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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
Warsaw University of Technology, Institute of Machine Design Fundamentals, Warsaw, Narbutta 84, Poland
Lille Mechanics Laboratory University of Science and Technology of Lille, Cite Scientifique, F-59655 Villeneuve dAscq, France
article
info
Article history:
Received 13 October 2009
Received in revised form
11 February 2010
Accepted 1 April 2010
Available online 21 May 2010
Keywords:
Granular material
Underpressure
Viscoplasticity
Experiments
Modeling
Evolutionary algorithm
abstract
The paper deals with a conglomerate, composed of granular materials encapsulated in a tight,
flexible envelope. The structure is submitted to an internal underpressure using a vacuum pump. The
underpressure value has a great impact on the behaviour and properties of the medium. The experimental
study and the modeling of this phenomenon are investigated in this work. Results of uniaxial tensile
tests and characteristic hardening curves are presented for structures filled up with plastic grains.
The nonlinear behaviour of such materials is modeled using the viscoplastic constitutive Chaboches
law, requiring determination of several material parameters. The parameter identification problem is
formulated as an optimization task and solved using the evolutionary algorithm. Simulated graphs follow
precisely the experimental curves. The proposed methodology can be easily adapted to other constitutive
models and experiments.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Structures composed of granular materials, encapsulated in
a flexible envelope and submitted to an internal underpressure,
reveal interesting and extraordinary features. The underpressure
value has a great impact on the behaviour and properties of such
a medium. This particular ability could be very useful in some
specific, practical applications.
The construction idea of this granular medium consists of filling
a tight envelope, having unlimited shape and dimensions, by a
loose material. The envelope should be reasonably flexible, to
provide an unbounded change of the contour, according to the
constructional demands. Typical material for envelopes could be
latex or a soft plastomer.
The granular material enclosed in a tight space enables an easy
change of the structural form and use of it as a kind of a plastic
bulk filling the special encapsulation. The envelope is connected
to the vacuum pump through a valve. After filling the form
with granular material, an internal underpressure is generated,
causing the stiffening of the structure. For an appropriate value
Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 22 234 86 79; fax: +48 22 234 82 86.
E-mail addresses: robertzalewski@wp.pl (R. Zalewski),
Mariusz.Pyrz@polytech-lille.fr (M. Pyrz).
1 Tel.: +33 3 28 76 73 94.
0141-0296/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2010.04.016
2425
Vw
V
V Vs
V
(1)
ms
(2)
ms
V g
(3)
2426
70000
Table 1
Proof stresses for different strain rates.
= 1,1*10-2 s-1
1.1 10
1.1 104
6.2 106
3.9 102
8.6 103
7.9 103
stress [Pa]
50000
= 1,1*10-4 s-1
= 6,2*10-6 s-1
30000
10000
0.001
0.002
0.003
strain[.]
Fig. 2. Tension curves of granular specimen, obtained at various strain rates.
=
=
l l0
l
4F
d2
(4)
(5)
2427
exp. data
03
interpolation
0,03
s-i = k
0,015
02
0,00001
(log.scale)
01
0,001
02
0,1
0
01
03
s-i
Fig. 3. Setting up of the strain independent strain rate for the granular structure.
80000
PP
PP; 0.04 MPa
PP; 0.02 MPa
[Pa] 40000
PS
E [Pa] 2.00E+07
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.06
[.]
Fig. 4. Stressstrain curves for polypropylene specimens at the various ranges of
underpressure values.
0.04
0.06
0.08
underpressure [MPa]
0.1
Fig. 6. Experimental results of the Youngs modulus measurements for the wide
range of applied underpressures; polypropylene and polystyrene grains.
6.00E+04
PP; 0.08 MPa
PP; 0.06 MPa
80000
K [Pa]
4.00E+04
PP
PS
2.00E+04
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
underpressure [MPa]
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
[.]
Fig. 5. Stressstrain curves for polystyrene specimens at the various ranges of
underpressure values.
Fig. 7. Experimental results of proof stress measurements (k) for the wide range of
applied underpressures; polypropylene and polystyrene grains.
3. Constitutive model
A large number of viscoplastic constitutive models have been
proposed in the literature, e.g. [13,14], but they are mainly
focused on nonlinear behaviour of metals. In this paper, the
use of the classic Chaboche model is proposed to describe the
basic mechanical properties of granular structures submitted to
underpressure.
The detailed description of Chaboches model of viscoplastic
flow is presented, for example, in [15]. Assuming the HuberMises
yield condition, also an isothermal condition, it is expressed in the
following form
E I =
2
3
S0 X0
J (S0 X0 )
(6)
2428
p =
E I : E I
12
As a result, the final form of the stress function for the uniaxial
case may be rewritten as
(7)
J S0 X0 R k
p =
+ m1
,
( = 1, 0 1/s),
(8)
hxi =
(x + |x|) .
(9)
Chaboches model equations for the uniaxial tensile test are found
by taking the following matrix representations of the stress tensor
S, the stress deviator S0 and kinematical hardening functions X0
"
S=
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 ,
0
S0 =
0
0
,
1
(11)
X0 =
0
(10)
(12)
(13)
For the considered uniaxial case, the initial equation (6) becomes:
| X | R k
n
sgn( X ),
(14)
also
X =
2
3
a I c X | I |,
(15)
and
R = b (Q R) | I |
(16)
2
3
a
c
(20)
(21)
m
I
= k + Q 1 eb + K I .
(22)
J S0 X0 = | X |.
a
I
1 ec ,
3 c
I
R = Q 1 eb .
X =
I =
(19)
= X ( I , X0 , 0I ) + R(| I |) + k + K | I |m .
+ X0
2
3
a
c
R = Q 1 exp(b |p |) ,
exp c I 0I
(17)
(18)
M
X
exp
p pnum (c1 , . . . , cN ) min .
i
(23)
i=1
M
X
exp
2
i inum (c1 , . . . , cN ) min .
(24)
2429
i=1
s
F (c1 , . . . , cN ) + 1
max .
(25)
cimin ci cimax
exp
exp
i = 1, . . . , N .
(26)
5. Numerical results
The efficacy of the proposed method will be studied numerically for polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) grains, and experimental results presented in Figs. 4 and 5.
Six material parameters E , k, Q , b, K , m of Chaboches model
are determined numerically using the optimization formulation
described by Eq. (24) and the fitness function defined by Eq. (25). In
order to study the efficiency of the EA identification, the program
has been run independently 20 times and the average values have
also been investigated.
In the EA identification method, the stressstrain curves have
been simulated in the nonlinear strain range. The objective function in Eq. (24) has been formulated by taking M = 20 comparison points regularly disposed over the strain domain from
= 0.005 to = 0.035.
The Evolutionary Algorithm applied the population of 150
individuals, the single arithmetical crossover operator (with
pc = 0.60 probability) and the non-uniform mutation (with pm =
0.15 probability). The 150 generations have been investigated and
the selection procedure employed the tournament ranking using
the random pairs. Moreover, the elitist approach replaced the 6
worst individuals in the new generation by the best individuals
found in the previous generation. The Evolutionary Algorithm
approach is a stochastic search method, intensively making use
of random numbers and giving different propositions of solution
at the end of the iterative process. For this reason, several
2430
0,08 [MPa]
90000
90000
0,06 [MPa]
70000
0,04 [MPa]
[Pa] 70000
[Pa] 50000
0,02 [MPa]
experimental results
numerical simulations
50000
30000
experimental results
10000
30000
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
numerical simulations
0.005
[.]
90000
[Pa] 70000
50000
experimental results
numerical simulations
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
[.]
30000
0.01
0.02
0.025
0.03
[.]
Fig. 9. Result corresponding to average value over 20 runs for polystyrene
submitted to underpressure 0.08 MPa.
independent runs of the program have been carried out for each
example.
The identification process of Chaboches model material
constants will be studied in detail for underpressures 0.02, 0.04,
0.06, 0.08 MPa.
5.1. Polystyrene sample
The 6 parameters of Chaboches law applied to the description
of polystyrene grain behaviour have been searched within the
following, relatively large limits: 5 107 E 108 Pa, 104
k 105 Pa, 104 Q 105 Pa, 1 b 102 , 106 K
108 , 0.5 m 1.5. The lower and upper bounds were
chosen according to results of previous works [13] devoted to
an analytical determination of material constants for the same
constitutive law.
The first example has been carried out for the underpressure
0.08 MPa. In Fig. 8 the results of 20 runs of the EA identification
program are presented.
One can see that the applied stochastic method gives very
similar solutions within the studied strain domain 0.0050.035
(with slight differences at the extreme limits of the studied
strain domain). However, similar curves can be generated by
applying relatively different values of the six parameters. The curve
corresponding to average values over 20 independent runs of EA is
shown in Fig. 9.
It has been generated for E = 3.238 107 , k = 5.717 104 ,
Q = 3.402 104 , b = 51.77, K = 7.899 107 , m = 1.302. Similar
performances have been observed for subsequent underpressure
values. In Fig. 10 the best results from 20 independent runs of the
Fig. 10. Best identification result for polystyrene submitted to underpressures 0.02,
0.04, 0.06, 0.08 MPa, from 20 independent runs of the EA identification procedure.
80000
70000
[Pa] 60000
50000
experimental results
numerical simulations
40000
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
[.]
Fig. 11. Results of 20 independent runs of EA identification of polypropylene grains
submitted to underpressure 0.08 MPa.
0,08 [MPa]
80000
0,06 [MPa]
60000
0,04 [MPa]
[Pa]
0,02 [MPa]
40000
2431
The results of the obtained numeric simulations (Figs. 812) confirmed the adequacy of Chaboches law to describe effectively the
acquired experimental results.
The solutions obtained by EA based identification are very
satisfying for the applied criterion given by Eq. (24). The
curves simulated numerically follow correctly and precisely the
experimental graphs. Very good results have been obtained even
for relatively large ranges of parameter variation. The repeatability
of the results has been studied for several independent runs of
the identification program. The graphical comparison of the results
with experiments was always very satisfactory (Figs. 8 and 11).
However, it is worth noting that similar curves could also be
obtained for different sets of material parameters. The ratio of
standard deviation with respect to the average value did not
exceed 8%, with the exception of the parameter K and E (only in
the first example). The average value curve (Fig. 9) shows clearly
the robustness of the approach. The main, well known, drawback
of EA methods resides in the large number of potential solutions
that have to be investigated to obtain the final result. In the studied
numerical examples, the CPU time was small, taking a few seconds
on a PC computer.
The presented methodology can be easily adapted to other
experiments which have been carried out. It seems also to be
suitable for a different constitutive model and various kinds of
investigated problems (temperature and strain rate influence,
cycling loading, etc.). The example instigated numerically in this
paper encourages further work on numerical simulation and
modelling of smart granular structures.
experimental results
20000
numerical simulations
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
[.]
Fig. 12. Best identification result for polypropylene submitted to underpressures
0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08 MPa, from 20 independent runs of the EA identification
procedure.
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