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State-of-the Art Review: Strengthening of

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Strengthening Techniques
Conference Paper March 2014

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State-of-the Art Review: Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete

Structures Different Strengthening Techniques
Khalid Heiza, Ahmed Nabil, Nageh Meleka, and Magdy Tayel
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Menofia University, Egypt.

ABSTRACT
This paper will present the state-of-the-art of the different ways for
strengthening of existing reinforced concrete structures including both traditional
and advanced strengthening techniques. Concrete, steel and FRP composites are
the most commonly used materials in strengthening, repair, retrofitting and
rehabilitation processes of existing concrete structures. Traditional techniques for
flexural, shear and compression strengthening, externally bonded FRP, near
surface mounting reinforcement, sprayed FRP, textile reinforced concrete as
well as FRP prestressing techniques for retrofitting existing structures will be
discussed.
Keywords
Strengthening techniques, reinforced concrete structures, traditional techniques,
advanced techniques, FRP strengthening, near surface mounted, sprayed FRP.
1. INTRODUCTION
Structural strengthening, repair or upgrade of reinforced concrete (RC)
structures is an art that has evolved into a complex science. It includes the use of
conventional cement-based materials, as well as new materials that involve
advanced composites. Regardless of the experience and experimental knowledge
we have gained in more than a hundred years of reinforced concrete
construction, concrete still deteriorates due to natural causes and man-made
errors. The strengthening / repair assessment and design and the resulting design
of the solution are typically more complex than new construction.
When strengthening is going to be undertaken, all failure modes must be
evaluated. Strengthening a structure for flexure may lead to shear failure instead
of giving the desired increased load bearing capacity. It should also be noted
that not only the failure mode of the strengthened member is important. If a
critical member in a structure is strengthened, another member can become the
critical one. Because of stiffness change in an undetermined structural system,
the whole structure must be investigated. The strengthening should also be
designed with consideration to minimize the maintenance and repair needs.
When a strengthening is designed, the consequences from loss of strengthening
1

effectiveness by fire, vandalism, collision, etc. must in addition be considered

[1].
2. CAUSES OF DEFICIENCIES
Concrete structures can become deficient during their service life and
require strengthening and repair. This need may arise as a result of design
or construction errors, functional changes, design code updates, lack of
maintenance , change in structural system , increased traffic volumes , blasts
and explosions ,damage accumulated over time or caused by accidental
overloading, fires, or earthquakes. Since replacement of deficient structures
requires huge investments, strengthening has become the suitable way for
improving their load carrying capacity and prolonging their service life.
While complete replacement of a deficient/deteriorated structure is a desirable
option, strengthening/repair is often the more economical one and hence the
aspect of civil engineering infrastructure renewal has received considerable
attention over the past few years throughout the world [2].
3. FIELDS OF APPLICATIONS
The application fields include bridges, buildings, parking garages,
tunnels, chimneys, towers, and others like electric poles, water tanks, industrial
containment facilities, silos, retaining walls, marine structures box culverts etc.
Among them, applications in bridges and buildings occupy the majority of the
whole market. The bridge piers, girders, plates and building beams, columns and
slabs are the most common to be strengthened [3].
4. EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
Obviously, a major component of any structural rehabilitation, upgrade,
or strengthening project is concerned with evaluation of the existing structure.
To develop an appropriate strengthening strategy, an assessment of the existing
structure should first be conducted to determine the condition of the concrete, to
identify the causes of deficiencies, to establish the existing load carrying
capacity of the structure, and to evaluate the feasibility of using the chosen
strengthening method. The evaluation of an existing structure should be carried
out with extreme care, and should be concerned with the following information:
The as-built drawings including all past modifications.
The actual size of the concrete elements.
The actual properties of the existing materials including the surface tensile
strength of the concrete.
The location, size, and cause of cracks and spalls.
The location and extent of any corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
The quantity and location of the existing reinforcing steel.
2

 An appropriate evaluation of the applied loads.

The condition of the concrete surface is one of the most critical aspects to
be considered when strengthening a structure. The concrete must be able to
transfer the load from the existing structure to the applied strengthening
mechanism. In some cases, surface concrete must be removed and replaced
prior to strengthening. In these cases the designer should refer to specialized
concrete repair documents [2, 4].
5. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF STRENGTHENING
METHOD
When selecting strengthening methods and materials, outside constraints
must be considered such as [5]:
Limited access to work areas.
Operating time schedule (when owner will allow work to take place),
Budget & financial limitations.
Required useful life of structure (The strengthening program should be
consistent with objective of owner. For example, the minimum
strengthening should be done if the structure is to be demolished in a few
years).
Environmental aspects and implications of weather.
Effect of strengthening on loading mechanism for other adjacent structural
members.
Architectural requirements.
Unfortunately, the most common problem is that the existing documentation
of the structure is often very poor and sometimes even wrong. It might be
necessary to redesign the structure with the probable former codes that were
active when the structure was built. This can give enough knowledge about the
structural mode of action, otherwise field investigations must be undertaken to
provide an understanding of the structure. The design of a strengthening
however must fulfill requirements in the codes of today [6].
Over the last decades a lot of strengthening techniques had been invented,
used and developed over the years, each technique has its advantages and
drawbacks .In the following section we will shed the light on the most common
strengthening /upgrade or repair methods of concrete structures.
6. STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES
Except for cases where new structural members are installed to share the
load with existing members as shown in figure (1), most strengthening systems
are composed of a composite strengthening system. The composite
3

strengthening could be achieved by section enlargement, external posttensioning, externally bonded steel elements, advanced fiber-reinforced polymer
(FRP) composites, textile reinforced concrete (TRC), near-surface mounted
(NSM) system, or a combination of these techniques. It should be tailored to
serve the intended use for the designed service life of the structure without
interfering with its functionality [1].

Figure (1): New steel members added to share

loads with old concrete members

7. TRADITIONAL METHODS
Strengthening solutions of reinforced concrete members can range from
repair of damaged members so that their original load-carrying capacity is
restored, to adding elements to increase their strength. All solutions are projectspecific to a certain application but some general approaches are commonly
utilized. The most traditional techniques for strengthening reinforced concrete
structures are as follows [4]:
Section enlargement by increasing the reinforced concrete cross-section.
Add external prestressing (post-tension).
Use steel plate bonding to enhance tensile reinforcement of reinforced
concrete elements.
Use Ferro-cement covering or Cement grout.
Use sprayed concrete (shotcrete).
7.1. Section Enlargement
Section enlargement is one of the methods used in retrofitting concrete
members. Enlargement consists of the placement of reinforced concrete jacket
around the existing structural member to achieve the desired section properties
and performance. The main disadvantages of such system are the increase in the
concrete member size obtained after the jacket is constructed and the need to
construct a new formwork. With section enlargement members can be enlarged
to increase their load-carrying capacity or stiffness.
4

The stages in applying this method can be described as it follows:

removal of the deteriorated concrete, corrosion removal from the exposed
reinforcement, surfaces cleaning and preparation to ensure bonding with the
repair material, replacement or addition of the supplementary reinforcement,
reinforcement protection (in some cases), applying of the repair material. This
method is considered to be a traditional strengthening method. The material
costs are relatively low but the cost and consumption of the labour is rather high.
7.2. External Plate Bonding
This method was first used more than 30 years ago in France, in the mid1960s and it is considered by some publications to be a classic method [7]. It
consists in bonding steel plates or steel flat bars to the structural elements and it
is widely appear in strengthening of bridge structures. The bonding of the steel
plates or steel flat bars to the concrete members is ensured by the use of epoxy
adhesives and in some cases, additional fastening is provided by means of
dowels or bolts glued to the holes drilled in the concrete members. One of the
disadvantages of this method is that it can be applied only to the relatively sound
structures. In case of severe concrete deterioration and major cracks of the RC
member other methods should be considered.

7.3. External Post-Tensioning

This strengthening method is considered to be a classic method that has
been used since the 1950s. It is very effective in increasing the flexural and
shear capacity of concrete members. It can be applied to reinforced and
prestressed concrete members. The technique is applied to reinforced concrete
members to correct the excessive deflections and cracking. The repair system
supplements minimal additional load to the structure thus being an effective
economical strengthening technique. The post-tensioning forces are delivered
by means of standard prestressing tendons or high-strength steel rods, usually
located outside the original section. The tendons are connected to the structure at
anchor points, typically located at the ends of the member. End-anchors can be
made of steel fixtures bolted to the structural member, or reinforced concrete
blocks that are cast in situ. The desired uplift force is provided by deviation
blocks, fastened at the high or low points of the structural element .Before the
strengthening technique can be applied necessary repairs to the structural
members must be performed. The existing cracks must be repaired by means of
epoxy injecting or other known methods. If there are existing spalls patching
must be done, because this repairs must ensure that the prestressing forces are
distributed uniformly across the section of the member. This method has been
effectively applied in bridge rehabilitation, and in all the cases it has chosen
5

because of its advantages, being economical and requiring less time to complete.
The system provides active forces and therefore was more compatible with
existing constructions.

7.4. Ferrocement Covers

Ferrocement can be described as a type of thin composite material made
of cement mortar reinforced with wire meshes. The wire meshes are uniformly
distributed in continuous layers with relatively small diameters. The Ferro
cement is used, in general, to replace the damaged concrete and reinforcement
(if also damaged). Strengthening with Ferro cement improves cracking
resistance, flexural stiffness and the ultimate loads compared to the original unstrengthened element [7]. These improvements depend on the full composite
action between the Ferro cement layers.

8. APPLICATIONS ON TRADITIONAL METHODS

8.1. Slabs
Figures (2, 3) illustrate some of the traditional techniques for
strengthening reinforcing concrete slab. Figure (2) is illustrating strengthening
using section enlargement .Figure (2-a)shows strengthening of reinforced
concrete slab by removing the concrete cover and applying new bottom steel
rods to flexural zones of slab to enhance its positive flexural capacity. Figure
(2-b) shows applying new top steel rods to flexural zones of cantilever slab to
enhance its negative flexural capacity. While Figure (3) shows strengthening of
reinforced concrete slab using Ferrocement strengthening technique by adding
wired steel mesh and then cover with concrete mortar.

(a)

(b)

Figure (2): Adding new steel bars to RC slab using section enlargement
technique. (a) from bottom, (b) from top

Figure (3): Ferrocement

strengthening technique by adding
wired steel mesh to R.c. slab

8.2. Beams
Reinforced concrete beams need strengthening when the existing steel
reinforcement or cross section in the beam is unsafe or insufficient or when the
6

loads applied to the beam are increased due to the reasons mentioned before.
Strengthening strategy depend on the aim of it. Do we need it to enhance
flexural or shear capacity of beams section?; in such cases, there are different
solutions that could be followed as use of steel plate bonding in flexural zones
,add new steel rods /stirrups without section enlargement ,add new steel and
section enlargement ,use Ferrocement technology or even use post tension.

..

Figure (4): Strengthening procedure of RC

beam by adding new steel bars to the
bottom of the beam

Figure (5): Strengthening of RC beam by

using steel plates

Figures (4, 5) show strengthening procedures for reinforced concrete

beams by section enlargement technique. Figure (4) illustrates fixing steel angle
to the bottom of the beam, then welding the required new steel reinforcement
to the beam to enhance its flexural capacity. While Figure (5) shows
strengthening of RC beam by adding steel plates at bottom and at both sides of
beams.

8.3. Columns
Strengthening of reinforced concrete columns may arise when the load
carried by the column is increased due to either increasing in floors number or
due to design mistakes; also if compressive strength of concrete or percent /type
of reinforcement are not according to the codes requirements . Strengthening
may be also needed when column inclination is more than allowable or if
foundation settlement is more than allowable. There are two major traditional
techniques for strengthening reinforced concrete columns as following:
8.3.1. Reinforced concrete jacketing
The size of the jacket and the number and diameter of the steel bars used
in the jacketing process depend on the structural analysis that was made to the
column. In some cases, before this technique is carried out, we need to reduce or
even eliminate temporarily the loads applied to the column; this is done by using
7

mechanical jacks between floors. Figures (6, 7) show section enlargement

process of strengthening for concrete column in residential building [8].

Figure (6): Beams supporting

with metallic supports during
column strengthening

(a)
(b)
Figure (7): a- installation of new steel cage around concrete column
during strengthening process using RC jacketing. b- the concrete
column after strengthening process

8.3.2. External steel plate bonding

Applying external steel bonding to concrete columns surface may be
appear in using steel plates added all over the surface of concrete column to
make the required confinement, and this process known as jacketing which can
be used for both circular or rectangular columns . Figure (8) shows
strengthening process for concrete column using external steel plate bonding [8].
8.3.3. Steel jacket
This technique is chosen when increasing the cross sectional area of the
column is not permitted. Steel jacketing has been proven to be an effective
technique to enhance the seismic performance of old bridge columns. The steel
jacket is manufactured in two shell pieces and welded in the field around the
column. However, this method requires difficult welding work and, in a long
term, the potential problem of corrosion remains unsolved [9]. This procedure is
illustrated in figure (9).

Figure (8): Column strengthening

using steel plate bonding

Figure (9): Strengthening of

concrete column by installing
steel jackets along the entire
length of the column

Figure (10): Strengthening of

concrete column using steel plates
and angles

8.3.4. Steel angles and plates

In this method horizontal steel angles are fixed first to slab at the top and
bottom end of the column then four vertical steel angles applied at the corners of
the column and welded to slab angles at top and bottom .steel strips are welded
to the vertical angles at specified distance all around the column perimeter. The
above technique is illustrated in figure (10).

8.3.5. Confinement with external pressure

Column after applying Applying of external

external pressure pressure using skewed bras

Figure (11): Strengthening of concrete

column using external pressure

Figure (12): Strengthening of concrete

column using external pressure

It is an innovative technique for strengthening the reinforced concrete

elements specially beams columns and beam-column connections. The method
is based on applying external active confining pressure along the element length
through a set of elongated members and fixing between them using number of
strips. The technique increases the strength and ductility of the reinforced
concrete elements without significantly increasing the dimensions or weights of
these elements. In addition, the technique reduces the lateral strains, internal
cracking, and volume increase when adding more loads on these elements [10].
The next figures show this technique. Figures (11-a, b) show 3d
perspective which illustrates strengthening mechanism during and after
strengthening. Figure (12) illustrates in field strengthening operation of concrete
column using this technique.
These strengthening techniques have been developed in the past and used
with some popularity. Although these techniques can effectively increase the
elements load carrying capacity, they are often susceptible to corrosion damage
which results in failure of the strengthening system. Consequently, noncorrosive innovative strengthening systems that have the potential for extending
service lives of RC structures and reducing maintenance costs are required to
replace old strengthening systems [7]. Some of these techniques are mentioned
in the next sections.
9. ADVANCED STRENGTHENING MATERIALS
FRP composite materials have been successfully used in the construction
of new structures and in rehabilitation and strengthening of existing structures.
Recent developments related to materials, methods and techniques for structural
strengthening have been enormous. One of todays state-of-the-art techniques
is the use of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, which are currently
viewed by structural engineers as new and highly promising materials in the
construction industry [4].
These materials hold great promise for the future of construction industry.
Using FRP reinforcement in repair is a highly practical strengthening system,
because of ease and speed of installation, less labour intensity, efficiency of
structural repair and corrosion resistance of the materials, in addition to being
quick and easy to handle on site the application of FRP poses minimal
modification to the geometry, aesthetics and utility of the structure [11].In some
situations, FRP composites are the only plausible material that could be used for
strengthening, especially in places where heavy machinery cannot gain access or
closure of the use is not practical. The overall cost of the whole strengthening
job using FRP materials can be as competitive as using conventional materials,
Although the material cost of carbon FRPs was several times more than that of
steel plates, the fact that 6.2kg of carbon FRPs could be used in place of 175kg
of steel is sufficient to explain the advantages of FRPs over steel plates [12].
10

9.1. Common FRP- Strengthening Methods

FRP techniques for strengthening /upgrading may be noted as following:

Externally bonded FRP (EBR).
- FRP plate bonding.
- FRP Confining or jacketing.
Sprayed fiber reinforced polymers.
Near Surface Mounted with FRP.
Prestressed FRP.

9.2. Strengthening Using Sprayed Fiber Reinforced Polymers

A new strengthening and repair method by sprayed carbon or glass
chopped fiber with vinyl ester resin upon concrete structures is introduced. This
method is engineered systemically for the purpose of repair and strengthening of
concrete structures using sprayed-up FRP composites. Carbon or glass fiber
chopped with 1.5 or 2 inch-length is sprayed with vinyl ester resin using the aircompressed spray machine on the surface of concrete structures directly. This
method is called "Sprayed FRP (Fiber Reinforced Polymer)." Benefits of using
vinyl ester resin in this strengthening method are that it takes shorter time to
harden the resin than epoxy resin. In addition, the mechanical properties of vinyl
ester resin are the same as the one of epoxy resin [13].

Fibers spraying

Figure (13): Sketch illustrates sprayed

FRP strengthening technique
for different structural element

Surface curing processes

Figure (14): Fibers spraying and surface curing

processes during strengthening of concrete column using
sprayed fiber reinforced polymers technique

Figure (13) illustrates the idea of the sprayed FRP strengthening method
for reinforced concrete buildings. Figure (14) shows the construction site of
sprayed column specimens. In this method, resin is carried through a narrow
hose by an air compressor. The resin is mixed with short fibers such as carbon
or glass at a tip of the narrow hose. The mixed materials are sprayed directly on
a surface to be strengthened. After that, the surface is made flat by a roller. The
resin will be hardened and the whole sprayed structure will be reinforced with
FRP. This method makes seismic strengthening possible that all structure
11

members, such as columns, beams, walls, and slabs, are monolithic since it is
possible to strengthen an entire interior structures in building structures.

9.3. Strengthening of RC Structures with Externally Bonded Fiber

Reinforced Polymer
The most imperative characteristic of externally bonded FRP systems in
repair/strengthening applications is the speed and ease of installation. FRP may
be bonded to the tension side of concrete beams, girders and slabs to provide
additional flexural strength, and/or on the sides of beams and girders to provide
additional shear strength. For seismic zones, FRP may also be used to wrap
columns to enhance the ductility due to the induced confinement of the concrete.
FRP material selection should be based on strength, stiffness and durability
required for a specific application. Resins are selected based on the environment
to which the FRP will be exposed, as well as the method by which the FRP is
manufactured .Externally bonded FRP systems come in a variety of forms,
including wet lay-up systems and pre-cured systems. Wet lay-up FRP systems
consist of dry unidirectional or multidirectional fibre sheets or fabrics
impregnated with a saturating resin on-site. Pre-cured FRP systems consist of a
wide variety of composite shapes manufactured off-site. Typically, an adhesive
along with the primer and putty are normally used to bond the pre-cured shapes
to the concrete surface. The primer is used to penetrate the surface of the
concrete, providing an improved adhesive bond for the saturating resin or
adhesive. The putty is used to fill small surface voids in the substrate and to
provide a smooth surface to which the FRP can bond. Pre-cured FRP systems
include unidirectional laminates, multi-directional grid and pre-cured shells
[14].

9.4. Externally Bonded FRP Composites Based Solutions

Strengthening causes of old and/or deteriorated reinforced concrete
members and solutions using FRP composites may be noted as the
following[15]:
The inadequacy of longitudinal reinforcement in beams and columns,
leading to flexural failure. In such cases the bending capacity of concrete
elements can be increased through the use of externally bonded FRP
plates, strips or fabrics. Alternatively near-surface mounted strips or rods
with the fibre direction parallel to the member axis can be utilized (NSM
will be illustrated in the next section).
The inadequacy of transverse reinforcement, which may have as effect
brittle shear failure in structural members like columns, beams, shear
12

walls and beam-column joints. The shear capacity of concrete members

can be enhanced by providing externally bonded FRP with the fibers
oriented in the transverse direction to the member axis direction, in the
case of columns and beams, or in the direction of both the column and the
beam direction in the case of beam-column joints.
Poor detailing in the regions of flexural plastic hinges where the flexural
cracking may be followed by cover concrete spalling, failure of transverse
steel reinforcement, and buckling of longitudinal steel reinforcement or
compressive crushing of concrete. This mode of failure is usually
accompanied by large inelastic flexural deformation. By adding
confinement in the form of FRP jackets with fibers placed along the
column perimeter, the spalling of cover concrete is prevented and the
buckling of the longitudinal steel bars is restrained. In this way more
ductile responses can be developed and larger inelastic deformations can
be sustained.
Poor detailing in lap splices. This mode occurs in columns in which the
longitudinal steel reinforcement is lap spliced in the maximum bending
moment regions near the column ends. Debonding may occur once
vertical cracks develop in the cover concrete and progresses with cover
spalling. By increasing the lap confinement with fibers along the column
perimeter the flexural strength degradation can be prevented or limited.
The use of FRP reinforcement cannot modify the stiffness characteristics
of existing RC elements; hence the FRP strengthening technique is not
applicable if the structural intervention is aiming at increasing stiffness
rather than strength or ductility.
9.4.1. Flexural strengthening of beams
The need for methods of repair and strengthening of RC beams and
girders has been imposed by: degradation due to corrosion of steel
reinforcement, cracking of concrete due to excessive carbonation, freeze-thaw
action, spalling of concrete cover, effects of alkali-silica reactions and changing
in loading patterns . In case of bridges the need for increasing their load carrying
capacities requires the adoption of a cost-effective technology that will not
distress the traffic significantly. In buildings the materials deterioration and
changing needs for building occupancy imposes, in many cases, the
strengthening of existing beams. One of the conventional methods for external
strengthening implies the addition of adhesive-bonded steel plates on the tension
side of the reinforced concrete beams. The use of epoxy-bonded steel plates is
very frequent in Europe and the United States but it suffers from a number of
disadvantages. Steel plates are heavy and difficult to transport, handle and
install; the length of individual steel plates is restricted to 8-10m to enable
handling and even at these lengths it may be difficult to erect them due to preexisting service facilities; durability and corrosion effects remain uncertain;
13

contaminants on structural members prior to bonding; surface preparation

including the priming systems; steel plate thickness at least 5 mm to prevent
distortion during blasting operation; complex profiles are difficult to be shaped
with steel plates; expensive false work is required to maintain steel plates in
position during bonding.
Composites fabricated either through wet processes on-site or
prefabricated in plates in this application, FRP materials are bonded to the
tension and/or side faces of a concrete beam to provide additional tensile
reinforcement and to increase the strength of the member in bending as shown in
figure (15, 16) .The fibers are oriented along the longitudinal axis of the beam.
The efficacy of the method depends mainly on the appropriate selection of the
composite material and on the efficiency and integrity of the bond between the
composite and the concrete surface. Sometimes anchor bolts are added to ends
of FRP plates to prevent debonding and end peeling.

Figure (15). Typical flexural strengthening of a

reinforced concrete T-beam using externally
bonded FRP reinforcement

Figure (16) Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete

girders of a cement manufacturing building in Poland
using externally bonded CFRP strips

9.4.2. Shear Strengthening of beams

When a reinforced concrete beam is deficient in shear, or when its shear
capacity is less than the flexural capacity after flexural strengthening, the shear
strengthening of the respective beam has to be considered. It has been realized
that the FRP bonded to the soffit of a reinforced concrete beam does not modify
significantly the shear behaviour from that of the un-strengthened beams;
therefore, the influence of FRP strips bonded to the soffit for flexural
strengthening may be ignored in predicting the shear strength of the beam.
Various bonding schemes of FRP strips have been utilized to improve the shear
capacity of reinforced concrete beams. The shear effect of FRP external
reinforcement is maximized when the fibre direction coincides to that of
maximum principal tensile stress. For the most common case of structural
members subjected to transverse loads the maximum principal stress trajectories
in the shear-critical zones form an angle with the member axis which may be
taken about 45o. However, sometimes it is more practical to attach the external
FRP reinforcement with the principal fibre direction, perpendicular to the axis
direction. These procedures are shown in figures (17, 18, 19 and 20).Because
FRPs are strong in the direction of fibers only their orientation is recommended
14

to control the shear cracks best. Shear forces in a beam may be reversed under
reversed cyclic loading and fibers may be thus arranged at two different
directions to satisfy the requirement of shear strengthening in both directions.

Figure (17): Shear strengthening scheme with

FRP composites a-FRP bonded to the web sides
only; b-U jacketing; c-complete wrapping

Figure (19): Placing of CFRP fabrics for shear

strengthening

Figure (18): Typical shear strengthening of a

reinforced concrete T-beam using externally
bonded FRP reinforcement

Figure (20): Installation of prefabricated CFRP L-shaped

plates (shear strengthening) over already installed CFRP
strips for flexural strengthening

9.4.3. Strengthening of RC slabs

When the reinforced concrete slabs are simply supported the one-way
slabs are strengthened by bonding FRP strips to the soffit along the required
direction as shown in Figure (21) .For two-way slabs strengthening must be
applied for both directions, by bonding FRP strips in both directions as shown in
Figure (22).The possible collapse mechanism of a two-way slab suggests that
the strengthening of such a slab can be concentrated in the center. The FRP
strips can be terminated far away from the edges [16]. Figure (23) shows
strengthening of concrete slab using CFRP strips on the top and underside of the
slab.

Figure (21): FRP strengthening of one way simply supported plate:

a-elevation; b-cross
15 section

Figure (22): FRP strengthening of two way slab: a- slab soffit,

b-cross section

(a)

(b)

Figure (23): Strengthening of concrete slab of a building using CFRP strips on the top and underside of the slab

9.4.4. Strengthening of RC Columns

Conventional strengthening measures for reinforced concrete columns
range from the external confinement of the core by heavily reinforced external
concrete sections to the use of steel cables wound helically around the existing
column at close spacing that are then covered by concrete and the use of steel
jackets welded together in the field confining the existing columns. Some of
these methods are effective but they have some disadvantages: they are time
consuming and labour intensive, can cause significant interruption of the
structure functioning due to access and space requirements for heavy equipment,
rely on field welding, the quality of which is often questionable; susceptible to
degradation due to corrosion, introduce changes in column stiffness, influencing
the seismic force levels. The strengthening of existing RC columns using steel
or FRP jacketing is based on a well-established fact that lateral confinement of
concrete can substantially enhance its axial compressive strength and ductility.
The most common form of FRP column strengthening involves the external
wrapping of FRP straps. The use of FRP composites provides a means for
confinement without the increase in stiffness (when only hoop reinforcing fibers
are utilized), enables rapid fabrication of cost effective and durable jackets, with
little or no traffic disruption in most cases. In FRP-confined concrete subjected
16

to axial compression, the FRP jackets are loaded mainly in hoop tension while
the concrete is subjected to tri-axial compression, so that both materials are used
to their best advantages. As a result of the confinement, both the strength and
the ultimate strain of concrete can be enhanced, while the tensile strength of
FRP can be effectively utilized.

Figure (24): Methods of FRP

strengthening for RC columns :a-wrapping
of fabric ; b-partially wrapping with strips ;
c-prefabricated jackets ;d-spiral rings; eautomated winding ;f- resin infusion

Figure (25): Installation of FRP wrap

Instead of the brittle behaviour exhibited by concrete, FRP-confined

concrete possesses an enhanced ductility. For FRP wrapped, axially loaded
columns the design philosophy relies on the wrap to carry tensile forces around
the perimeter of the column as a result of lateral expansion of the underlying
column when loaded axially in compression. Constraining the lateral expansion
of the column confines the concrete and, consequently increases its axial
compressive capacity. It should be underlined that passive confinement of this
type requires significant lateral expansion of the concrete before the FRP wrap
is loaded and confinement is initiated.

Figure (26): FRP confinement with a

precured spiral-wound FRP strip

Figure (27): Confining system based

on prefabricated FRP elements

In case of columns rectangular or square in cross section the confinement

is effective at the column corners only with negligible resistance to lateral
17

expansion being provided along the flat column, so in case of square and
rectangular columns corner radius must be applied to corners of column or
transform column section to elliptical shape to utilize the effect of confinement.
A number of different methods (based on form of jacketing material or
fabrication process) have been tested at large or full-scale many of which are
now used commercially all over the world. A suitable classification of FRP
composite jackets is given in figures (24, 25, 26 and 27).
9.4.5. Disadvantages of externally bonded FRP reinforcement
In spite of the significant research being reported on their structural
mechanism and performance, there are still heightened concerns regarding
possible premature failure due to debonding, especially in zones of combined
high flexural and shear stresses. In addition, externally bonded FRP
reinforcement is relatively unprotected against wear, fire, and impact loads. The
structural performance of the externally bonded FRP also could be greatly
affected by harsh environmental conditions [14].

9.5. Near Surface Mounted Technique

Another technique can be used when EBR may be difficult or impossible
to setup. Near-Surface Mounted reinforcement (NSM) technique, where a
composite rod is bonded in a pre-sawn groove in the concrete cover, can be
used.[17,18] .It is an effective method to increase the load-carrying capacity of
existing reinforced concrete elements and that is by addition of tension
reinforcement in surface grooves cut along the cover on the tension side (for
exural strengthening) as shown in figure (28,29), or in the web (for shear
strengthening see figure (30)) of these elements [19].

Figure (28): NSM flexural

strengthening of a concrete deck in
the region of negative bending
moment

Figure (29): Electrical saw

cutting machine used to make
slots in NSM technique

Figure (30): Vertical Grooves

for Shear Strengthening with
NSM FRP

The near surface mounting technique becomes particularly attractive for

flexural strengthening in the negative moment regions of slabs and decks; where
18

external reinforcement would be subjected to mechanical and environmental

damage and would require protective cover, which could interfere with the
presence of floor finishes. Near-surface mounted (NSM) FRP reinforcement has
attracted an increasing amount of research as well as practical application as this
technology emerges [20].
In the NSM method, grooves are rst cut into the concrete cover of a
reinforced concrete element and the FRP reinforcement is bonded there in with
an appropriate groove ller (typically epoxy paste or cement grout). What is
here in called NSM reinforcement was previously given other names such as
"grouted reinforcement, or embedded Reinforcement Although the use of
FRP rods for this application is very recent, NSM steel rods have been used in
Europe for strengthening of reinforced concrete structures since the early 1950s
[17] .The earliest reference that could be found in the literature dates back to
1949. In 1948, a reinforced concrete bridge in Sweden experienced an excessive
settlement of the negative moment reinforcement during construction, so that the
negative moment capacity needed to be increased. This was accomplished by
grooving the surface, filling the grooves with cement mortar and embedding
steel rebar in them. Since no previous experience was available, different
possible ways to obtain the grooves were examined in order to choose the most
convenient one. Nowadays, FRP rods can be used in place of steel and epoxy
paste can replace cement mortar. The advantage is primarily the resistance of
FRP to corrosion. This property is particularly important in this case due to the
position of the rods very close to the surface, which exposes them to the
environmental attacks. [21, 22].Figure (31) shows different NSM strengthening
methods.

Figure (32): Proposed strengthening solutions

for structural elements in compression

Figure (31): Different NSM systems and

nomenclature

N.S.M. technique can be used separately or in addition to other advanced

techniques like externally bonded FRP. Mieczysaw Kamiski and Tomasz
19

Trapko illustrated in their study on concrete columns strengthened with

composite materials the different proposed strengthening solutions using FRP in
columns strengthening using combination of different methods. See figure (32).

9.6. Prestressed Composites Systems

An economical alternative to conventional prestressing methods used in
new construction is prestressing of composite strips prior to the bonding
procedure results in a more economical use of materials but requires special
clamping devices. It can be concluded that the strengthening methods with prestressed FRP are not so well established yet. It will take more development work
before they are suitable for practical applications since the pre-stressing methods
are still complicated to use and installation techniques, both manual and
automatic, have yet to be perfected. These include surface preparation, prestressing, placing and bonding, forming end anchorages and vacuum bonding.
Automatic application methods will offer advantages in hazardous areas, where
there is danger from traffic and will reduce traffic management and traffic delay
costs. Prestressing the strips prior to bonding has the following advantages:
delay crack formation in the shear, closes cracks in structures with pre-existing
cracks, improves serviceability and durability, and improves the shear and
flexural resistance of section. The technique has also some disadvantages: it is
more expensive than normal strip bonding and the operation also takes
somewhat longer [12, 23]. Schematic illustration of the stressing device is given
in fig (33). The concept for applying a prestressed FRP strip is shown
schematically in Fig (34). Figure (35) shows strengthening process of a bridge
box girder using prestressed CFRP strips with steel end anchorage.

Figure (33): schematic illustration of active

anchorage

Figure (35): Strengthening process of a bridge box

girder using prestressed CFRP strips with steel end
anchorage

Figure (34): Strengthening with prestressed FRP strips

(a) prestressing :(b) bonding :(c) end anchorage and
FRP release upon hardening of the adhesive

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Prestressing of column jackets (active confinement) can be achieved by

pretensioning the fibre bundles during winding or with unstressed jackets by
making use of, e.g., expansive mortar or injection of mortar or epoxy under
pressure. See figure (36).

Figure (36): Prestressing of aramid fibers

wrapped around a column

10. TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

An alternative strengthening material that has become of interest as of late
is Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC). This composite material which consists
of fiber textile as embedded reinforcement and cement mortar as resin can be
used in new structures, as well as in strengthening of beams, slabs, columns and
even walls. Due to its high tensile strength, TRC can be effectively used in
strengthening elements in bending such as slabs or beams [24]. By applying one
or several layers of TRC at the bottom or top of the element which is
strengthened, the resistance in flexural loading is substantially increased by
wrapping the core of the beams with layers of TRC; the shear performance of
the entire structure is enhanced. This technique can also be applicable to
strengthening of columns [25, 26]. See figures. (37, 38).
Focusing on the strengthening of slabs, the method used is very simple:
the bottom face of the slab is pre-wetted and roughened by sand-blasting and
then the first layer of fine-grained concrete is applied. The application of this
latter material can be effectuated by spraying or just by simple hand lay-up. The
textile mesh is applied by hand on the fresh fine-grained concrete. This process
of alternating fine-grained concrete and textile mesh can be repeated until the
desired amount of reinforcement is applied under the surface of the slab. With
21

this technique, the slab is strengthened with a small amount of concrete, which
gives a small self-weight [27].
The use of TRC for strengthening and retrofit applications may have
several advantages The high modulus of the cement-based matrix may open the
way for the use of lower modulus fabrics, which are less expensive than using
EBR method. Moreover, cement binders are less expensive and less sensitive
than epoxy matrixes to fire hazards, high temperature environments and freeze
thaw effects.

One layer

Two layers

Full Wrapping

Three layers

Top and bottom

Figure (38): Textile reinforced concrete
TRC

Figure (37): Schematic sketches for TRC

layers and application techniques

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