BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

BAB I
PENDAHULUAN

Fluids are considered the cornerstone of therapy for

many shock states, particularly states that are associated
with relative or absolute hypovolemia. Fluids are also
commonly used for many other purposes, such as renal
protection from endogenous and exogenous substances,
for the safe dilution of medications and as maintenance
fluids. However, a large amount of evidence from the
last decade has shown that fluids can have deleterious
effects on several organ functions, both from excessive
amounts of fluids and from their non-physiological
electrolyte composition. Additionally, fluid prescription is
more common in patients with systemic inflammatory
response syndrome whose kidneys may have impaired
mechanisms of electrolyte and free water excretion.
These processes have been studied as separate entities
(hypernatremia, hyperchloremic acidosis and progressive
fluid accumulation) leading to worse outcomes in many
clinical scenarios, including but not limited to acute kidney
injury, worsening respiratory function, higher mortality
and higher hospital and intensive care unit lengthofstays. In this review, we synthesize this evidence
and describe this phenomenon as fluid and electrolyte
overload with potentially deleterious effects. Finally, we
propose a strategy to safely use fluids and thereafter
wean patients from fluids, along with other caveats to be
considered when dealing with fluids in the intensive care
unit.

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA

2. 1.

Definisi

Resuscitation fluids. Resuscitation fluids are used to

correct an intravascular volume deficit or acute hypovolemia.
Over the last three decades, there has been much
debate over the use of colloids vs crystalloids [41]. However,
recent clinical trials suggest that colloids have a limited role
in fluid resuscitation [4244]. More recently the issue has
involved the use of normal saline vs balanced salt solutions,
with data suggesting improved outcomes with balanced
salt solutions [45, 46].
Maintenance fluids. Maintenance solutions are specifically
given to provide the patients daily basal requirements
of water and electrolytes.
Replacement fluids. Replacement solutions are prescribed
to correct existing or developing deficits that cannot
be compensated by oral intake, as seen in situations in which
fluids are lost via drains or stomata, fistulas, fever, polyuria
and open wounds (including evaporation during surgery
or burns) among others.
Global Increased Permeability Syndrome (GIPS). GIPS
is characterised by high capillary leak index (CLI, expressed
as the ratio of CRP over albumin), excess interstitial fluid and
persistent high extravascular lung water index (EVLWI), no
late conservative fluid management (LCFM) achievement,
and progression to organ failure [32]. GIPS represents a third
hit following the acute injury (first hit) with progression to
multi-organ dysfunction syndrome-MODS (second hit) [47].
The third hit may develop in patients who do not enter the
Flow phase spontaneously. Successful response to acute
inflammatory insult tends to be characterised by a crucial
turning point on day three. The evolution of cytokines and
other pro-inflammatory mediators on the third day after
shock initiation allows healing of the microcirculatory disruptions
and closure of capillary leakage. This interpretation
is supported by observations demonstrating normalisation
of microcirculatory blood flow on day three in patients with
abdominal sepsis [48]. Further, lower EVLWI and pulmonary
vascular permeability indices (PVPI) at day three of shock
have been shown to correlate with better survival [49]. In
these patients, excess fluid administration results in oedema
formation, progression of organ failure and worse outcome.
Therefore, as soon as haemodynamics allow, early transition
to conservative fluid management and even fluid removal
on the basis of an EVLWI-guided protocol is mandated (late
goal directed fluid removal) [21, 32,
Polycompartment syndrome. The recent consensus definitions
of the World Society on the Abdominal Compartment
Syndrome (WSACS, www.wsacs.org) defined polycompartment
as a condition where two or more anatomical compartments

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

have elevated compartmental pressures [50]. As a result

of capillary leak and impaired flow phase, overzealous administration
of unnecessary fluids in the GIPS phase will lead to gross
fluid overload and tissue oedema. Interstitial oedema increases
the pressure in all four interconnected major body compartments:
head, chest, abdomen, and extremities. As a result, the
venous resistance of organs within compartments increases
and perfusion pressure decreases contributing to progression
of organ failure. As different compartments interact and
reciprocally transmit compartment pressures, the concept of
polycompartment syndrome was suggested [51-53]. The abdomen
plays a central role in GIPS and the polycompartment
syndrome, as positive fluid balances are a known risk factor
for secondary IAH which in turn is associated with deleterious
effects on other compartments and organ functions and may
eventually lead to abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS)
[15]. With abdominal compliance defined as the measure of
the ease of abdominal expansion, which is determined by
the elasticity of the abdominal wall and diaphragm, being the
determining factor explaining transmission of compartmental
pressures from one compartment to another.
Fluid Balance. Daily fluid balance is the daily sum of
all intakes and outputs, and the cumulative fluid balance
is the sum total of fluid accumulation over a set period of
time [38, 54].
Fluid overload. The percentage of fluid accumulation
can be defined by dividing the cumulative fluid balance in
litre by the patients baseline body weight and multiplying
by 100%. Fluid overload is defined by a cut off value of
10% of fluid accumulation as this is associated with worse
outcomes [38, 55].
Fluid bolus. A rapid fluid infusion given as a bolus to
correct hypotensive and hypovolemic (septic or haemorrhagic)
shock. It typically includes the infusion of at least
4 mL kg-1 given over a maximum of 10 to 15 minutes.
Fluid challenge. A bolus of 100200 mL given over
510 min with reassessment of haemodynamic status to
optimise tissue perfusion. This allows the construction of
a so-called Frank-Starling curve in order to assess the type
of the curve and the position where the patient is located
on the curve. The CVP and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure
(PCWP) are potentially dangerous and useless to guide
a fluid challenge [5, 13, 56, 57]. In the past, dynamic changes
in CVP (or PCWP) have been suggested but these may also
not be useful [58, 59]. During a fluid challenge, the 25 rule
is classically followed for CVP and the 37 for PCWP. Baseline
CVP is measured and re-assessed after each bolus or
each ten-minute period (as illustrated in Table 1).

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

Early adequate goal directed fluid management

(EAFM). Most studies looking at goal directed treatment define
achieving the early goal as giving 25 to 50 mL kg -1 of fluids
within the first 68 hours of resuscitation in a case of septic or
hypovolemic shock. However, others have argued that such
large volumes of fluid lead to iatrogenic salt water drowning
and have proposed a more conservative strategy [13, 60].
Late Conservative Fluid Management (LCFM). Recent
studies have shown that late conservative fluid management,
defined as two consecutive days of negative fluid
balance within the first week of ICU stay, is a strong and
independent predictor of survival [21]. In contrast, patients
with persistent systemic inflammation maintain transcapillary
albumin leakage and do not reach the flow phase
mounting up positive fluid balances.
Late Goal Directed Fluid Removal (LGFR). In some
patients, more aggressive and active fluid removal by means
of diuretics and renal replacement therapy with net ultrafiltration
is needed. This is referred to as de-resuscitation.
Classification of fluid dynamics. Combining early adequate
(EA) or early conservative (EC) and late conservative
(LC) or late liberal (LL) fluid management, four distinct
groups can be identified with regard to the dynamics of
fluid management: EALC, EALL, ECLC, and ECLL. These will
be discussed further.
Fluid overload recognition and assessment

Fluid overload recognition and assessment in critically ill

patients requires an accurate documentation of intakes
and outputs; however, there is a wide variation in how
this information is recorded, reviewed and utilized. Mehta
RL and Bouchard J proposed some useful definitions to
help us to standardize the approach and facilitated comparisons
[10]:
1. Daily fluid balance: daily difference in all intakes
and all outputs, which frequently does not include
insensible losses.
2. Cumulative fluid balance: sum of each day fluid
balance over a period of time.
3. Fluid overload: usually implies a degree of

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

pulmonary edema or peripheral edema.

4. Fluid accumulation: positive fluid balance, with or
without linked fluid overload.
5. Percentage of fluid overload adjusted for body
weight: cumulative fluid balance that is expressed
as a percent. A cutoff of 10 % has been associated
with increased mortality. Fluid overload percentage
can be calculated using the following formula [19]:
% Fluid overload
total fluid intotal fluid out=admission body weight _ 100

2. 2.
2. 3.

Epidemiologi
Patofisiologi

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF FLUID OVERLOAD

This section will address the question: When to de-resuscitate?

As early as 1942, the concept of a dual metabolic
response to bodily injury was introduced. In direct response
to initial proinflammatory cytokines and stress hormones,
the Ebb phase represents a distributive shock characterised
by arterial vasodilatation and transcapillary albumin leakage
abating plasma oncotic pressure. Arterial underfilling,
microcirculatory dysfunction, and secondary interstitial
oedema lead to systemic hypoperfusion and regional impaired
tissue use of oxygen. In this early stage of shock,
adequate fluid therapy comprises adequate goal directed
filling to prevent evolution to multiple organ dysfunction
syndrome (MODS). As compensatory neuroendocrine reflexes
and potential renal dysfunction result in sodium and
water retention, positive fluid balances are inherent to the
Ebb phase. Patients with higher severity of illness need more
fluids to reach cardiovascular optimisation. Therefore, at
this point fluid balance may be considered a biomarker of
critical illness, as proposed by Bagshaw et al. [101]. Patients
overcoming shock attain homeostasis of proinflammatory
and anti-inflammatory mediators classically within three
days. Subsequent haemodynamic stabilisation and restoration
of plasma oncotic pressure set off the Flow phase with
resumption of diuresis and mobilisation of extravascular
fluid resulting in negative fluid balances.
When considering fluid administration, it is important
to know when to start giving fluids (what are the benefits
of fluid administration), when to stop giving fluids (what
are the risks of ongoing fluid administration), when to start
removing fluids (what are the benefits of fluid removal), and
when to stop fluid removal (what are the risks of removing
too much fluid). The literature shows that a negative fluid
balance increases survival in patients with septic shock [31].
Patients admitted to the ICU who develop sepsis, respiratory
failure, renal failure ARDS, IAH or ACS all have a more
positive cumulative fluid balance than those without organ
failure [26, 27, 29, 102, 103]. Patients managed with
a conservative fluid strategy also seem to have improved
lung function, shorter duration of mechanical ventilation
and intensive care stay without increasing non-pulmonary
organ failure [30]. Monitoring is essential however, as any
measurement in the ICU will only be of value as long as it is

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

accurate and reproducible, and no measurement has ever

improved survival, only a good protocol can do this. Vice
versa a poor treatment algorithm can result in potential
harm to the patient [104, 105]. Patients who are in the Ebb
or Flow phase of shock have different clinical presentations
and therefore different monitoring needs (targets) and different
treatment goals [25, 61].
Renal function in particular is strongly affected by
fluid overload and IAH, and renal interstitial oedema
may impair renal function, even in the absence of IAH
[14, 23, 91, 101, 106]. Therefore, fluid overload leading to
IAH and associated renal dysfunction may counteract its
own resolution [107]. The adverse effects of fluid overload
and interstitial oedema are numerous and have an impact
on all end organ functions, although some clinicians still
believe that peripheral oedema is only of cosmetic concern
[108]. As adverse effects of fluid overload in states of
capillary leakage are particularly pronounced in the lungs,
monitoring of EVLWI may offer a valuable tool to guide
fluid management in the critically ill. A high EVLWI indicates
a state of capillary leakage, associated with higher severity
of illness and mortality [32, 72, 109, 110]. Previous studies
correlated EVLWI with albumin extravasation in patients
after multiple trauma [111]. Responders to LCFM overcome
the distributive shock and make a transition to the flow
phase [32]. On the other hand, nonresponders stay in the
grip of the Ebb phase and progress to GIPS, resulting in
positive fluid balances, organ failure and death.
In this hypothesis, (change in) EVLWI has a prognostic
value as a reflection of the extent of capillary leakage, rather
than as a quantification of lung function impairment by lung
water [32, 47]. The recent observations may also have direct
consequences regarding fluid management in critically ill
patients with IAH. Patients at risk for GIPS as assessed by
CLI, IAP, changes in EVLWI and fluid balance, require restrictive
fluid strategies and even fluid removal guided by
extended haemodynamic monitoring including lung water
measurements (late goal directed fluid removal) [22, 112].
Previously, the application of EVLWI-guided fluid therapy led
to improved outcomes and lower positive fluid balances in
states of capillary leakage [68]. To achieve restrictive fluid
management may necessitate a greater use of vasopressor
therapy, resuscitation with hyperoncotic solutions (e.g. albumin
20%) and early initiation of diuretics and renal replacement
therapy, although in the FACCT trial the conservative
arm had a trend towards less requirement for dialysis [30].
When should de-resuscitation begin?: De-resuscitation
should be considered when fluid overload and fluid accumulation
negatively impact end-organ function, so de-resuscitation
is mandatory in a case of a positive cumulative
fluid balance in combination with poor oxygenation (P/F
ratio < 200), increased capillary leak (high PVPI > 2.5 and
EVLWI > 12 mL kg-1 PBW), increased IAP (> 15 mm Hg) and
low APP (< 50 mm Hg ), high CLI, etc.

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

2. 4.

Tanda dan gejala

Fluid overload and outcomes

Several observational studies have demonstrated a correlation

between fluid overload and mortality in critically
ill patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome,
acute lung injury, sepsis, and AKI. Bouchard et al., have
shown that patients with fluid overload defined as an increase
in body weight of over 10 % had significantly
more respiratory failure, need of mechanical ventilation,
and more sepsis. After adjusting for severity of illness,
AKI patients with fluid overload had increased 30 day
and 60 day mortality. Among survivors, AKI patients who
required renal replacement therapy had a significantly
lower level of fluid accumulation at initiation of dialysis and
at dialysis cessation than non-survivors. Renal recovery was
significantly lower in patients with fluid overload [1]. In
children, a multicenter prospective study found that the
percentage of fluid accumulation at initiation of CRRT was
significantly lower in the survivors (14.2 % 15.9 % vs.
25.4 % 32.9 %, P = 0.03) [3].
Lungs are one of the organs in which adverse effects of
fluid overload are most evident, which can lead to acute
pulmonary edema or acute respiratory distress syndrome
[16]. Several studies have provided evidence associating
positive fluid balances with poorer respiratory outcomes. In
one of these studies, septic shock patients with acute lung
injury who received conservative fluid management after
initial fluid resuscitation had lower in-hospital mortality
[17]. In another study, Wiedemann et al. randomized 1000
patients to either a conservative or to a liberal strategy of
fluid management. Patients randomized to the conservative
fluid strategy had lower cumulative fluid balance, improved
oxygenation index and lung injury score, increased number
of ventilator-free days, and reduction in the length of ICU

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

stay. It is worth to mention that the conservative fluid

management strategy did not increase the incidence or
prevalence of shock during the study or the need for renal
replacement therapies [5]. Finally, in the Vasopressin in
Septic Shock Trial (VASST) study authors found that
higher positive fluid balance correlated significantly with increased
mortality with the highest mortality rate observed
in those with central venous pressure >12 mmHg [18].

2. 5.

Komplikasi

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

2. 6.

Assessment

Fluid status assessment

Accurate volume status evaluation is essential for appropriate

therapy as inadequate assessment of volume status
can result in not providing necessary treatment or in the
administration of unneeded therapy, both associated with
increased mortality. There are several methods to evaluate
fluid status; however, most of the tests currently used
are fairly inaccurate. We will describe some of these
methods.
_ History and physical examination:
The usefulness of medical history, symptoms, and
signs along with routine diagnostic studies (chest
radiograph, electrocardiogram, and serum B-type
natriuretic peptide (BNP)) that differentiate heart
failure from other causes of dyspnea in the emergency
department were evaluated in a meta-analysis. Many
features increased the probability of heart failure, with
the best feature for each category being the presence
of past history of heart failure (positive LR = 5.8; 95 %
CI, 4.18.0); paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (positive
LR = 2.6; 95 % CI, 1.54.5); third heart sound gallop
(positive LR = 11; 95 % CI, 4.925.0); chest radiograph
showing pulmonary venous congestion (positive
LR = 12.0; 95 % CI, 6.821.0); and electrocardiogram
showing atrial fibrillation (positive LR = 3.8; 95 % CI,
1.78.8). A low serum BNP proved to be the most

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

useful test (serum BNP <100 pg/mL; negative

LR = 0.11; 95 % CI, 0.070.16) [20].
Importantly, signs like pulmonary rales, lower
extremity edema, and jugular venous distention have
significant limits for assessing fluid overload. There
are some studies that have correlated these sings
during physical examination and invasive measures
(e.g., pulmonary catheter wedge pressure (PCWP)).
Butman et al. [21] found that the presence of jugular
venous distension, at rest or inducible, had a
sensitivity (81 %), and a specificity (80 %) for
elevation of the pulmonary capillary wedge pressure
(18 mmHg). Using hepato-jugular reflux and
Valsalva maneuvers, Marantz et al. showed that
these maneuvers were valid in the diagnosis of
congestive heart failure in acutely dyspneic patients,
with low a sensitivity (24 %) and a high specificity
(94 %) [22].
On the other hand, in a prospective study, physical
signs of fluid overload were compared with
hemodynamic measurements in 50 patients with
known chronic heart failure. Sings like rales, edema,
and elevated mean jugular venous pressures were
absent in 18 of 43 patients with pulmonary capillary
wedge pressures 22 mmHg. The combination of
these signs had a sensitivity of 58 % and specificity
of 100 % [23].
_ Chest radiography
Chest x-ray has been one of the most used tests to
evaluate for hypervolemia. Radiographic sings of
volume overload include dilated upper lobe vessels,
cardiomegaly, interstitial edema, enlarged pulmonary
artery, pleural effusion, alveolar edema, prominent
superior vena cava, and Kerley lines. However, up to
20 % of patients diagnosed with heart failure had
negative chest radiographs at initial emergency
department evaluation. Additionally, these
radiographic sings can be minimal in patients with
late-stage heart failure [24].
In patients with congestive heart failure,
radiographic signs had poor predictive value for
identifying patients with PCWP values 30 mmHg
where radiographic pulmonary congestion was
absent in 39 % of patients [25].
The X-ray technique and the clinical status of patient
impact radiographic performance for detecting
volume overload. Portably chest X-ray, reduce the
sensitivity of findings of volume overload [26], and
pleural effusions can be missed if the film is performed
supine. With intubated patients and patients with
pleural effusions, the sensitivity, specificity, and
accuracy of supine chest X-ray was reported to be
as low as 60 %, 70 %, and 67 % respectively [27].
Conversely, the frequency of volume overload findings
in the chest X-ray increased with the severity of fluid
overload such as severe heart failure [28].

10

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

_ Natriuretic peptides

High levels of BNP can be found with volume

overload; however, some conditions like myocardial
infraction and pulmonary embolism can cause elevated
levels of BNP. Other conditions that have to be taken
into account when evaluating BNP levels are obesity,
associated with lower BNP levels and renal failure,
associated with high BNP levels. Patients with heart
failure who have elevated base-line levels of BNP.
The greatest utility of BNP levels is in the absence of
elevation, since low BNP levels have a high negative
predictive value for excluding heart failure diagnosis.
On the other hand, high BNP levels can be nonspecific
for volume overload [26].
_ Bioimpedance vector analysis
Bioelectrical impedance analysis is a commonly used
method for estimating body composition, specifically
detecting soft tissue hydration with a 23 %
measurement error. It is a noninvasive, inexpensive
and highly versatile test that transforms electrical
properties of tissues into clinical information [29].
Bioimpedance vector analysis (BIVA) measures whole
body fluid volume and is based on patterns of the
resistance-reactance graph, relating body impedance
to body hydration [29]. Clinical information on
hydration is obtained through patterns of vector
distribution with respect to the healthy population
of the same race, sex, class of body mass index,
and age. Changes in tissue hydration status below
500 ml are detected and ranked. BIVA was examined
as an indicator of fluid status compared to central
venous pressure (CVP) in 121 critically ill patients
[30]. In this study patients were classified in three
groups according to their CVP value: low (0 to
3 mmHg); medium (4 to 12 mmHg); and high (13
to 20 mmHg). The agreement between BIVA and
central venous pressure indications was good in the
high CVP group, moderate in the medium CVP
group, and poor in low CVP group. The combined
evaluation of peripheral tissue hydration (BIVA)
and central filling pressure (CVP) could provide a
useful clinical assessment instrument in the planning
of fluid therapy in critically ill patients, particularly in
those with low CVP [31].
_ Thoracic ultrasound
Sonographic artifacts known as B-lines that suggest
thickened interstitial or fluid-filled alveoli can be
detected using thoracic ultrasound (Fig. 1). PCWP
and fluid accumulation in lungs have been correlated
with the presence of B-lines ("comet-tail images") in
patients with congestive heart failure [32]. Agricola
et al., used thoracic ultrasound to detect comet-tail
images and obtained an individual patient comettail
image score by summing the number of B-lines
in each of the scanned spaces assessed (right and left
hemi thorax, from second to fourth intercostals
space, from para-sternal to mid-axillary line);

11

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

authors found significant positive linear correlations

between comet-tail images score and extra-vascular
lung water determined by the PiCCO System,
between comet score and PCWP, and between
between comet score and PCWP, and between
comet-tail images score and radiologic sings of fluid
overload in the lungs [33].
_ Vena cava diameter ultrasound
The measurement of the inferior vena cava (IVC)
diameter can also be use to assess volume status.
Normal diameter of IVC is 1.5 to 2.5 cm (measured
3 cm from the right atrium); volume depletion is
considered with an IVC diameter <1.5 cm while an
IVC diameter >2.5 cm suggests volume overload.
In an observational study on blood donors, Lyon et al.
evaluated the inferior vena cava diameter (IVCd)
during inspiration (IVCdi) and during expiration
(IVCde), before and after blood donation of 450 mL.
Significant differences were found between the IVCde
before and after blood donation and between IVCdi
before and after donation (5.5 mm and 5.16 mm,
respectively) [34]. In patients treated for hypovolemia,
Zengin et al. evaluated the IVC and right ventricle
(RVd) diameters and diameter changes with the
diameters and diameter changes of healthy volunteers.

The IVCd was measured ultrasonographically by

M-mode in the subxiphoid area and the RVd was
measured in the third and fourth intercostals spaces
before and after fluid resuscitation. As compare with
healthy volunteers average diameters in hypovolemic
patients of the IVC during inspiration and expiration,
and right ventricule diameter were significantly lower.
After fluid resuscitation, there was a significant
increase in mean IVC diameters during inspiration
and expiration as well as in the right ventricule
diameter [35]. Bedside inferior vena cava diameter
and right ventricule diameter evaluation could be a
practical noninvasive instrument for fluid status
estimation and for evaluating the response to fluid
therapy in critically ill patients.

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BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

2. 7.

Tatalaksana

Fluid overload management

Diuretic therapy

Diuretics, especially loop diuretics, remain a valid therapeutic

alternative for relieving symptoms and improving
pathophysiological states of fluid overload such as congestive
heart failure and in patients with AKI. At this time,
there is no evidence that favors ultrafiltration over diuretic
use in volume overload patients with or without AKI in
terms of less progression of AKI, improved clinical outcomes
or reduce incidence of AKI [36]. Despite that more
patients developed AKI during diuretic treatment, numerous
studies have demonstrated that more aggressive use of
loop diuretics to achieve greater volume removal is associated
with improved outcomes (Table 2) [3740].
What should be the goal of urine output when using
diuretics to manage fluid overload? Some empirical observations
have shown that a urine output of 34 ml/kg/h
rarely causes intravascular volume depletion as capillary
refill can meet such rates in almost all patients [41]. Diuretics
could be either administered by bolus or using a
continuous infusion. There has been controversy about
which of these strategies is better; some authors advocate
that diuretic infusion is superior to boluses since urinary
output could be maintain easily [41]. In one study diuretic
infusion was associated with greater diuresis and this was
achieved with a lesser dose [42]; infusion was also

13

BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

associated with fewer adverse events such as worsening

AKI, hypokalemia, and ototoxicity. However, in the
DOSE-AHF(Diuretic Optimization Strategy Evaluation in
Acute Decompensated Heart Failure) study, authors found
that patients with acute heart failure may benefit from an
initial bolus strategy [43].
Since common electrolyte disturbances could be encountered
during diuretic therapy, it is important to
monitor electrolytes levels and also to assess acid-based
status. In order to avoid hypokalemia, administration of
oral potassium it is easy. Measuring urinary potassium
concentration and calculating the daily losses of potassium,
which require replacement is a strategy that can be
used to estimate daily potassium requirements. Another
strategy is the use of potassium-sparing diuretics like spironolactone.
Hypomagnesemia is frequently found during
diuretic therapy, magnesium replacement can be achieved
either intravenously or orally, typically with 2030 mmoL
per day. Finally in some patients, chloride losses exceed
sodium losses and hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis develops;
this is usually corrected with the administration of
potassium chloride and magnesium chloride.
A recent comprehensive review have shown that torsemide
and bumetanide have more favorable pharmacokinetic
profiles than furosemide, and in the case of
torsemide it could be more efficacious than furosemide
in patients with heart failure (decreased mortality, decrease
hospitalizations, and improved New York Heart
Association functional classification). In AKI patients, as
compared with torsemide the use of furosemide was associated
with a significant improvement in urine output.
Moreover, two trials comparing bumetanide with furosemide
showed conflicting results [44].
Finally, in patients with AKI the response to furosemide
may be reduced due to multiple mechanisms including
a reduced tubular secretion of furosemide and
blunted response of Na-K-2Cl co-transporters at the
loop of Henle [45]. This reduced response to furosemide
in AKI patients often requires the use of higher doses
that may increase the risk of ototoxicity, especially as
the clearance of furosemide is severely reduced in AKI.
High doses of furosemide may also result in myocardial
dysfunction secondary to furosemide induced vasoconstriction
[46].
Extracorporeal therapies

Fluid overload refractory to medical therapy requires the

use of extracorporeal therapies such as continuous renal replacement
therapies since critically ill patients often show
hemodynamic instability and/or multiple organ dysfunctions.
Accurate management of fluid balance becomes obligatory
with the ultimate goal of improving pulmonary gas
exchange and organ perfusion while maintaining stable
hemodynamic parameters. The optimal renal replacement
therapy for patients with AKI and fluid overload has not
been defined yet and there is still an ongoing debate.
Choice of the initial modality needs to be based on the
availability of resources, local expertise; the individual needs

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BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

of the patients, and finally on patients hemodynamic status.

In patients with fluid overload, CRRT provides a
slower fluid removal over intermittent hemodialysis (IHD)
resulting in more hemodynamic stability and better fluid
balance control, other advantages of CRRT over IHD include:
a slower control of solute concentration avoiding
large fluctuations and fluid shifts, which reduce the risk of
cerebral edema, the great flexibility in terms of treatment
adjustment to patients needs at anytime, and finally CRRT
allows to perform the treatment with relatively simple and
user friendly machines [47]. Some large observational
studies have suggested that CRRT is an independent predictor
of renal recovery among survivors [4850].
In the absence of definite data to support the use of
particular type of renal replacement therapy, one should
consider CRRT and IHD as complementary therapies.
Therefore, during the treatment of critically ill patients
with AKI and fluid overload transitions between CRRT
and IHD are frequent, and are frequently driven by
patients hemodynamic status.
Slow continuous ultrafiltration (SCUF) is a type of
continuous renal replacement therapy that is usually
performed with low blood flow rates (50 to 100 ml/min),
and ultrafiltration rates between 100 and 300 ml/h according
to fluid balance necessities. Relatively small
surface-area filters can be employed with reduced heparin
doses since low ultrafiltration and blood flow rates
are required, [51].
Continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) is another
CRRT technique that allows meticulous, minute-tominute
control of fluid balance by providing continuous
fluid, electrolyte, and toxin clearance.
The prescription of CRRT related fluid management
and its integration into overall patient fluid management
could be improved by using a specific order chart for
the machine fluid balance as shown on Table 3. Machine
fluid balance refers to the total balance over 24-h period
of fluids administered by the CRRT machine (dialysate
or replacement fluid or both depending on the technique)
and fluids removed by the CRRT machine (spent dialysate
or ultrafiltrate or both depending on the technique). This
set up will help to achieve the planned hourly fluid balance
as shown on Table 3 and Fig. 2.
The ultimate goal is to preserve tissue perfusion, optimizing
fluid balance by effectively removing fluid
without compromising the effective circulating fluid
volume; therefore, meticulous monitoring of fluid balance
is critical for all patients [52].
Another option for treating patients with fluid overload
are the new smaller and more portable devices like
the Aquadex FlexFlow System (Baxter Healthcare). In
patients with heart failure, Costanzo et al. compare adjustable
ultrafiltration using a small ultrafiltration device
to the use of intravenous loop diuretics. The authors
found a trend to longer time to recurrence of heart failure
within 90 days event after hospital discharge in patients

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treated with the ultrafiltration device, and fewer heart failure

and cardiovascular events. Changes in renal function
and the 90-day mortality were similar in both groups.
However, more patients who were randomized to adjustable
ultrafiltration experienced an adverse effect of special
interest (p = 0.018) and a serious study product-related
adverse events (p = 0.026) [53].

Conclusions
Several complications like congestive heart failure, pulmonary
edema, delayed wound healing, tissue breakdown,
and impaired bowel function are associated with fluid
overload. Fluid overload has also been related to increased
mortality. The optimal assessment of volume status in
critically ill patients is of vital importance particularly during
the early management of these patients. One key
aspect of fluid overload management is to maintain
hemodynamic stability and optimize organ function. Loop
diuretics are frequently used as the initial therapy to treat
critically ill patients with fluid overload; nevertheless, diuretics
have limited effectiveness due to several factors
such as underlying acute kidney injury that contribute to
diuretic resistance. Renal replacement therapies are often
required for optimal volume management in critically ill
patients with fluid overload. In this setting, successful volume
management depends on an accurate estimation of
patients fluid status, an adequate understanding of the
principles of fluid overload treatment with ultrafiltration,
and clear treatment goals.

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BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

FLUID OVERLOAD
Pathophysiology
The renal compartment syndrome: The human body is composed of different
organ systems. Lungs are, perhaps, the most affected organs by fluid overload,
followed by encapsulated organs such as the kidneys. Experimental and clinical
evidence from more than 30 years ago links the development of renal edema with
oliguria and the perpetuation of ischemic AKI[54]. This could be explained by
reduced perfusion pressure through the kidneys as a result of higher central
venous pressure, which has been better described in the context of cardiorenal
syndromes[55,56]. In addition to heart failure, patients with systemic
inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) may also develop interstitial edema and
subsequently increases in interstitial pressure, leading to lower perfusion pressure,
particularly in encapsulated organs such as the kidney[57].
In animal models, Burnett et al[58] also demonstrated that an increase in renal
venous pressure associated with volume expansion led to higher interstitial
pressures and decreased sodium excretion in association with a decreased RBF
and glomerular filtration rate. Recently, Cruces et al[59] experimentally described
a model that provided even more support of the existence of a renal compartment.
In their work, pressure had a nonlinear dependence on volume in the intact kidney,
whereas the decapsulated kidney followed a linear pressure-volume curve, thus
corroborating the hypothesis that kidney hypoperfusion might be explained by a
reduced perfusion pressure. Clinical evidence supporting the role of interstitial
edema to worse kidney outcomes will be discussed later in this review.
Pulmonary consequences: Derangements in the capillary permeability, which
occurs in SIRS, combined with an increased hydrostatic pressure, as induced by
aggressive fluid resuscitation, results in major interstitial edema that can lead to
important clinical consequences.
Fluid overload increases hydrostatic pressure, leading to fluid accumulation in the
lungs. Studies in mice have shown that the leakage occurs in the bronchiole, and
the backflow of fluids leads to alveolar edema[60]. There is a reabsorption of
fluids in the interstitial space and, because the accumulated fluids are drained
across the lymphatic vessels to the thoracic duct and superior vena cava,
alterations in systemic venous pressure, which occurs during fluid overload, result
in impaired lymphatic drainage and consequently pulmonary edema[61], leading
to a gas exchange impairment.
The high hydrostatic pressure not only causes fluid leakage but also generates
mechanical stress injury to capillary walls, leading to the impairment of the
mechanisms of fluid reabsorption[62] and alveolo-capillary barrier
damage[63,64]. This damage causes ultrastructural changes in the capillary,
altering permeability to proteins and activating the inflammatory response[65],
which compromises gas exchange[66].
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BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

Hypoxemia resulting from impaired gas exchange leads to lung regional blood
flow redistribution. As demonstrated by Ruff et al[67], fluid overload leads to an
inversion of the pulmonary perfusion pattern, with decreased blood flow to the
pulmonary dependent regions and increased blood flow to the non-dependent
regions, most likely because of hypoxic vasoconstriction.
The clinical features of pulmonary edema are not restricted to oxygenation but are
a result of decreased pulmonary ventilation as well. In 1922, Drinker had
described a tidal volume reduction of 40%-70% in an induced pulmonary edema
animal model[68], and a subsequent study has shown that a negative fluid balance
strategy improved lung compliance and arterial oxygenation[69].
Considering Starlings equation in which pulmonary edema is a result of
colloidosmotic and hydrostatic forces, one approach to this clinical problem is to
lower filling pressures. Despite concerns regarding lowering cardiac output and
oxygen delivery, current evidence shows that a conservative fluid strategy
improves the oxygenation index and number of ventilation-free days without
compromising hemodynamics or other organ functions[11,70].
Other organ consequences: Other organs might be affected by fluid overload in
addition to the lungs and kidneys. Worse outcomes of the skin and the recovery of
soft tissue wounds after surgery have been described, and the trial of Brandstrup
et al[71] showed that a more conservative approach on fluids achieved better
outcomes, particularly regarding surgical complications.
Gastrointestinal complications, such as ileum and anastomotic leakages, can also
be increased because of interstitial edema associated with accumulated fluids
during critical illness or major surgeries[72]. This might lead to delays in the
administration of nutritional needs and worsen the possibility of achieving an
adequate enteral nutrition intake.
The liver is also an encapsulated organ, and interstitial edema could lead to a sort
of compartment syndrome. In shock states, in addition to hypoperfusion, a high
central venous pressure is required for the development of ischemic hepatitis[73].
High venous pressures are usually secondary to a low cardiac output in patients
with congestive heart failure, but it can also occur in fluid overloaded patients
with SIRS who develop myocardial dysfunction.
From a broader perspective, abdominal compartment syndrome can be seen as
another preventable complication of fluid overload. This syndrome would be an
extreme situation regarding fluid overload states and can be either primary or
secondary. In this case, fluid overload contributes to the development of
abdominal compartment syndrome, leading to deleterious effects on many organ
systems, including hemodynamic (as a result of reduced venous return), renal (as
a result of increased renal venous pressure) and even respiratory system
mechanics (by reducing the thoracic wall compliance)[74].

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Other organ systems have more limited evidence associating fluid overload with
worse outcomes. Although the brain could be considered an encapsulated organ,
in general ICU patients whose blood-brain barrier is considered intact, fluid
overload will most likely not lead to a significant cerebral edema that will develop
into intracranial hypertension. However, it might be associated with an increased
incidence of delirium[75], which is associated with worse outcomes.
Acid-base water effect: Despite the effect of electrolytes on acid-base status,
water itself might influence the acid-base status. Some experimental evidence
from in vitro studies suggests that the dilution of plasma with distilled water
changes many electrolyte concentrations, but because the ensuing proportions are
maintained regarding the SID, PaCO2 and weak anions, there is no significant
difference in the pH[76]. However, in a mathematical modeling approach
validated thereafter with human plasma, Gattinoni et al[77] demonstrated that
water itself, when in an open system, leads to acidosis, mainly because of the
reaction of CO2 with H2O. The same group later described a possible rule that
would regulate pH changes during crystalloid infusion, with interesting results.
Mainly, the baseline [HCO3-] values would dictate the pH response to a crystalloid
solution whose (SID) would be the main determinant of the direction of the pH
change[78]. As an example, giving a patient both 0.9% saline [(SID) = 0] or
dextrose in water [(SID) = 0] can lead to worsened acidemia, depending on the
patients renal function and pulmonary function to counteract these effects.
However, 0.9% saline comes with an added cost, which is that of electrolyte
overload, as we have discussed.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Fluid and electrolyte overload in critically

ill patients: An
overview
1.

Bruno Adler Maccagnan Pinheiro Besen, Andr Luiz Nunes Gobatto, Lvia Maria
Garcia Melro,
Alexandre Toledo Maciel, Marcelo Park

2.
Anaesthesiology Intensive Therapy
2014, vol. 46, no 5, 361380
ISSN 16425758
DOI: 10.5603/AIT.2014.0060
www.ait.viamedica.pl

Fluid overload, de-resuscitation, and

outcomes

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BERNADINA CYNTHIA (406158157) FLUID OVERLOAD DI ICU

in critically ill or injured patients: a

systematic review
with suggestions for clinical practice
Manu L.N.G. Malbrain1, Paul E. Marik2, Ine Witters1, Colin
Cordemans1, Andrew W. Kirkpatrick3,

Derek J. Roberts3, 4, Niels Van Regenmortel1

Besen BA, Gobatto AL, Melro LM, Maciel AT, Park M. Fluid and electrolyte
overload in critically ill patients: An overview. World Journal of Critical Care
Medicine. Vol 4. USA: 2015 May. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4411563/pdf/WJCCM-4-116.pdf

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