Salzburger Geographische Arbeiten, Band 42, S.

151 – 164, Salzburg 2008

Rethinking Urban Blue Spaces from a Landscape Perspective:

Species, scale and the human element

David G. Gledhill1 and Philip James2

Abstract
The term “green space” is commonly applied to all open natural and semi-natural areas in built areas.
This term can be misleading as a proportion of urban “green” spaces are, in fact, “blue”; that is to say
that they contain surface water. As well as providing habitat for many species urban green / blue
infrastructure can bring people who are often divorced from the countryside into daily contact with
nature on their doorsteps. Ecological data was collected from 37 pond sites in the Borough of Halton
(Northwest England) from 2005 to 2006. The median species richness per pond was 28 invertebrate
species and 10 macrophyte species. A highly significant correlation was observed between pond
density and species richness. The relationship between richness of different taxa varied according to
scale, becoming more significant within clusters of ponds than within a single site. These findings
have significance for those involved in planning and managing urban environments further
strengthening the need for ecological networks in urban areas and indicating the need for a paradigm
shift in current management practices beyond single site strategies and single objectives, to the
creation of multifunctional landscapes incorporating consideration of nature conservation, sustainable
development and human well being.

Introduction
With predictions for climate change (LINDLEY et al 2006) and for further increases in the world’s
urbanised population (UN 2005) leading to demands for higher density urban housing developments
the need to explore and understand the functions of all elements of the fabric of urban areas comes,
once again, into sharp focus.
Urban areas exhibit a range of physical characteristics that can be distinct from rural locations.
Decreased humidity, wind speed and direct sunlight, and increased mean temperature, cloud cover and
frequency of severe storm events (NCC 1989). These characteristics are usually most severe in the city
centre and grade down towards the rural fringe, but may be ameliorated by local conditions. Such
conditions along with increased disturbance can bring about a change in species composition and
richness from the countryside to the city centre. The environmental stress hypothesis (GRAY 1989)
contends that the increase in environmental stress in urban areas produces a reduction in species
diversity, an increase in opportunistic species and a decrease in body size of dominant species.
Environmental disturbance is not always deleterious to diversity. CONNELL (1978) theorised that a
moderate or intermediate amount of disturbance can promote species richness by reducing species

1
D.G. Gledhill (Corresponding author). Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment, School of
Environment and Life Sciences, Peel Building, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester, M5 4WT,
UK; Tel: (+44) 0161 295 3136; e-mail: d.g.gledhill@pgr.salford.ac.uk
2
P. James. Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment, School of Environment and Life Sciences,
Peel Building, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester, M5 4WT, UK

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dominance. This Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis can be seen in effect, for example, in richness
of aquatic macrophyte species along canals. Richness is highest with moderate boat traffic. Disused
canals become dominated by a small number of aggressive species, while species are lost due to
turbulence in the most heavily used sections (MURPHY et al 1995). In the same way species richness
can be highest in suburban areas e.g. bird species (BLAIR 1999). This transitional zone suffers from
neither the dense built development of the inner-city nor the pressures of an intensive agricultural
landscape. From the ecological perspective, it is the patchiness and lack of connectivity typical of
many urban landscapes that are amongst the factors that most set them apart (TREPL 1995). While the
same fundamental ecological principals that govern rural ecosystems such as metapopulation,
succession and connectivity can equally be applied to urban settings their application must take into
account the intense affect of people (NIMELA 1999). These affects will vary from one urban location to
another depending on factors such as the density of development and the spatial arrangement of the
city. There is, for example a great degree of variation in the amount of green space to be found within
cities, even with one country.
The most recent UK government data (ODPM 2005) reveal a great variation in the amount of
identified green space (public spaces, parks and private gardens) in UK cities. For example only 6% of
the City of London is designated as green space compared to 71% of the City of Sheffield. Some of
these differences may be accounted for by the position of local authority boundaries which may (e.g.
Sheffield) include agricultural dominated rural areas as well as built urban areas. By focussing on the
word “green” in phrases such as “green infrastructure” and “green space” may, inadvertently, deflect
attention from other open space which may be described as “blue space” and “blue infrastructure” i.e.
ponds, lakes, reservoirs, canals, rivers, estuaries and open sea. Taking into consideration both the blue
and green spaces the proportion of soft space (i.e. not built development, roads etc.) in the City of
London increases to 12% and to 84% for Sheffield. In other locations the affect of combining green
and blue space is even more pronounced (ODPM 2005). These figures take into account only
freshwater habitats.
A review of greenspace projects carried out by LEES and EVANS (2003) on behalf of English Nature
(now Natural England) concluded that urban greenspace provide benefits to human populations
includes opportunities for recreation and relaxation and improved physical and mental health, and that
urban green space is a vital element in sustainable urban regeneration. The exact ways in which these
issues relate to urban blue spaces is less well defined, yet it is clear that blue spaces provide valuable
ecosystem functions to urban populations. Using the classification suggested by the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (UN 2005) these functions or benefits are regulating, cultural, supporting and
provisioning benefits and include benefits such as sustainable urban drainage, flood control, economic
development and, not least, providing an essential aesthetic component to everyday living and
working environments.
Water bodies in urban areas are not, however, always regarded with a positive attitude. Ponds and canals
can attract rubbish resulting in a pond looking unattractive. There are also risks of waterborne disease:
either from the water itself, or from potential disease vectors (such as mosquitoes) which are associated,
at least for part of their life cycle, with open water and the risk, especially to children, of drowning.
The authors of this paper will focus on ponds, one element of a range of surface water features, which
are defined by the conservation organisation POND CONSERVATION, formerly Pond Action, (1998) as
an area of between 2 m2 and 2 ha that holds water for at least 4 consecutive months of the year. In
urban areas ponds often occur in small fragments of land that may have both ecological and human
value both individually and together as a network (ENGLISH NATURE 1997a). The ecological value of
a single pond may be less important than that of the network or “pondscape” as a whole. The term
pondscape (BOOTHBY 2000) can be used to refer to the both the spatial and temporal (permanent or
seasonal) arrangement of ponds within a given area. Considering ponds at the landscape scale more
accurately describes how some species utilise this habitat. Pondscapes may be viewed in the light of
ecological principals typically associated with fragmented habitats (LEATHER and HELDEN 2005).

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In the urban context, green and/or blue corridors formed from roadside verges, hedges, river and
canals banks, ponds and connected domestic gardens provide for the movement of species within a
metapopulation from source populations, in ideal habitat patches, to sink populations, in sub-optimal
habitat patches (PULLIAM 1988), and allow for the flow of genes needed to maintain genetic diversity
(SUTHERLAND 1998). Metapopulation theory is concerned with the dynamics of semi-independent,
extinction prone populations occupying a mosaic of habitat patches, often of varying quality
(DEANGELIS and GROSS 1992, and DUNNING et al 1995), which are connected to each other by
dispersal. The patchy distribution of ponds within an urban environment might provide a classic
example of species operating according to metapopulation theory (LEVINS 1970). The dynamics of a
particular metapopulation depends on the landscape and on the species in question. Amphibians such
as the northern crested newt (Triturus cristatus) are less adept at dispersal than some invertebrates (e.g.
species of Odonata and Colepoptera some of which are strong flyers). The metapopulation dynamics
of T. cristatus has been well studied (e.g. SEWELL and GRIFFITH 2004).
Whilst freshwater habitats in rural settings have attracted research attention there is a dearth of data
relating to ponds in urban settings. Small urban water bodies have come into existence by a variety of
means. Thousands of ponds were dug across the rural landscape of Northwest England, to supply
livestock, as part of field drainage systems or as a by-product of the extraction of marl (a mineral clay
used as a soil improver) or brick clay. With the growth of towns and cities many of these former
farmland ponds have become part of the urban fabric, a process which is still ongoing. Some sites
have an industrial heritage associated with the canal infrastructure (e.g. docks to service canal boats)
or have been formed from disused and now disconnected sections of canal. In addition other urban
ponds have been created much more recently for specific reasons such as sustainable urban drainage,
nature conservation or as ornamental features of public open spaces and business developments.
Ponds in domestic gardens have received more research interest than other urban sites. Domestic
garden ponds are typically quiet small; a survey of 900 garden ponds in the Birmingham area (West
Midlands, England) found the mean pond area was 7.74 m2 (WYATT 1998). The research reported here
focuses on ponds in open public spaces, typically much larger (e.g. the mean area of ponds in the
sample used in this pare is 581.0 m2) and potentially exposed to a different set of public pressures.
Historically ponds are frequently lost from our built environment either by infilling during development
or as a result of other land use modifications. Examples of such behaviour can be seen by comparing the
number and distribution of ponds marked on historic maps with contemporary distribution data. High
density housing typical of many towns and cities which grew during the industrial revolution leaves little
space for open water. Remaining ponds were often filled in to improve public health. Since that time
ideas relating to the layout of towns have evolved. In England 21 “New Towns” were established
between 1946 and 1970. New Towns were an important element in a strategy to improve urban
conditions on a grand scale and aimed to improve living and working conditions both in war damaged
areas and in wholly new settlements. More latterly, in the early 1960s, their creation was a response to a
projected acceleration in urban population growth in the early 21st century. New Town developments
were an attempt to ease urban congestion and create a better, more sustainable quality of life than that
experienced in the overcrowded urban centres developed during the industrial revolution. Central to this
vision was the inclusion of substantive green spaces. Runcorn, which is located in the Northwest of
England, was designated a New Town on April, 10 1964 (ENGLISH PARTNERSHIPS 2005).
The design of the Runcorn New Town incorporated more open space than was present in the existing
adjacent developments and also left room for existing and new ponds. Hence the juxtaposition of
different urban plans (old town and New Town) provides a living laboratory in which the concepts of
urban landscape ecology can be tested.
The aim of the research reported in this paper is to test the hypotheses that greater species richness will
be observable in ponds which are part of a dense pond network compared to more isolated ponds and
that urban planning associated with Runcorn New Town development results in greater pond
ecological diversity than old town planning styles. The initial focus of this paper lies with the data

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collected on the ecological values and ecological benefits associated with these ponds. The authors
consider the way in which these sites operate as part of a functional ecological network and then go on
to raise issues for consideration as part of a wider, multidisciplinary research agenda set within the
context of sustainable urban development.

Methods
Study area
The study is focused in the administrative district of Halton (see Fig. 1), situated between Manchester
and Liverpool in the Northwest of England, which comprises two towns, Runcorn and Widnes,
separated by the River Mersey: Runcorn lies to the south of the river and Widnes to the north (see Fig.
2). The total area of the Borough is in the region of 91 km2 (ODPM 2005) and the 2004 population
was 118,000 (HALTON BOROUGH COUNCIL 2007). The relatively homogeneous solid geology of the
Halton area comprises Triassic strata of sandstone and pebble beds north of the River Mersey with
sandstone and mudstones predominating to the south. The solid geology is overlain by marine and
estuarine alluvium associated with the River Mersey, blown sands in the west and east, and glacial
deposits comprising glacial till (boulder clay, marl clay) and glacial sands and gravels (CROSS 2005).

Figure 1: Map of United Kingdom Showing the location of Halton in relation to London. Reproduced
from Ordnance Survey map data by permission of Ordnance Survey, © Crown copyright.(Ordnance
survey 2007).

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 Figure 2: Map of Halton Northwest England showing location of major urban centres,
Mersey Estuary and distribution of ponds surveyed.

The low lying areas of Halton either side of the river have been extensively developed for both
housing and commercial use. This has required large scale drainage of flood areas in the Mersey flood
plain. The two towns of Runcorn and Widnes developed separately in the 19th Century: Widnes
around the pioneering early chemical industry and Runcorn as a canal port with associated ship-
building and chemical industries such as tanneries and soap works that spilled across the river from
Widnes. Although chemical manufacturing remains important, the economy of the two towns has now
diversified into a broad range of other manufacturing and service industries. Runcorn experienced
rapid growth in the 1960s and early 1970s following its designation as a New Town. During this time
innovative public transport, shopping facilities and housing layouts were developed. Runcorn and
Widnes were united under one administration in 1996 with the creation of the Borough of Halton,
formerly part of the County of Cheshire.

Ecological survey and analysis methods

The Borough of Halton with its concentration of ponds and mix of both old established urban centres
and New Town developments provides an ideal study location in which to test urban applications of
landscape ecological theories and concepts. Between May 2004 and September 2006 detailed
ecological data was collected from 37 ponds. Selection of ponds to survey was stratified in order to
ensure representation of both new and old town sites, sites in both Widnes and Runcorn and a range of
successional stages. Also important was that all sites should have some degree of public access or
visibility.
Ecological assessment involved collecting data on a set of environmental variables: the six figure
Ordnance Survey grid reference, altitude, pH, pond base geology, shade, emergent vegetation cover,
grazing and area (POND CONSERVATION TRUST 2002), and sampling the invertebrates in all habitats
using a standard Freshwater Biological Association (FBA) pattern long-handled pond net with a mesh
size of 0.5 mm until no new species were recorded (GUEST and BENTLEY 1998). The presence of
amphibians was assessed visually (adults and eggs) and by netting (adults and larvae) (ENGLISH
NATURE 2001). All aquatic macrophytes rooted below the winter high water mark were recorded.

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Spatial analysis
Pond area was estimated from aerial photographs and satellite images (Google Earth ™) with
reference to known distances measured on the ground. Relationships between the location of ponds in
either New or old town were explored using the non-parametric, Mann-Whitney Test as the
distribution of data was found to be non-normal (using Minitab statistical software).
The pondscape of the Borough was established using data from the Ponds Research Unit’s Pond
Audit. This Unit is based in Liverpool John Moores University. The audit was constructed in 1995 –
1998 using Ordnance Survey map data and aerial photography as part of the EU funded Pond Life
Project, and holds data on pond distribution across the Northwest region of England. The number of
recorded ponds in each 1 km2 Ordnance Grid square was counted. In order to take account of the
wider landscape a running total for each 1 km2 grid square was calculated by summing the number of
ponds in each adjoining grid square i.e. the value for one specific square was the sum of the eight
adjoining squares plus the number of ponds in that square. For the purposes of this paper the result of
this calculation is termed ‘cumulative density’. In this way the landscape scale variation in pond
numbers could be visualised. Linear correlation analysis (using Microsoft Excel) was used to explore
relationships between the pondscape density in which a sample pond was located and the invertebrate
and floral richness of the sample ponds.
Surveyed ponds where arranged into clusters based on each pond in the cluster being a no more than 1
km from its next nearest neighbour. This represents a functional connection between sites based on the
dispersal of T. cristatus (ARNTZEN and WALLIS 1991, and SWAN and OLDHAM 1993). It can be
assumed that if the pond landscape is suitable in its spatial arrangement for this species of
conservation importance then it will meet the needs of the majority of invertebrate species which have
equal or greater powers of dispersal. Regression analysis (using Minitab statistical software) was used
to test the nature of any relationship in species richness between taxa.

Results
The Ponds Research Unit’s Pond Audit estimates 391 extant ponds within the 91 km2 of Halton
Borough Council. The mean surface area of ponds in the sample was 581.0 m2 (± 256.0 m2). This
indicates the variation in the size of water bodies from small ponds to sections of disused canals.
Extrapolating from this, it can be estimated that the 391 or so sites cover an area of approximately 23.5
ha. According to the ODPM (2005) 15% of Halton is open water. Approximately 10% of the total area
of the Borough is covered by the Mersey Estuary (and major canal arteries). Ponds potentially account
for 3.5% of the Halton area (with streams and ditches accounting for the remaining 1.5%) and, hence,
pond ecosystems account for a significant proportion of surface water outside the Mersey Estuary.
This makes them a potentially significant resource with regard to functions such as the mitigation of
the heat island effect and retention of storm water run off.
Detailed ecological data from the 37 ponds surveyed between 2004 and 2006, revealed a total of 119
species of aquatic macro-invertebrates and 57 species of aquatic macrophytes. The median values per
pond were 28 species of invertebrates and 10 plant species
There were significant differences in the richness of aquatic species found in the older established
urban areas that constitute the original settlements of Widnes and Runcorn (located on both sides of
the River) and the purpose built New Town developments created in the 1960s on the southern side of
the River. The median number of species was 11.5 in New Town ponds and 9.0 in old town ponds.
Analysis using the Mann-Whitney test indicated this difference to be statistically significant
(W=369.5, P= 0.045). The difference for aquatic invertebrates was even higher. The median number
of species per New Town pond was 37.0, compared to only 18.0 for old town sites (W=409, P<0.001).
Those ponds with the highest species richness were located in the New Town area, this distribution is
especially apparent with aquatic invertebrates (see Fig. 3 and 4).

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Figure 3: Schematic distribution of ponds in the Halton study. Numbers next to each point indicates
the richness of aquatic invertebrates species found at each pond. Diagonal line indicates approximate
position of the River Mersey in relation to ponds, shaded area indicates New Town (north top).

Figure 4: Schematic distribution of ponds in the Halton study. Numbers next to each point indicates
the richness of aquatic macrophytes species found at each pond. Diagonal line indicates approximate
position of the River Mersey in relation to ponds, shaded area indicates New Town (north top).

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Pond audit data showed ponds to be at significantly higher densities in the Runcorn New Town area
than in the older Runcorn and Widnes areas, with a cumulative density (see methods) of 49 ponds
compared to only 32 respectively (W=455.0, P<0.001). This difference in pond density is reflected by
a significant difference in the richness of species within the sample ponds (see Fig 5 and 6). As the
pond density increases so does the richness of both invertebrates (R=0.742, P<0.001) and plants
(R=0.528, P<0.001).

60

50
Invert Diversity

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Pond density - ponds in adjoining 1km grid squares

Figure 5: Relationships between the pondscape density in which a sample pond was located and the
invertebrate richness of the sample ponds.

30

25

20
Plant Diversty

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Pond density - ponds in adjoining 1km grid squares

Figure 6: Relationships between the pondscape density in which a sample pond was located and the
botanical richness of the sample ponds.

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The species richness of plants and invertebrates is linked, both on a pond to pond basis and at a larger
landscape scale. Regression analysis indicated that plant species richness accounted for 41.0% of the
variation in invertebrate species richness. However, looking at the richness of plant species across a
cluster of ponds (where each pond is no more than 1 km from its nearest neighbour) then the strength
of this relationship increases dramatically. The richness of plant species within each cluster accounted
for 83.0% of invertebrate species variation within the cluster (see Fig 7 and 8)

Figure 7: Relationship between botanical and invertebrate richness within ponds in Halton. Showing
closeness of fit to regression analysis. Species richness of invertebrates = 9.38578 + 1.64695 species
richness of plants, R-Sq (adjusted) = 41.0%

Figure 8: Relationship between botanical and invertebrate richness within clusters of ponds in Halton.
Showing closeness of fit to regression analysis. Species richness of invertebrates per cluster = 6.74157
+ 2.23034 species richness of plants per cluster, R-Sq (adjusted) = 83.4%

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Four of mainland Britain’s seven native species of amphibians were found in the ponds surveyed.
These were the common frog (Rana temporaria), the common toad (Bufo bufo), the smooth or
common newt (Lissotrition vulgaris formerly Triturus vulgaris) and the great or northern crested newt
(Triturus cristatus). T. cristatus is a UK priority species (ENGLISH NATURE 1997) and was found to be
breeding in 4 ponds (11% of the sample). Three of the breeding sites where located within a large area
of urban greenspace consisting of open parkland, meadow and woodland known as Phoenix Park that
occupies 304 hectares in the centre of Runcorn. The other two ponds in which T. cristatus was found
were located on a golf course and had been created in conjunction with the local authority to add both
visual impact and biodiversity to the course.

Discussion
Ponds are designated as habitats of UK conservation importance (ENGLISH NATURE 1997). A survey
of 146 ponds in the City of Cardiff, Wales (RICH 2000) found a median of 19.1 species of macrophyte
per pond, a number double the 9.6 species per pond reported by the National Lowland Pond Survey
(POND ACTION 1998). Between 1995 and 1998 the Pond Life Project surveyed 1000, mostly rural,
sites in the Northwest of England (GUEST and BENTLEY 1998). Median diversities of 32 species of
invertebrates and 22 species of aquatic macrophyte per pond were recorded. The decrease in floral
richness in urban Halton compared to neighbouring rural districts can be seen as evidence supporting
GRAY’s (1989) environmental stress hypothesis on a regional level. However, the botanical richness of
Halton’s ponds (median richness 10 species per pond) is comparable with the national survey (Pond
Action 1998). It is possible that the high density of ponds in the Northwest of England is responsible
for producing a higher richness of species than the national average. Thus although botanical diversity
has not been reduced to below expected levels for most parts of Britain, it is still lower that the
potential for the region. Both the Halton and Cardiff studies illustrate the positive role that ponds have
within the context of urban ecosystems.
Significant differences could be seen between the number of both plant and invertebrate species per
pond found at new and old town ponds, with New Town ponds exhibiting the highest richness (see
Figs. 3 and 4). Many of the old town sites have been subject to infill development in the last 5 years
and some of the secondary housing developments are more recent than those in the New Town
development. It is possible that while the New Town ponds have had time to recover from the
disturbance of development the old town sites have not. Much insight could be gained from
longitudinal studies in these newly developed areas to assess the long term impact of changes in the
surrounding landscape.
The density of ponds in the landscape can clearly been seen to be a major contributing factor to the
richness of both aquatic macrophytes and invertebrates (see Figs. 5 and 6). Both groups exhibit their
greatest species richness in the densest of pondscapes. In the Borough of Halton these highest densities
can be found in the New Town areas with their increased provision of open access greenspaces in
which the ponds are situated and with lower levels of built density. Previous work on the same
pondscape has shown a moderate decrease in species richness of both plants and invertebrates with an
increase in housing density (GLEDHILL et al 2006). The data presented both here and from the
previous study provide evidence for the need to preserve the densest possible pond network within as
green a landscape as possible to maximise the ecological value of urban ponds. With increasing
pressure on urban space and UK Government guidelines to increase urban infill development this is
set to become an increasing challenge in the future.
The richness of aquatic inverters and macrophytes can be seen to be positively related, with
invertebrate communities being richest in those ponds with the highest botanical richness. Furthermore
this relationship becomes much stronger at the pondscape scale when looking at clusters of ponds,
rather than individual sites. This would seem to reflect the mobility of invertebrate species within the

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network and suggest that maximising the ecological status of one pond relies not just on the in pond or
even the terrestrial conditions but also on the condition of other neighbouring ponds.
Urban habitats are frequently fragmented. Debate exists as to the relative merits of creating corridors
or mosaics of habitats (ENGLISH NATURE 1997a). Pond habitats are by nature fragmented, whether
urban or rural and many pond species are adapted to living in a mosaic type landscape. An urban park,
therefore, presents little more of a challenge to dispersal than open farmland.
A study comparing the current Halton data to that collected from rural sites in the Northwest of
England by the Pond Life Project from 1995 to 1998 (GITTINS 2006) compared richness and
composition along a rural / urban gradient. Ponds were categorised according to the regional
government classification system (CHESHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL 2004) derived from land use data,
national census information and access to benefits. This produced six categories: rural, predominantly
rural, more rural than urban, more urban than rural, predominantly urban and urban. However,
comparing the similarity of communities (Jaccard’s Index of Similarity) in adjoining zones along the
rural / urban transition produces a much more complex picture. While rural communities showed a
high degree of similarity to those in predominantly rural areas (80.2%), pond communities in urban
areas were only 36.5% similar to those in a predominantly urban setting (GITTINS 2006) and rural
ponds still showed a 70.0% similarity in species composition to urban sites. The notion of intermediate
disturbance (CONNELL 1978) can neither be supported nor refuted by the current data. While
urbanisation can be seen to have an impact on community structure and species occurrence, the high
degree of similarity between the urban and rural extremes of the gradient can also be seen to reinforce
the commonality of urban and rural ecological principals. There is no evidence in any of the data
presented to support the call for a separate theory of urban ecology. Indeed “classical” ecological
factors such as connectivity and fragmentation can be seen to have a significant impact in urban
pondscapes.
Clearly there is still more to be understood about the precise factors that affect the occurrence of
species at a given site and the role of urbanisation in affecting community structure. It is possible that
the pond dense landscape of New Town Runcorn is not urban enough to produce a decisive shift in
species. The New Town developments can be viewed as extended suburban areas bringing
characteristics more associated with the urban fringe closer to the urban centre.
The Pond Life Survey found T.cristatus present in 25% of ponds surveyed (BOOTHBY 2000). The
Northwest of England is known to be a strong hold for the species in mainland Britain (SWAN and
OLDHAM 1993). Although T. cristatus is known to occur in urban areas, in Britain it is much less
common than the smaller smooth and palmate newts, Lissotriton vulgaris and L. helveticus with their
broader tolerance of differing habitats (SWAN and OLDHAM 1993). Where T. cristatus is found in
urban areas it is associated with significant amounts of urban green space providing terrestrial habitat
and higher pond densities. This is confirmed by the Halton data which shows that all four of the T.
cristatus sites were located in less built areas with substantial surrounding green space. Breeding
records were split equally between old and New Town. The records in the old town area came from
golf course ponds which accounts for much of the local green space in the immediate area. Local
Authority officers and conservation group members have suggested to the authors of this paper that
the presence of T. cristatus at sites is generally regarded extremely positively by local communities
and as a source of local pride.
While significant, biodiversity is not the only function of urban freshwater habitats. Ponds also
provide the capacity to drain land providing flood regulation and also have a role in the alleviation of
heat island effects at the local scale. Surrounding edge habitats also increase the amount of permeable
service for rain water infiltration and may compensate for the loss of soft surfaces in domestic front
gardens (RHS 2005). Blue/green infrastructure brings people often divorced from the countryside into
daily contact with nature on their own doorstep (MILLER and HOBBS 2002). Most of the ponds in the
Halton survey are located in residential areas and are within easy walking distance of homes, schools
and business. In this way they can contribute significantly towards targets for accessible natural space

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and, hence, facilitate many of the social, cultural and, health and well-being benefits associated with a
greener or bluer environment (LEES and EVANS 2003).
There are, however, views which oppose those set out in the previous paragraph. There is both the real
and perceived danger of open water: a situation enhanced by the presence of children. Management of
urban sites can be driven by the needs and / or demands of local communities as well as sound
ecological practice. There are examples were these two opposing management drivers can work
against each other such as Oxmoor Local Nature Reserve which has turned the need for balancing
ponds as part of sustainable urban drainage into an opportunity for nature conservation and for
providing an accessible and beneficial open green / blue space for nearby housing and commercial
developments. Having been successful as a nature reserve the site attracts ground nesting birds and
this now necessitates that controls are imposed on access at certain times of year thus negating human
centred gains. The arrival of breeding mute swans (Cygnus olor) at some sites is welcomed by some
residents and extremely unpopular with others. While some enjoy the spectacle of wildlife on their
doorstep others view living next door to large potentially aggressive animals with fear. While many
people may derive pleasure and can frequently observed feeding the waterfowl at a pond, the
artificially high populations attracted by the additional food supply along with the addition of nitrate
and phosphate to the water from bird faeces can accelerate eutrophication (BLAND 1996). Large birds
such as mute swans confined to small water bodies can be highly destructive to aquatic vegetation.
Other recreational activates such as angling can be equally controversial. Introduction of large
numbers of fish can have a devastating effect on amphibian breeding success. However, angling could
provide a vested interest for a sector of the community and thus potentially an incentive for their
continued stewardship of the site (ADAMS et al 1984).
The data presented thus far has largely dealt with the spatial arrangement of urban ponds and the ways
in which this relates to species richness. However, physical connections are only part of the story.
While the distance between individual ponds and the density of the pondscape as a whole is clearly
important, the degree to which metapopulations are connected across sites is determined by more than
their physical separation. The nature of the terrestrial landscape separating them also has an impact on
the probability of species moving between ponds and for some taxa e.g. amphibians and Odonata the
terrestrial landscape also form part of their habitat. A more detailed understanding of the pondscape
will be gained by investigating the functional aspects of the network.
Meeting the needs of future development will require a paradigm shift in current management
practices. Practitioners will have to move beyond single site strategies and single objectives in favour
of multifunctional landscapes incorporating benefits for nature conservation, sustainable development
and human well being. In order to derive the maximum benefit from these landscapes questions
surrounding the people-nature relationship still need to be answered. Questions such as; which groups
of people utilise urban ponds? How they value them? And how best can good ecological practice be
reconciled with human expectations? Addressing these questions will require closer engagement with
stakeholders whose options are as yet, not well understood.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank: Andrew Harmer Consultants and Bill Bellemy Associates for
ecological data collected as part of the Heritage Lottery Funded local community conservation project
“Making the Most of Halton’s Ponds” and Paul Oldfield (Borough Ecologist) on behalf of Halton
Borough Council for part funding and access to pond sites. Pond Audit data was provided by Jim
Hollinshead (Ponds Research Unit, Liverpool John Moores University). Urban / rural gradient data
was provided as part of a related research project by Gillian Gittins. Critical review prior to
submission was provided by Dr. David Davies, School of Environment and Life Science, University
of Salford.

162
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