in all
ex-
associated
c o l l i n e a r or
this
seconda-
thought
have
exten-
two c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n s
smaller
c a s e of
was
would
the o r i e n t a t i o n
was
found
therefore,
in e i t h e r
1.52 cm w a s
as the
to
occasional
shear
stresses
as h i g h
to t e s t
crack
surfaces
to the
the
interaction
close
of an u n s t a b l e
surfaces
of c r a c k
tensile
failure
It was,
in o r d e r
of
for
Yet,
almost
failure
crack
cracks,
length
It was
cking
analysis.
in the p r o c e s s
two
inclined
specimens.
failure,
part
containing
of
s e e m to be r e l a t e d
modes
control
occurs
to the e x t e n s i o n
in the
failure
formation
that
due
which
cracks
in the a n a l y s i s
found
the m o d e l
ses of the
the
in s i n g l e
cracks
!2
of P l a s t e r
Specimen
Cracks,
2a = 2c =
conti-
with
of PaColli-
~ = 45
o.52
cm.
382
Vol. 3, No. 4
nued
to
increase
towards
the
in m o s t
tests
2a,
two
the
Fig.
increasing
direction
in t h a t
cracks
12 s h o w s
Center
with
of
loading.
at
a given
were
a failed
joined
was
more
= 45 . A f t e r
the
two c r a c k s
ting.
were
found
In o t h e r
cracks
instances,
followed,
inclined
failure
the
at w h i c h
load
Table
2 the
were
surface.
The
considerably
failure
center
modes
center
the
exterior
length
almost
took
the
load
was
place.
specimens
lower
than
for
the
resulting
from
crack
and
split-
exterior
always
can
of an
were
to
seen
collinear
crack
shear
close
be
case.
for
branch
formation
As
extension
occurred.
causing
with
single
crack.
tensile
joined,
immediate
on and
spacing
at t i m e s
cracks
observed
branch
joining
joined
the
was
by a s h e a r
closest
failure
for
progressively
depended
the
joining
loads
which
for
after
to an
failure
after
in
leading
to b e n d
A new phenomenon
load,
frequent
to i n c r e a s e
and
abruptly
specimen
joining
cracks
load
from
cracks
Thus
definitely
the
pre-
dominant.
For
crack
ces
the
study
orientation,
between
ted;
for
o.o;
-0.76
cracks
~ = 30 was
cracked
each value
and
of
planes,
of
-1.52
"h"
in s t e p - l i k e
used.
Two
different
h = o.76
and
1.52
three
cm w e r e
different
studied.
TABLE
Results
from Model
Tests
fashion
with
cm,
one
normal
were
overlaps
The overlap
only
investiga-
between
between
Orientation
of
Collinear
Cracks
pu
= Stress
= Failure
Crack
Intensity
Initial
Factors
Branch
Extension
(kpcm
S t r e s s ~ g f / c m 2)
Crack
Spacing
Orientation
2c
= 30
= 45
(cm)
0ie
KII
f pu
i___~e
0
KII
fpu
0.76
-68
46.8
124
-64
49.8
12o
1.52
6o.7
139
-66
45.5
119
52.9
152
50.5
159
3.o4
cracks
(2c = 1.52
-3/2)
KIiie
cracks,
@ie = A v e r a g e
distan-
-71
5o.2
145
-52
-62
53.6
165
-64
(o)
cm)
Vol. 3, No. 4
383
is d e f i n e d
here as the h o r i z o n t a l
tips of the two cracks
(Fig.
As in the p r e v i o u s
considerably
continued
under
cracks
tests
cracks
load as the cracks

of a p p l i e d
in the m a j o r i t y
In m o s t
cases
crack
or s p l i t t i n g
shown
re smaller
than
not as m a r k e d
Failure
in Table
3 in m o s t
for single
cracks,
13
of P l a s t e r
of Pa-
ris S p e c i m e n
with
like Cracks,
~ = 30 ,
step-
2c = 1.52 cm, h = 0.76

overlap
of
cracks
This was p a r t i c u l a r between
cracks.
a tensile
and j o i n i n g
tensile
In s o m e
failure
shear
cracks
cases
surface
cracks
it
(Fig.13)
extended
shear
branch
formation
into the d i r e c -
load.
as for c o l l i n e a r
FIG.
of the
joining
for c o l l i n e a r
about w h e n
suddenly
causing
themselves
to the tip of the other
to splitting.
by the d e v i a t i o n
the
cm o v e r l a p
the e x t e r i o r
at the e x t e r i o r
tion of a p p l i e d
-o.76
Moreover,
was o n l y p o s s i b l e
to o r i e n t
of the tests.
deviating
leading
interior
deviated
crack.
Although
came c l o s e
joining o c c u r r e d
formed
load.
joining was b r o u g h t
thereby
sometimes
As
and
from one crack
crack,
center
cracks
center
tended
was not as f r e q u e n t a s
for tests w i t h o.o,
rapidly
cracking
branch
ly true
Once
branch
g r o w t h of the t e n s i l e
in the i n t e r i o r
original
initial
initial
the d i r e c t i o n
the
5).
of the
it was o b s e r v e d
branch
between
from the d i r e c t i o n
increasing
towards
distance
= -o.76
cm.
cm,
cases
the failure
however,
cracks.
stresses
the d i f f e r e n c e s
we-
were
384
Vol
3, ;~o. ~
TABLE
Results
from Model
Tests
with
Step-Like
(~ = 30 ', 2c = 1.52
Overlap
ween
bet-
Average
h = 0
cm
h = 1.52
16o
134
15o
14o
1.52
152
162
14o
159
158
195
crack
the
that
basis
extension
at h i g h
from
crack
crack
of
inclined
curs
the
from
single
these
inclined
crack
extension
failure
patterns
case,
been
it has
suggested
by
The model
cracks
form
an
shown,
that
the
tests
frequently
leads
However,
of
in a c o n c r e t e
between
the
It is,
nations
for
te s u c h
as
"How
is the m e a n i n g
random
of
questions
can
on
ultimate
the
observed
of
the
bas~
of
the
unloading
of
that
crack
of
portion
reduced
as c o n c r e t e ,
by s h e a r
arranged
!at=er
overlap,
failure
spacings
a direct
compari-
of
concrete.
reasonable
model?
the
incli-
and
propagation
in all
of
between
inclined
concrete
fracture
not
pattern
of C o n c r e = e
sizes
permit
and
strength
in s o m e b u t
of
to p r o v i d e
regarding
the
positive
interaction
not
possible
oc-
result
In the
Failure
formation
the m o d e l
of
branch
necessary.
to the
does
also
cracks
surface.
distribution
system
behavior
some
only
to the
nevertheless,
be d e f i n e d
surfaces
the
of
be c o n -
failure
are
such
requirements
that
may
either
coalescense
shown
cases,
stresses
cracks
is not
shear
to a f f e c t
be c a u s e d
Studies
have
shown
cm
it can
from
surfaces
inclined
(18),
of M o d e l
surfaces.
cracks
may
to
Application
in s u c h
multiple
surfaces
Bombolakis
but
study,
result
failure
by p r o g r e s s i v e
in s t e p - l i k e
may
been
the
with
model
failure
has
case
systems
or
cracks,
which
In this
For
surfaces
Inclined
interaction
growth.
experimental
failure
stresses.
considerably.
te~
h = o.76
142
cluded
son
pu
119
On
ned
Single
as
at F a i l u r e ,
- o.76
-
of
cm)
(kgf/cm 2 )
Cracks
(cm)
crack
Stress
Crack~
expla-
in c o n c r e -
in a s h o t - - t i m e
Why
are
short-time
failure
tes%s?
stress-strain
cur-
ve?"
It has
been
noted
in S e c t i o n
2 that
in c o n c r e t e
What
interface
Vol. 3, No. 4
385
cracks
form p r o g r e s s i v e l y under i n c r e a s i n g load. W h e n a g i v e n
stress level is reached,
cracks w i t h i n c l i n a t i o n s c l o s e to the
c r i E i c a l c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l start to p r o p a g a t e
tar.
into the mor-
C r a c k s w i t h o t h e r i n c l i n a t i o n s will f o l l o w w h e n the load is
i n c r e a s e d further.
The stress at w h i c h and the m o d e by w h i c h a
given crack e x t e n d s
into the m o r t a r will be d e t e r m i n e d by the clo-
seness of o t h e r cracks.
If cracks are i n i t i a l l y
will e x t e n d in a m a n n e r
similar to that of s i n g l e cracks
model,
far apart,
i.e., a b r a n c h will form w h i c h will p r o g r e s s
d i r e c t i o n of the a p p l i e d
load.
a crack
in the
towards the
If cracks are i n i t i a l l y close or
if, as a r e s u l t of b r a n c h extension,
they come close together,
they will m o s t likely c o a l e s c e as a r e s u l t of the e f f e c t of crack

interaction
leading to t e m p o r a r y u n s t a b l e crack growth.
cracks are i n i t i a l l y small,
Since
the j o i n i n g of cracks will give rise
to a larger crack w h i c h is stable u n l e s s

crack c l o s e b y causes a s u b s t a n t i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h another
i n c r e a s e in the crack tip stres-
ses so as to favour further crack joining.
The f o r m a t i o n of larger,
s u b c r i t i c a l c r a c k s as a result of crack i n t e r a c t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t

joining will b e c o m e m o r e p r o n o u n c e d as the a p p l i e d
sed. E v e n t u a l l y ,
load is increa-
the joining of two cracks causes the f o r m a t i o n
of a c r i t i c a l crack, w h i c h may give rise to s p o n t a n i o u s b r a n c h ext e n s i o n from its tips.
Such e x t e n s i o n may o c c u r first in the di-
r e c t i o n of the a p p l i e d load, s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s ,
of m a x i m u m radial
shear.
The stress at w h i c h a c r i t i c a l crack of
this n a t u r e forms c o r r e s p o n d s
te, f
cu"
An i n c l i n e d
stress,
in the d i r e c t i o n
to the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of concre-
failure surface w o u l d always r e s u l t if the
fcu' w e r e m a i n t a i n e d
long enough.
The r e a s o n that some
time under constant, m a x i m u m load is r e q u i r e d b e f o r e a failure

surface is f o r m e d may be found in the c r a c k a r r e s t i n g a c t i o n of
a g g r e g a t e s w h i c h m a y be s u f f i c i e n t to m o m e n t a r i l y
growth.
If the load is r e d u c e d
been reached,
s l o w d o w n crack
i m m e d i a t e l y after u l t i m a t e
load has
as is n o r m a l l y done in m o s t c o n c r e t e testing,
speed of s p o n t a n e o u s
crack e x t e n s i o n m a y be slowed down.
the
In o r d e r
to c h e c k crack g r o w t h c o m p l e t e l y the load w o u l d have to be removed instantly.

rate,
Normally,
however,
the load is r e d u c e d at a slower
t h e r e b y c a u s i n g a slower, but c o n t i n u e d e x t e n s i o n of b r a n c h
cracks and, c o n s e q u e n t l y ,
increased deformation.
This explains
386
Vol. 3, No. 4
why,
in the studies of surface crack g r o w t h for s h o r t - t i m e
tests,
an i n c r e a s e in the total crack length in the d e s c e n d i n g p o r t i o n

of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve was observed.
Such crack g r o w t h o f t e n
leads to the f o r m a t i o n of large, w i d e cracks w h i c h o c c a s i o n a l l y

break t h r o u g h aggregates.
ciently fast rate,
If the load is not reduced at a suffi-
an i n c l i n e d
failure surface will
causes the i m m e d i a t e c o l l a p s e of the system.
form w h i c h
Failure
surface for-
m a t i o n will o c c u r either by c o a l e s c e n c e of the b r a n c h e x t e n s i o n s

of the first c r i t i c a l
crack w i t h other cracks
sing a c c e l e r a t e d c r a c k extension,
b r a n c h e x t e n s i o n of the o r i g i n a l
In summary,
in the s y s t e m cau-
or by i n d e p e n d e n t
c r i t i c a l crack.
in a s h o r t - t i m e test an i n c l i n e d
face can form at any stage b e y o n d the u l t i m a t e

be a v o i d e d if by c o n t r o l l i n g the s t r a i n rate,
of b r a n c h cracks
is prevented.
accelerated
Thus,
stress-strain diagram corresponds
failure
strength.
sur-
It may
unstable extension
the d e s c e n d i n g part of the
to a c o n t i n u o u s
s e q u e n c e of li-
mit states and gives the stress w h i c h w o u l d cause u n s t a b l e b r a n c h

e x t e n s i o n and failure surface
cracking.
formation
for a g i v e n e x t e n t of
The larger the strain or the extent of cracking,
lower the stress w h i c h can cause u n s t a b l e
the
crack growth.
Conclusions
(i) C r a c k i n g w h i c h o c c u r s at s t r e s s e s of less than
cent of the u l t i m a t e
faces and voids.
is c o n c e n t r a t e d
As the load is i n c r e a s e d further,
cracks e x t e n d into the mortar.

loading direction.
Their o r i e n t a t i o n
inter-
interface
approaches
the
A similar b e h a v i o r was o b s e r v e d on m o d e l s of
Plaster of Paris, w h e r e
directions
at a g g r e g a t e - m o r t a r
85 per-
initially
i n c l i n e d cracks e x t e n d e d
into
close to the loading direction.
(2) In tests on plain c o n c r e t e

large, wide cracks
s h o r t - t i m e tests,
or s u s t a i n e d
invariably
specimens
it was noted that
form in the d e s c e n d i n g p o r t i o n of
as well as at stages close to f a i l u r e
load tests.
The m o d e l
studies
in cyclic
indicate that such
cracks are the r e s u l t of further e x t e n s i o n of cracks of c r i t i c a l

size, w h i c h will g r o w s p o n t a n e o u s l y u n d e r a g i v e n c o m p r e s s i v e
(3) M o s t failed s p e c i m e n s
failure w h i c h are c o n t i n u o u s
m a j o r part of the specimen.
stress.
showed large i n c l i n e d cracks at
and w h i c h t r a v e r s e the e n t i r e or a
Therefore,
it was p r o p o s e d
that fai-
Vol. 3, No. 4
387
lure of concrete
failure
is the result of the formation
surface which forms as a c o n s e q u e n c e
Studies on models with simplified

position.
There,
with various
relative positions
action and eventually
support this proclose cracks
to one another,
in most cases,
stress as a result of crack inter-
is formed.
from progressive
large enough
crack systems
pass through the entire
failure surface
te results
of crack interaction.
it was found that sufficiently
coalesce at a certain critical
inclined
of an inclined
specimen
Similarly,
failure of concre-
joining of small cracks until a crack
is formed, which will lead to spontaneous
tension and eventually,
so that an
to the formation of an inclined
crack exfailure
surface.
(4) The formation of an inclined
short-time
test may be delayed or prevented
tion of the applied

specimen
failure
load,
This reduction
of the load,
the aggregates,
restrains
and, consequently,
in a
by a continuous
thereby permitting
into the descending
surface
the straining
portion of the stress-strain

along with the arresting
of the
diagram.
action of
unstable growth of the critical
failure
reduc-
crack
surface formation.
References
I. T.C. Hsu, F.O. Slate,

6o, 2o9 (1963).
G.M.
Sturman and G. Winter,
2. G.S. Robinson, International

Concrete, London (1965).
3. T.C.
Hansen,
SP2o, ACI,
4. M.A.
Taylor and B.B.
43
Conference
ACI,
Proc.
on the Structure
of
(1968).
Broms, ACI, Proc.
61, 939
(1964).
5. F.E. Richart, A. Brandtzaeg and R.L. Brown, University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 185 (1928)
6. G.S. Robinson, International
Dams, Southhampton (1964).
7. B. Meyers,
Symposium on the Theory of Arch
F. Slate and G. Winter,
8. E. Reinius,
Mag.
Concr.
Res., 9,
ACI,
157
9. H.E. Roy, M.A. Sozen, SRS Report No.

University of Illinois (1963).
io. A. Baker, Mag. Concr.
Res.,
II, 119
Proc.
66, 6o
(1969).
(1956).
268, Dept. of Civ.
Eng.,
(1959).
ii. A. Brandtzaeg, "Failure of a Material Composed of N o n - I s o t r o pic Elements", Det. Kgl. Norske. V i d e n s k a b e r s Selskabs Skriften No. 12, Grandheim (1927).
12. M.A. Taylor,
ment Pastes,
"A Theory for the Deformation and Failure of CeMortars, and Concretes under General States of
388
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Stress", ACI, Proc.
13. S.P.
Shah, Ph.D.
68, 756
Thesis,
(1971).
Cornell University
(1965).
14. O. Buyukozturk, "Stress-Strain Response and Fracture of a Model of Concrete in Biaxial Loading", Report No. 337, Dept. of
Structural Engineering, Cornell University (197o).
15. J. Glucklich, "On the Compression Failure of Concrete",
Report No. 215, University of Illinois, March 1962.
16. T.V.
Zaitsev, Cem.
Concr.
Res.,
i, 1
TAM
(1971).
17. F.A. McClintock and J.B. Walsh, Proc., Fourth U.S. National
Congress of Applied Mechanics, II, lo15 (1962).
18. E.G. Bombalakis,
nology (1963).
Ph.D.
Thesis,
Massachusetts
19. S.I. Diaz and H.K. Hilsdorf, SRS Report No.

Eng., University of Illinois (1971).
2o. H. Kupfer,
(1969).
268, Dept. of Civ.
H.K. Hilsdorf and H. R~sch, ACI, Proc. 66,
21. B. Cotterell,
22. H.F. Bueckner,
Intern.
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Fracture Mech.,
ASME,
23. P.C. Paris and G.C.Sih,

ASTM (1965).
24. T.J. Willmore,
25. G.R.
Institute of Tech-
8__oo, iii
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Fracture Toughness Testing,
Quart. Appl. Math., 2, 53
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CEMENT and CONCRETE RESEARCH. Vol. 3, Pp. 363-388, 1973. Pergamon Press, Inc Printed in The United States

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CEMENT and CONCRETERESEARCH. Vol. 3, pp. 363-388, 1973.

Pergamon Press, Inc

In d i e s e r Studie w u r d e das W a c h s t u m von R i s s e n in Beton

Such studies have c o n c e n t r a t e d on the s t r e n g t h - d e f o r m a -

Such studies have been con-

in the o r d e r of 7o-90 % of fcu,

ding at high stresses,

loading it has been found

close to the d i r e c t i o n of loading

to 25 from the loading di-

has p o i n t e d out that initial

have had success

(9) their physical

They do not furnish

that the interfacial

the formation of tensile

lure model w h i c h considers

(16) has proposed

and cement pas-

voids as the significant

not directly related

of crack growth and failure of concrete

on the other hand,

attention must be given to individual

(15) has laid down the foundations

the effect of stress concentrations

by the stress fields at the crack tips and that,

formation of cracks at aggregate m a t r i x

they fail to recognize

it is just one step in breaking

system into a number of weaker,

the inherent weak-

and try to explain,

level for each particular

fields was con-

(18) in the field of rock mechanics.

under the assumption

the effect of inclined cracks

an attempt was made

to describe more closely the nature of crack p r o p a g a t i o n

Study of the Process of Crack Growth

Five series of plain concrete

FRACTURE MECHANICS, CRACKPROPAGATION, COMPRESSION

for all test

(c) fC/fcup = o.99

FRACTURE MECHANICS, CRACK PROPAGATION, COMPRESSION

TOTAL CRACK LENGTH / TRACED AREA.

wide cracks of the type p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d ,

stress and total

crack length of the traced area of a s h o r t - t i m e test is given.

and cyclic tests at d i f f e r e n t m a x i m u m stress levels.

terns at failure w e r e very similar for cyclic,

In most cases a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of wide

surfaces of the prisms.

of these cracks had an average o r i e n t a t i o n close to that of loading.

For the m a j o r i t y of specimens,

long and wide inclined cracks,

(Fig. 3). The average o r i e n t a t i o n of such inclined cracks varied

2o and 3o with r e s p e c t to the d i r e c t i o n of applied

In some tests the wide cracks c o i n c i d e d with the p h o t o g r a p h e d

For specimens w i t h sawed surfaces,

could be t r a c e d back to smaller cracks w h i c h p r o g r e s s i v e l y

to form the large and wide cracks.