There'sPlentyofRoomattheBottom

AnInvitationtoEnteraNewFieldofPhysics

byRichardP.Feynman
ThistranscriptoftheclassictalkthatRichardFeynmangaveonDecember29th1959attheannual
meetingoftheAmericanPhysicalSocietyattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology(Caltech)was
firstpublishedinCaltechEngineeringandScience,Volume23:5,February1960,pp2236.Ithas
beenmadeavailableonthewebathttp://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.htmlwiththeirkind
permission.Thescannedoriginalisavailable.
TheWikipediaentryonFeynman'stalk.
InformationontheFeynmanPrizes
SearchYouTubeforRichardFeynman
Foranaccountofthetalkandhowpeoplereactedtoit,seechapter4ofNano!byEdRegis,
Little/Brown1995.AnexcellenttechnicalintroductiontonanotechnologyisNanosystems:
molecularmachinery,manufacturing,andcomputationbyK.EricDrexler,Wiley1992.
TheFeynmanLecturesonPhysicsareavailableonline.
IimagineexperimentalphysicistsmustoftenlookwithenvyatmenlikeKamerlinghOnnes,whodiscovereda
fieldlikelowtemperature,whichseemstobebottomlessandinwhichonecangodownanddown.Suchaman
isthenaleaderandhassometemporarymonopolyinascientificadventure.PercyBridgman,indesigninga
waytoobtainhigherpressures,openedupanothernewfieldandwasabletomoveintoitandtoleadusall
along.Thedevelopmentofeverhighervacuumwasacontinuingdevelopmentofthesamekind.
Iwouldliketodescribeafield,inwhichlittlehasbeendone,butinwhichanenormousamountcanbedonein
principle.Thisfieldisnotquitethesameastheothersinthatitwillnottellusmuchoffundamentalphysics(in
thesenseof,"Whatarethestrangeparticles?")butitismorelikesolidstatephysicsinthesensethatitmight
tellusmuchofgreatinterestaboutthestrangephenomenathatoccurincomplexsituations.Furthermore,apoint
thatismostimportantisthatitwouldhaveanenormousnumberoftechnicalapplications.
WhatIwanttotalkaboutistheproblemofmanipulatingandcontrollingthingsonasmallscale.
AssoonasImentionthis,peopletellmeaboutminiaturization,andhowfarithasprogressedtoday.Theytell
meaboutelectricmotorsthatarethesizeofthenailonyoursmallfinger.Andthereisadeviceonthemarket,
theytellme,bywhichyoucanwritetheLord'sPrayerontheheadofapin.Butthat'snothingthat'sthemost
primitive,haltingstepinthedirectionIintendtodiscuss.Itisastaggeringlysmallworldthatisbelow.Inthe
year2000,whentheylookbackatthisage,theywillwonderwhyitwasnotuntiltheyear1960thatanybody
beganseriouslytomoveinthisdirection.
Whycannotwewritetheentire24volumesoftheEncyclopaediaBrittanicaontheheadofapin?
Let'sseewhatwouldbeinvolved.Theheadofapinisasixteenthofaninchacross.Ifyoumagnifyitby25,000
diameters,theareaoftheheadofthepinisthenequaltotheareaofallthepagesoftheEncyclopaedia

Brittanica.Therefore,allitisnecessarytodoistoreduceinsizeallthewritingintheEncyclopaediaby25,000
times.Isthatpossible?Theresolvingpoweroftheeyeisabout1/120ofaninchthatisroughlythediameterof
oneofthelittledotsonthefinehalftonereproductionsintheEncyclopaedia.This,whenyoudemagnifyitby
25,000times,isstill80angstromsindiameter32atomsacross,inanordinarymetal.Inotherwords,oneof
thosedotsstillwouldcontaininitsarea1,000atoms.So,eachdotcaneasilybeadjustedinsizeasrequiredby
thephotoengraving,andthereisnoquestionthatthereisenoughroomontheheadofapintoputallofthe
EncyclopaediaBrittanica.
Furthermore,itcanbereadifitissowritten.Let'simaginethatitiswritteninraisedlettersofmetalthatis,
wheretheblackisintheEncyclopedia,wehaveraisedlettersofmetalthatareactually1/25,000oftheir
ordinarysize.Howwouldwereadit?
Ifwehadsomethingwritteninsuchaway,wecouldreaditusingtechniquesincommonusetoday.(Theywill
undoubtedlyfindabetterwaywhenwedoactuallyhaveitwritten,buttomakemypointconservativelyIshall
justtaketechniquesweknowtoday.)Wewouldpressthemetalintoaplasticmaterialandmakeamoldofit,
thenpeeltheplasticoffverycarefully,evaporatesilicaintotheplastictogetaverythinfilm,thenshadowitby
evaporatinggoldatanangleagainstthesilicasothatallthelittleletterswillappearclearly,dissolvetheplastic
awayfromthesilicafilm,andthenlookthroughitwithanelectronmicroscope!
Thereisnoquestionthatifthethingwerereducedby25,000timesintheformofraisedlettersonthepin,it
wouldbeeasyforustoreadittoday.Furthermore,thereisnoquestionthatwewouldfinditeasytomakecopies
ofthemasterwewouldjustneedtopressthesamemetalplateagainintoplasticandwewouldhaveanother
copy.

Howdowewritesmall?
Thenextquestionis:Howdowewriteit?Wehavenostandardtechniquetodothisnow.Butletmearguethatit
isnotasdifficultasitfirstappearstobe.Wecanreversethelensesoftheelectronmicroscopeinorderto
demagnifyaswellasmagnify.Asourceofions,sentthroughthemicroscopelensesinreverse,couldbefocused
toaverysmallspot.WecouldwritewiththatspotlikewewriteinaTVcathoderayoscilloscope,bygoing
acrossinlines,andhavinganadjustmentwhichdeterminestheamountofmaterialwhichisgoingtobe
depositedaswescaninlines.
Thismethodmightbeveryslowbecauseofspacechargelimitations.Therewillbemorerapidmethods.We
couldfirstmake,perhapsbysomephotoprocess,ascreenwhichhasholesinitintheformoftheletters.Then
wewouldstrikeanarcbehindtheholesanddrawmetallicionsthroughtheholesthenwecouldagainuseour
systemoflensesandmakeasmallimageintheformofions,whichwoulddepositthemetalonthepin.
Asimplerwaymightbethis(thoughIamnotsureitwouldwork):Wetakelightand,throughanoptical
microscoperunningbackwards,wefocusitontoaverysmallphotoelectricscreen.Thenelectronscomeaway
fromthescreenwherethelightisshining.Theseelectronsarefocuseddowninsizebytheelectronmicroscope
lensestoimpingedirectlyuponthesurfaceofthemetal.Willsuchabeametchawaythemetalifitisrunlong
enough?Idon'tknow.Ifitdoesn'tworkforametalsurface,itmustbepossibletofindsomesurfacewithwhich
tocoattheoriginalpinsothat,wheretheelectronsbombard,achangeismadewhichwecouldrecognizelater.
Thereisnointensityprobleminthesedevicesnotwhatyouareusedtoinmagnification,whereyouhaveto
takeafewelectronsandspreadthemoverabiggerandbiggerscreenitisjusttheopposite.Thelightwhichwe
getfromapageisconcentratedontoaverysmallareasoitisveryintense.Thefewelectronswhichcomefrom
thephotoelectricscreenaredemagnifieddowntoaverytinyareasothat,again,theyareveryintense.Idon't
knowwhythishasn'tbeendoneyet!
That'stheEncyclopaediaBrittanicaontheheadofapin,butlet'sconsiderallthebooksintheworld.The
LibraryofCongresshasapproximately9millionvolumestheBritishMuseumLibraryhas5millionvolumes

therearealso5millionvolumesintheNationalLibraryinFrance.Undoubtedlythereareduplications,soletus
saythattherearesome24millionvolumesofinterestintheworld.
WhatwouldhappenifIprintallthisdownatthescalewehavebeendiscussing?Howmuchspacewouldit
take?Itwouldtake,ofcourse,theareaofaboutamillionpinheadsbecause,insteadoftherebeingjustthe24
volumesoftheEncyclopaedia,thereare24millionvolumes.Themillionpinheadscanbeputinasquareofa
thousandpinsonaside,oranareaofabout3squareyards.Thatistosay,thesilicareplicawiththepaperthin
backingofplastic,withwhichwehavemadethecopies,withallthisinformation,isonanareaofapproximately
thesizeof35pagesoftheEncyclopaedia.Thatisabouthalfasmanypagesasthereareinthismagazine.Allof
theinformationwhichallofmankindhaseverrecordedinbookscanbecarriedaroundinapamphletinyour
handandnotwrittenincode,butasasimplereproductionoftheoriginalpictures,engravings,andeverything
elseonasmallscalewithoutlossofresolution.
WhatwouldourlibrarianatCaltechsay,assherunsalloverfromonebuildingtoanother,ifItellherthat,ten
yearsfromnow,alloftheinformationthatsheisstrugglingtokeeptrackof120,000volumes,stackedfrom
thefloortotheceiling,drawersfullofcards,storageroomsfulloftheolderbookscanbekeptonjustone
librarycard!WhentheUniversityofBrazil,forexample,findsthattheirlibraryisburned,wecansendthema
copyofeverybookinourlibrarybystrikingoffacopyfromthemasterplateinafewhoursandmailingitinan
envelopenobiggerorheavierthananyotherordinaryairmailletter.
Now,thenameofthistalkis"ThereisPlentyofRoomattheBottom"notjust"ThereisRoomattheBottom."
WhatIhavedemonstratedisthatthereisroomthatyoucandecreasethesizeofthingsinapracticalway.I
nowwanttoshowthatthereisplentyofroom.Iwillnotnowdiscusshowwearegoingtodoit,butonlywhatis
possibleinprincipleinotherwords,whatispossibleaccordingtothelawsofphysics.Iamnotinventinganti
gravity,whichispossiblesomedayonlyifthelawsarenotwhatwethink.Iamtellingyouwhatcouldbedoneif
thelawsarewhatwethinkwearenotdoingitsimplybecausewehaven'tyetgottenaroundtoit.

Informationonasmallscale
Supposethat,insteadoftryingtoreproducethepicturesandalltheinformationdirectlyinitspresentform,we
writeonlytheinformationcontentinacodeofdotsanddashes,orsomethinglikethat,torepresentthevarious
letters.Eachletterrepresentssixorseven"bits"ofinformationthatis,youneedonlyaboutsixorsevendotsor
dashesforeachletter.Now,insteadofwritingeverything,asIdidbefore,onthesurfaceoftheheadofapin,I
amgoingtousetheinteriorofthematerialaswell.
Letusrepresentadotbyasmallspotofonemetal,thenextdashbyanadjacentspotofanothermetal,andso
on.Suppose,tobeconservative,thatabitofinformationisgoingtorequirealittlecubeofatoms5x5x5that
is125atoms.Perhapsweneedahundredandsomeoddatomstomakesurethattheinformationisnotlost
throughdiffusion,orthroughsomeotherprocess.
IhaveestimatedhowmanylettersthereareintheEncyclopaedia,andIhaveassumedthateachofmy24
millionbooksisasbigasanEncyclopaediavolume,andhavecalculated,then,howmanybitsofinformation
thereare(1015).ForeachbitIallow100atoms.Anditturnsoutthatalloftheinformationthatmanhas
carefullyaccumulatedinallthebooksintheworldcanbewritteninthisforminacubeofmaterialonetwo
hundredthofaninchwidewhichisthebarestpieceofdustthatcanbemadeoutbythehumaneye.Sothereis
plentyofroomatthebottom!Don'ttellmeaboutmicrofilm!
Thisfactthatenormousamountsofinformationcanbecarriedinanexceedinglysmallspaceis,ofcourse,
wellknowntothebiologists,andresolvesthemysterywhichexistedbeforeweunderstoodallthisclearly,of
howitcouldbethat,inthetiniestcell,alloftheinformationfortheorganizationofacomplexcreaturesuchas
ourselvescanbestored.Allthisinformationwhetherwehavebrowneyes,orwhetherwethinkatall,orthat
intheembryothejawboneshouldfirstdevelopwithalittleholeinthesidesothatlateranervecangrow
throughitallthisinformationiscontainedinaverytinyfractionofthecellintheformoflongchainDNA
moleculesinwhichapproximately50atomsareusedforonebitofinformationaboutthecell.

Betterelectronmicroscopes
IfIhavewritteninacode,with5x5x5atomstoabit,thequestionis:HowcouldIreadittoday?Theelectron
microscopeisnotquitegoodenough,withthegreatestcareandeffort,itcanonlyresolveabout10angstroms.I
wouldliketotryandimpressuponyouwhileIamtalkingaboutallofthesethingsonasmallscale,the
importanceofimprovingtheelectronmicroscopebyahundredtimes.Itisnotimpossibleitisnotagainstthe
lawsofdiffractionoftheelectron.Thewavelengthoftheelectroninsuchamicroscopeisonly1/20ofan
angstrom.Soitshouldbepossibletoseetheindividualatoms.Whatgoodwoulditbetoseeindividualatoms
distinctly?
Wehavefriendsinotherfieldsinbiology,forinstance.Wephysicistsoftenlookatthemandsay,"Youknow
thereasonyoufellowsaremakingsolittleprogress?"(ActuallyIdon'tknowanyfieldwheretheyaremaking
morerapidprogressthantheyareinbiologytoday.)"Youshouldusemoremathematics,likewedo."They
couldanswerusbutthey'repolite,soI'llanswerforthem:"Whatyoushoulddoinorderforustomakemore
rapidprogressistomaketheelectronmicroscope100timesbetter."
Whatarethemostcentralandfundamentalproblemsofbiologytoday?Theyarequestionslike:Whatisthe
sequenceofbasesintheDNA?Whathappenswhenyouhaveamutation?HowisthebaseorderintheDNA
connectedtotheorderofaminoacidsintheprotein?WhatisthestructureoftheRNAisitsinglechainor
doublechain,andhowisitrelatedinitsorderofbasestotheDNA?Whatistheorganizationofthe
microsomes?Howareproteinssynthesized?WheredoestheRNAgo?Howdoesitsit?Wheredotheproteins
sit?Wheredotheaminoacidsgoin?Inphotosynthesis,whereisthechlorophyllhowisitarrangedwhereare
thecarotenoidsinvolvedinthisthing?Whatisthesystemoftheconversionoflightintochemicalenergy?
Itisveryeasytoanswermanyofthesefundamentalbiologicalquestionsyoujustlookatthething!Youwillsee
theorderofbasesinthechainyouwillseethestructureofthemicrosome.Unfortunately,thepresent
microscopeseesatascalewhichisjustabittoocrude.Makethemicroscopeonehundredtimesmorepowerful,
andmanyproblemsofbiologywouldbemadeverymucheasier.Iexaggerate,ofcourse,butthebiologists
wouldsurelybeverythankfultoyouandtheywouldpreferthattothecriticismthattheyshouldusemore
mathematics.
Thetheoryofchemicalprocessestodayisbasedontheoreticalphysics.Inthissense,physicssuppliesthe
foundationofchemistry.Butchemistryalsohasanalysis.Ifyouhaveastrangesubstanceandyouwanttoknow
whatitis,yougothroughalongandcomplicatedprocessofchemicalanalysis.Youcananalyzealmost
anythingtoday,soIamalittlelatewithmyidea.Butifthephysicistswantedto,theycouldalsodigunderthe
chemistsintheproblemofchemicalanalysis.Itwouldbeveryeasytomakeananalysisofanycomplicated
chemicalsubstanceallonewouldhavetodowouldbetolookatitandseewheretheatomsare.Theonly
troubleisthattheelectronmicroscopeisonehundredtimestoopoor.(Later,Iwouldliketoaskthequestion:
Canthephysicistsdosomethingaboutthethirdproblemofchemistrynamely,synthesis?Isthereaphysical
waytosynthesizeanychemicalsubstance?
Thereasontheelectronmicroscopeissopooristhatthefvalueofthelensesisonly1partto1,000youdon't
haveabigenoughnumericalaperture.AndIknowthattherearetheoremswhichprovethatitisimpossible,
withaxiallysymmetricalstationaryfieldlenses,toproduceanfvalueanybiggerthansoandsoandtherefore
theresolvingpoweratthepresenttimeisatitstheoreticalmaximum.Butineverytheoremthereare
assumptions.Whymustthefieldbeaxiallysymmetrical?Whymustthefieldbestationary?Can'twehave
pulsedelectronbeamsinfieldsmovingupalongwiththeelectrons?Mustthefieldbesymmetrical?Iputthis
outasachallenge:Istherenowaytomaketheelectronmicroscopemorepowerful?

Themarvelousbiologicalsystem
Thebiologicalexampleofwritinginformationonasmallscalehasinspiredmetothinkofsomethingthat
shouldbepossible.Biologyisnotsimplywritinginformationitisdoingsomethingaboutit.Abiological
systemcanbeexceedinglysmall.Manyofthecellsareverytiny,buttheyareveryactivetheymanufacture

varioussubstancestheywalkaroundtheywiggleandtheydoallkindsofmarvelousthingsallonavery
smallscale.Also,theystoreinformation.Considerthepossibilitythatwetoocanmakeathingverysmallwhich
doeswhatwewantthatwecanmanufactureanobjectthatmaneuversatthatlevel!
Theremayevenbeaneconomicpointtothisbusinessofmakingthingsverysmall.Letmeremindyouofsome
oftheproblemsofcomputingmachines.Incomputerswehavetostoreanenormousamountofinformation.The
kindofwritingthatIwasmentioningbefore,inwhichIhadeverythingdownasadistributionofmetal,is
permanent.Muchmoreinterestingtoacomputerisawayofwriting,erasing,andwritingsomethingelse.(This
isusuallybecausewedon'twanttowastethematerialonwhichwehavejustwritten.Yetifwecouldwriteitin
averysmallspace,itwouldn'tmakeanydifferenceitcouldjustbethrownawayafteritwasread.Itdoesn'tcost
verymuchforthematerial).

Miniaturizingthecomputer
Idon'tknowhowtodothisonasmallscaleinapracticalway,butIdoknowthatcomputingmachinesarevery
largetheyfillrooms.Whycan'twemakethemverysmall,makethemoflittlewires,littleelementsandby
little,Imeanlittle.Forinstance,thewiresshouldbe10or100atomsindiameter,andthecircuitsshouldbea
fewthousandangstromsacross.Everybodywhohasanalyzedthelogicaltheoryofcomputershascometothe
conclusionthatthepossibilitiesofcomputersareveryinterestingiftheycouldbemadetobemore
complicatedbyseveralordersofmagnitude.Iftheyhadmillionsoftimesasmanyelements,theycouldmake
judgments.Theywouldhavetimetocalculatewhatisthebestwaytomakethecalculationthattheyareaboutto
make.Theycouldselectthemethodofanalysiswhich,fromtheirexperience,isbetterthantheonethatwe
wouldgivetothem.Andinmanyotherways,theywouldhavenewqualitativefeatures.
IfIlookatyourfaceIimmediatelyrecognizethatIhaveseenitbefore.(Actually,myfriendswillsayIhave
chosenanunfortunateexamplehereforthesubjectofthisillustration.AtleastIrecognizethatitisamanand
notanapple.)Yetthereisnomachinewhich,withthatspeed,cantakeapictureofafaceandsayeventhatitis
amanandmuchlessthatitisthesamemanthatyoushoweditbeforeunlessitisexactlythesamepicture.If
thefaceischangedifIamclosertothefaceifIamfurtherfromthefaceifthelightchangesIrecognizeit
anyway.Now,thislittlecomputerIcarryinmyheadiseasilyabletodothat.Thecomputersthatwebuildare
notabletodothat.Thenumberofelementsinthisboneboxofmineareenormouslygreaterthanthenumberof
elementsinour"wonderful"computers.Butourmechanicalcomputersaretoobigtheelementsinthisboxare
microscopic.Iwanttomakesomethataresubmicroscopic.
Ifwewantedtomakeacomputerthathadallthesemarvelousextraqualitativeabilities,wewouldhavetomake
it,perhaps,thesizeofthePentagon.Thishasseveraldisadvantages.First,itrequirestoomuchmaterialthere
maynotbeenoughgermaniumintheworldforallthetransistorswhichwouldhavetobeputintothisenormous
thing.ThereisalsotheproblemofheatgenerationandpowerconsumptionTVAwouldbeneededtorunthe
computer.Butanevenmorepracticaldifficultyisthatthecomputerwouldbelimitedtoacertainspeed.
Becauseofitslargesize,thereisfinitetimerequiredtogettheinformationfromoneplacetoanother.The
informationcannotgoanyfasterthanthespeedoflightso,ultimately,whenourcomputersgetfasterand
fasterandmoreandmoreelaborate,wewillhavetomakethemsmallerandsmaller.
Butthereisplentyofroomtomakethemsmaller.ThereisnothingthatIcanseeinthephysicallawsthatsays
thecomputerelementscannotbemadeenormouslysmallerthantheyarenow.Infact,theremaybecertain
advantages.

Miniaturizationbyevaporation
Howcanwemakesuchadevice?Whatkindofmanufacturingprocesseswouldweuse?Onepossibilitywe
mightconsider,sincewehavetalkedaboutwritingbyputtingatomsdowninacertainarrangement,wouldbeto
evaporatethematerial,thenevaporatetheinsulatornexttoit.Then,forthenextlayer,evaporateanother
positionofawire,anotherinsulator,andsoon.So,yousimplyevaporateuntilyouhaveablockofstuffwhich
hastheelementscoilsandcondensers,transistorsandsoonofexceedinglyfinedimensions.

ButIwouldliketodiscuss,justforamusement,thatthereareotherpossibilities.Whycan'twemanufacture
thesesmallcomputerssomewhatlikewemanufacturethebigones?Whycan'twedrillholes,cutthings,solder
things,stampthingsout,molddifferentshapesallataninfinitesimallevel?Whatarethelimitationsastohow
smallathinghastobebeforeyoucannolongermoldit?Howmanytimeswhenyouareworkingonsomething
frustratinglytinylikeyourwife'swristwatch,haveyousaidtoyourself,"IfIcouldonlytrainananttodothis!"
WhatIwouldliketosuggestisthepossibilityoftrainingananttotrainamitetodothis.Whatarethe
possibilitiesofsmallbutmovablemachines?Theymayormaynotbeuseful,buttheysurelywouldbefunto
make.
Consideranymachineforexample,anautomobileandaskabouttheproblemsofmakinganinfinitesimal
machinelikeit.Suppose,intheparticulardesignoftheautomobile,weneedacertainprecisionofthepartswe
needanaccuracy,let'ssuppose,of4/10,000ofaninch.Ifthingsaremoreinaccuratethanthatintheshapeofthe
cylinderandsoon,itisn'tgoingtoworkverywell.IfImakethethingtoosmall,Ihavetoworryaboutthesize
oftheatomsIcan'tmakeacircleoutof"balls"sotospeak,ifthecircleistoosmall.So,ifImaketheerror,
correspondingto4/10,000ofaninch,correspondtoanerrorof10atoms,itturnsoutthatIcanreducethe
dimensionsofanautomobile4,000times,approximatelysothatitis1mm.across.Obviously,ifyouredesign
thecarsothatitwouldworkwithamuchlargertolerance,whichisnotatallimpossible,thenyoucouldmakea
muchsmallerdevice.
Itisinterestingtoconsiderwhattheproblemsareinsuchsmallmachines.Firstly,withpartsstressedtothesame
degree,theforcesgoastheareayouarereducing,sothatthingslikeweightandinertiaareofrelativelyno
importance.Thestrengthofmaterial,inotherwords,isverymuchgreaterinproportion.Thestressesand
expansionoftheflywheelfromcentrifugalforce,forexample,wouldbethesameproportiononlyifthe
rotationalspeedisincreasedinthesameproportionaswedecreasethesize.Ontheotherhand,themetalsthat
weusehaveagrainstructure,andthiswouldbeveryannoyingatsmallscalebecausethematerialisnot
homogeneous.Plasticsandglassandthingsofthisamorphousnatureareverymuchmorehomogeneous,andso
wewouldhavetomakeourmachinesoutofsuchmaterials.
Thereareproblemsassociatedwiththeelectricalpartofthesystemwiththecopperwiresandthemagnetic
parts.Themagneticpropertiesonaverysmallscalearenotthesameasonalargescalethereisthe"domain"
probleminvolved.Abigmagnetmadeofmillionsofdomainscanonlybemadeonasmallscalewithone
domain.Theelectricalequipmentwon'tsimplybescaleddownithastoberedesigned.ButIcanseenoreason
whyitcan'tberedesignedtoworkagain.

Problemsoflubrication
Lubricationinvolvessomeinterestingpoints.Theeffectiveviscosityofoilwouldbehigherandhigherin
proportionaswewentdown(andifweincreasethespeedasmuchaswecan).Ifwedon'tincreasethespeedso
much,andchangefromoiltokeroseneorsomeotherfluid,theproblemisnotsobad.Butactuallywemaynot
havetolubricateatall!Wehavealotofextraforce.Letthebearingsrundrytheywon'trunhotbecausethe
heatescapesawayfromsuchasmalldevicevery,veryrapidly.
Thisrapidheatlosswouldpreventthegasolinefromexploding,soaninternalcombustionengineisimpossible.
Otherchemicalreactions,liberatingenergywhencold,canbeused.Probablyanexternalsupplyofelectrical
powerwouldbemostconvenientforsuchsmallmachines.
Whatwouldbetheutilityofsuchmachines?Whoknows?Ofcourse,asmallautomobilewouldonlybeuseful
forthemitestodrivearoundin,andIsupposeourChristianinterestsdon'tgothatfar.However,wedidnotethe
possibilityofthemanufactureofsmallelementsforcomputersincompletelyautomaticfactories,containing
lathesandothermachinetoolsattheverysmalllevel.Thesmalllathewouldnothavetobeexactlylikeourbig
lathe.Ileavetoyourimaginationtheimprovementofthedesigntotakefulladvantageofthepropertiesof
thingsonasmallscale,andinsuchawaythatthefullyautomaticaspectwouldbeeasiesttomanage.

Afriendofmine(AlbertR.Hibbs)suggestsaveryinterestingpossibilityforrelativelysmallmachines.Hesays
that,althoughitisaverywildidea,itwouldbeinterestinginsurgeryifyoucouldswallowthesurgeon.Youput
themechanicalsurgeoninsidethebloodvesselanditgoesintotheheartand"looks"around.(Ofcoursethe
informationhastobefedout.)Itfindsoutwhichvalveisthefaultyoneandtakesalittleknifeandslicesitout.
Othersmallmachinesmightbepermanentlyincorporatedinthebodytoassistsomeinadequatelyfunctioning
organ.
Nowcomestheinterestingquestion:Howdowemakesuchatinymechanism?Ileavethattoyou.However,let
mesuggestoneweirdpossibility.Youknow,intheatomicenergyplantstheyhavematerialsandmachinesthat
theycan'thandledirectlybecausetheyhavebecomeradioactive.Tounscrewnutsandputonboltsandsoon,
theyhaveasetofmasterandslavehands,sothatbyoperatingasetoflevershere,youcontrolthe"hands"there,
andcanturnthemthiswayandthatsoyoucanhandlethingsquitenicely.
Mostofthesedevicesareactuallymaderathersimply,inthatthereisaparticularcable,likeamarionettestring,
thatgoesdirectlyfromthecontrolstothe"hands."But,ofcourse,thingsalsohavebeenmadeusingservo
motors,sothattheconnectionbetweentheonethingandtheotheriselectricalratherthanmechanical.When
youturnthelevers,theyturnaservomotor,anditchangestheelectricalcurrentsinthewires,whichrepositions
amotorattheotherend.
Now,Iwanttobuildmuchthesamedeviceamasterslavesystemwhichoperateselectrically.ButIwantthe
slavestobemadeespeciallycarefullybymodernlargescalemachinistssothattheyareonefourththescaleof
the"hands"thatyouordinarilymaneuver.Soyouhaveaschemebywhichyoucandothingsatonequarter
scaleanywaythelittleservomotorswithlittlehandsplaywithlittlenutsandboltstheydrilllittleholesthey
arefourtimessmaller.Aha!SoImanufactureaquartersizelatheImanufacturequartersizetoolsandImake,
attheonequarterscale,stillanothersetofhandsagainrelativelyonequartersize!Thisisonesixteenthsize,
frommypointofview.AndafterIfinishdoingthisIwiredirectlyfrommylargescalesystem,through
transformersperhaps,totheonesixteenthsizeservomotors.ThusIcannowmanipulatetheonesixteenthsize
hands.
Well,yougettheprinciplefromthereon.Itisratheradifficultprogram,butitisapossibility.Youmightsay
thatonecangomuchfartherinonestepthanfromonetofour.Ofcourse,thishasalltobedesignedvery
carefullyanditisnotnecessarysimplytomakeitlikehands.Ifyouthoughtofitverycarefully,youcould
probablyarriveatamuchbettersystemfordoingsuchthings.
Ifyouworkthroughapantograph,eventoday,youcangetmuchmorethanafactoroffourinevenonestep.But
youcan'tworkdirectlythroughapantographwhichmakesasmallerpantographwhichthenmakesasmaller
pantographbecauseoftheloosenessoftheholesandtheirregularitiesofconstruction.Theendofthe
pantographwiggleswitharelativelygreaterirregularitythantheirregularitywithwhichyoumoveyourhands.
Ingoingdownthisscale,Iwouldfindtheendofthepantographontheendofthepantographontheendofthe
pantographshakingsobadlythatitwasn'tdoinganythingsensibleatall.
Ateachstage,itisnecessarytoimprovetheprecisionoftheapparatus.If,forinstance,havingmadeasmall
lathewithapantograph,wefinditsleadscrewirregularmoreirregularthanthelargescaleonewecouldlap
theleadscrewagainstbreakablenutsthatyoucanreverseintheusualwaybackandforthuntilthisleadscrew
is,atitsscale,asaccurateasouroriginalleadscrews,atourscale.
Wecanmakeflatsbyrubbingunflatsurfacesintriplicatestogetherinthreepairsandtheflatsthenbecome
flatterthanthethingyoustartedwith.Thus,itisnotimpossibletoimproveprecisiononasmallscalebythe
correctoperations.So,whenwebuildthisstuff,itisnecessaryateachsteptoimprovetheaccuracyofthe
equipmentbyworkingforawhiledownthere,makingaccurateleadscrews,Johansenblocks,andalltheother
materialswhichweuseinaccuratemachineworkatthehigherlevel.Wehavetostopateachleveland
manufactureallthestufftogotothenextlevelaverylongandverydifficultprogram.Perhapsyoucanfigure
abetterwaythanthattogetdowntosmallscalemorerapidly.

Yet,afterallthis,youhavejustgotonelittlebabylathefourthousandtimessmallerthanusual.Butwewere
thinkingofmakinganenormouscomputer,whichweweregoingtobuildbydrillingholesonthislathetomake
littlewashersforthecomputer.Howmanywasherscanyoumanufactureonthisonelathe?

Ahundredtinyhands
WhenImakemyfirstsetofslave"hands"atonefourthscale,Iamgoingtomaketensets.Imaketensetsof
"hands,"andIwirethemtomyoriginalleverssotheyeachdoexactlythesamethingatthesametimein
parallel.Now,whenIammakingmynewdevicesonequarteragainassmall,Ileteachonemanufactureten
copies,sothatIwouldhaveahundred"hands"atthe1/16thsize.
WhereamIgoingtoputthemillionlathesthatIamgoingtohave?Why,thereisnothingtoitthevolumeis
muchlessthanthatofevenonefullscalelathe.Forinstance,ifImadeabillionlittlelathes,each1/4000ofthe
scaleofaregularlathe,thereareplentyofmaterialsandspaceavailablebecauseinthebillionlittleonesthereis
lessthan2percentofthematerialsinonebiglathe.
Itdoesn'tcostanythingformaterials,yousee.SoIwanttobuildabilliontinyfactories,modelsofeachother,
whicharemanufacturingsimultaneously,drillingholes,stampingparts,andsoon.
Aswegodowninsize,thereareanumberofinterestingproblemsthatarise.Allthingsdonotsimplyscale
downinproportion.Thereistheproblemthatmaterialssticktogetherbythemolecular(VanderWaals)
attractions.Itwouldbelikethis:Afteryouhavemadeapartandyouunscrewthenutfromabolt,itisn'tgoing
tofalldownbecausethegravityisn'tappreciableitwouldevenbehardtogetitoffthebolt.Itwouldbelike
thoseoldmoviesofamanwithhishandsfullofmolasses,tryingtogetridofaglassofwater.Therewillbe
severalproblemsofthisnaturethatwewillhavetobereadytodesignfor.

Rearrangingtheatoms
ButIamnotafraidtoconsiderthefinalquestionastowhether,ultimatelyinthegreatfuturewecanarrange
theatomsthewaywewanttheveryatoms,allthewaydown!Whatwouldhappenifwecouldarrangethe
atomsonebyonethewaywewantthem(withinreason,ofcourseyoucan'tputthemsothattheyare
chemicallyunstable,forexample).
Uptonow,wehavebeencontenttodiginthegroundtofindminerals.Weheatthemandwedothingsona
largescalewiththem,andwehopetogetapuresubstancewithjustsomuchimpurity,andsoon.Butwemust
alwaysacceptsomeatomicarrangementthatnaturegivesus.Wehaven'tgotanything,say,witha
"checkerboard"arrangement,withtheimpurityatomsexactlyarranged1,000angstromsapart,orinsomeother
particularpattern.
Whatcouldwedowithlayeredstructureswithjusttherightlayers?Whatwouldthepropertiesofmaterialsbeif
wecouldreallyarrangetheatomsthewaywewantthem?Theywouldbeveryinterestingtoinvestigate
theoretically.Ican'tseeexactlywhatwouldhappen,butIcanhardlydoubtthatwhenwehavesomecontrolof
thearrangementofthingsonasmallscalewewillgetanenormouslygreaterrangeofpossiblepropertiesthat
substancescanhave,andofdifferentthingsthatwecando.
Consider,forexample,apieceofmaterialinwhichwemakelittlecoilsandcondensers(ortheirsolidstate
analogs)1,000or10,000angstromsinacircuit,onerightnexttotheother,overalargearea,withlittleantennas
stickingoutattheotherendawholeseriesofcircuits.Isitpossible,forexample,toemitlightfromawhole
setofantennas,likeweemitradiowavesfromanorganizedsetofantennastobeamtheradioprogramsto
Europe?Thesamethingwouldbetobeamthelightoutinadefinitedirectionwithveryhighintensity.(Perhaps
suchabeamisnotveryusefultechnicallyoreconomically.)
Ihavethoughtaboutsomeoftheproblemsofbuildingelectriccircuitsonasmallscale,andtheproblemof
resistanceisserious.Ifyoubuildacorrespondingcircuitonasmallscale,itsnaturalfrequencygoesup,since

thewavelengthgoesdownasthescalebuttheskindepthonlydecreaseswiththesquarerootofthescaleratio,
andsoresistiveproblemsareofincreasingdifficulty.Possiblywecanbeatresistancethroughtheuseof
superconductivityifthefrequencyisnottoohigh,orbyothertricks.

Atomsinasmallworld
Whenwegettothevery,verysmallworldsaycircuitsofsevenatomswehavealotofnewthingsthat
wouldhappenthatrepresentcompletelynewopportunitiesfordesign.Atomsonasmallscalebehavelike
nothingonalargescale,fortheysatisfythelawsofquantummechanics.So,aswegodownandfiddlearound
withtheatomsdownthere,weareworkingwithdifferentlaws,andwecanexpecttododifferentthings.Wecan
manufactureindifferentways.Wecanuse,notjustcircuits,butsomesysteminvolvingthequantizedenergy
levels,ortheinteractionsofquantizedspins,etc.
Anotherthingwewillnoticeisthat,ifwegodownfarenough,allofourdevicescanbemassproducedsothat
theyareabsolutelyperfectcopiesofoneanother.Wecannotbuildtwolargemachinessothatthedimensionsare
exactlythesame.Butifyourmachineisonly100atomshigh,youonlyhavetogetitcorrecttoonehalfofone
percenttomakesuretheothermachineisexactlythesamesizenamely,100atomshigh!
Attheatomiclevel,wehavenewkindsofforcesandnewkindsofpossibilities,newkindsofeffects.The
problemsofmanufactureandreproductionofmaterialswillbequitedifferent.Iam,asIsaid,inspiredbythe
biologicalphenomenainwhichchemicalforcesareusedinarepetitiousfashiontoproduceallkindsofweird
effects(oneofwhichistheauthor).
Theprinciplesofphysics,asfarasIcansee,donotspeakagainstthepossibilityofmaneuveringthingsatomby
atom.Itisnotanattempttoviolateanylawsitissomething,inprinciple,thatcanbedonebutinpractice,ithas
notbeendonebecausewearetoobig.
Ultimately,wecandochemicalsynthesis.Achemistcomestousandsays,"Look,Iwantamoleculethathas
theatomsarrangedthusandsomakemethatmolecule."Thechemistdoesamysteriousthingwhenhewantsto
makeamolecule.Heseesthatithasgotthatring,sohemixesthisandthat,andheshakesit,andhefiddles
around.And,attheendofadifficultprocess,heusuallydoessucceedinsynthesizingwhathewants.Bythe
timeIgetmydevicesworking,sothatwecandoitbyphysics,hewillhavefiguredouthowtosynthesize
absolutelyanything,sothatthiswillreallybeuseless.
Butitisinterestingthatitwouldbe,inprinciple,possible(Ithink)foraphysicisttosynthesizeanychemical
substancethatthechemistwritesdown.Givetheordersandthephysicistsynthesizesit.How?Puttheatoms
downwherethechemistsays,andsoyoumakethesubstance.Theproblemsofchemistryandbiologycanbe
greatlyhelpedifourabilitytoseewhatwearedoing,andtodothingsonanatomiclevel,isultimately
developedadevelopmentwhichIthinkcannotbeavoided.
Now,youmightsay,"Whoshoulddothisandwhyshouldtheydoit?"Well,Ipointedoutafewoftheeconomic
applications,butIknowthatthereasonthatyouwoulddoitmightbejustforfun.Buthavesomefun!Let'shave
acompetitionbetweenlaboratories.Letonelaboratorymakeatinymotorwhichitsendstoanotherlabwhich
sendsitbackwithathingthatfitsinsidetheshaftofthefirstmotor.

Highschoolcompetition
Justforthefunofit,andinordertogetkidsinterestedinthisfield,Iwouldproposethatsomeonewhohassome
contactwiththehighschoolsthinkofmakingsomekindofhighschoolcompetition.Afterall,wehaven'teven
startedinthisfield,andeventhekidscanwritesmallerthanhaseverbeenwrittenbefore.Theycouldhave
competitioninhighschools.TheLosAngeleshighschoolcouldsendapintotheVenicehighschoolonwhichit
says,"How'sthis?"Theygetthepinback,andinthedotofthe'i'itsays,"Notsohot."

Perhapsthisdoesn'texciteyoutodoit,andonlyeconomicswilldoso.ThenIwanttodosomethingbutIcan't
doitatthepresentmoment,becauseIhaven'tpreparedtheground.Itismyintentiontoofferaprizeof$1,000to
thefirstguywhocantaketheinformationonthepageofabookandputitonanarea1/25,000smallerinlinear
scaleinsuchmannerthatitcanbereadbyanelectronmicroscope.
AndIwanttoofferanotherprizeifIcanfigureouthowtophraseitsothatIdon'tgetintoamessof
argumentsaboutdefinitionsofanother$1,000tothefirstguywhomakesanoperatingelectricmotora
rotatingelectricmotorwhichcanbecontrolledfromtheoutsideand,notcountingtheleadinwires,isonly1/64
inchcube.
Idonotexpectthatsuchprizeswillhavetowaitverylongforclaimants.

Thispageispartofthenanotechnologywebsite.