Useful tips on how to properly study Chapter 32:

Medical Imaging
This is a major key topic for Paper 4 along with Chapter 25 Electronics and
Chapter 20 Communications Systems. Essential these are the
APPLICATION TOPICS of the Physics 9702 Syllabus.
All 4 medical imaging techniques have a similar core concept. They are all
waves and hence obey all the well-known wave theories/models and laws.
Ultrasound as the name suggests is longitudinal because it belongs to the
family of sound waves (but beyond human hearing range). X-ray, CT Scan
and MRI all belong to the electromagnetic family of waves and hence exhibit
both wave and particle duality and hence must recall Chapter 30: (Quantum
Physics)
The following 6 broad categories can help you / guide you to make short
notes to study/memorize better.
1. Method of Production for each you must know well how it is produced
and you must memorize the detailed mechanism of the components
used in producing these.
2. Know if there are particular graphs and characteristics and unique
peculiarities for each type.
3. Know special terms and their meanings.
4. Know if there is a range of energy distributions and if there is different
soft or hard variations (e.g. in x-ray) that are suitable for different
applications. You must know similarly for all the other 3 types of
medical imaging.
5. Know how to control the intensity, the sharpness, the brightness,
contrast etc. Detailed nature of what are the ways to do the above
mentioned.
6. Know the specific equation, mathematical methods etc. to solve
problems for each of them.

Some additional study notes for X-ray Medical Imaging (in addition
to the x-ray topic in textbook Page 506-514.)
X-ray has a wavelength of approx. 0.01 to 10 nm.

The above is called by the name Coolidge X-ray tube

X-rays are emitted from the hot cathode(-ve) and accelerated through a
potential difference V of several thousand volts.(e.g. 50kV) The high-energy
electrons strike a target embedded in a copper anode (+ve).
Choice of material for anode:

Most electrons hit the metal target but only cause vibration of atoms.
As a result, the metal gains a high amount of energy and will get
heated. Thus, a metal of high melting point is necessary

High atomic number so that more X-ray are produced

Good conductor of heat

Choice of material for cathode:

Low Work Function

Low heat capacity

The continuous spectrum and the peaks of X-rays are produced from
two processes:

When fast-moving electrons emitted from the cathode are suddenly

decelerated inside the target anode these rays are called
bremsstrahlung radiation, or braking radiation.

When electrons in the target atoms get excited and then de-excited
X-rays produced in this way have definite energies just like other line
spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic X-rays
since their energies are determined by the atomic energy levels which
they transit.

Explanation For Continuous X-ray Spectrum:

An incident electron with energy Ek initial collides with a target atom. The fast
moving electron interacts with the nucleus of the target atom and as the
electron approaches the nucleus, it is slowed down. The loss of kinetic
energy is converted into X-ray photons that are emitted. The energy of the
photon released depends on how close the negative electron comes into
contact with the positive nucleus. The closer an electron approaches the
nucleus, the higher the energy of the released photon.
The scattered electron which now has energy less than Ek initial may have a
subsequent collision with another target atom, generating a second X-ray
photon. The electron-scattering process continues until the electrons is
approximately stationary, loses all its energy. All the X-ray photons
generated from these collisions between electrons and target atoms form
part of the continuous X-ray spectrum.
The minimum wavelength can be explained by a collision in which an
incident electron stops abruptly because the kinetic energy of the electron is
completely converted into an X-ray photon (with maximum photon energy).
Total kinetic energy of fast moving electron = Maximum Energy of a X-ray
photon
eV = Energy of X-ray photon

Explanation for Characteristic X-ray Spectrum

An accelerated electron from the cathode collides into an electron of a target
atom that is orbiting in the K-shell(n=1). If sufficient energy is transferred by
the accelerated electron to the orbiting electron, the latter electron will be
ejected from the target atom.
Steps for emission of K

Electron is ejected from K-shell (n=1) after collision by an accelerated

electron from the cathode

Electron from L-shell (n=2) drops down to K-shell (n=1)

An X-ray photon of K characteristic X-ray is emitted

Steps for emission of K

Electron is ejected from K-shell (n=1) after collision by an accelerated

electron from the cathode

Electron from M-shell (n=3) drops down to K-shell (n=1)

An X-ray photon of K characteristic X-ray is emitted

The rates of emission of the K and K characteristic X-rays are high, hence
their intensities are high. The intensity of the K characteristic X-ray is
typically greater than the K characteristic X-ray. This is because the
electrons in the L-shell are closer to the K-shell, hence there is a greater
probability that the vacancy in the K-shell is filled by an electron from the Lshell than from the M-shell.
Since the energy differences between electrons in the various energy levels
is a characteristic of the target atom, the wavelength of the K and K
characteristic X-rays are unique for each element. The wavelength of the
characteristic X-ray is shorter for elements of higher proton number.
When the accelerating potential V is increased from 100kV to 200kV, the
minimum wavelength of the X-rays, min is shorter, but the wavelengths of
the characteristic X-rays remain unchanged. The intensity of all wavelengths
increases.
X-rays
X-rays are electromagnetic waves with a frequency of 3x10^20 to
3x10^14 Hz and a wavelength of 10^-12 to 10^-7m
They are are part of the electromagnetic spectrum which you learnt about
at AS

X-rays have many uses and you need to know what they are, how they are
produced, how they interact with matter and how they are used
Production of X-rays

X-rays are produced when electrons strike a metal target.

The electrons are liberated from a heated filament and accelerated by a high voltag

The X-rays are produced when the electrons collide with the nuclei of the metal atom

Interaction of X-rays with Matter

X-rays have different forms of collisions with matter depending on the X-ray
wave energies
Photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect was introduced in AS Quantum Physics
This is a low energy phenomena collision
Compton Effect
This is when an X-ray photon hits an orbital electron from an atom of the
absorbing material and is scattered.
Some of the photons energy is given to the electron.
This causes the electron to gain enough energy to leave its energy level
and travels in a mirrored direction from that of the scattered photon.
The ejected electron may have any energy from 0 up to about 2/3 of the
photon energy.
More energy is lost when the angle of the photon's deflection is large
This is a mid energy phenomena

Pair Production
When an x-ray photon interacts with an atom's nucleus it splits into an
electron and its antiparticle the positron provided there is enough energy
for them both to exist
This is a high energy phenomena

X-ray Intensity
The intensity of X-rays decreases as they travel from a POINT. They follow
the inverse square law

However, a collimated x-ray doesn't decrease in intensity. Collimated

means all the waves travel parallel to each other

The only way to decrease a collimated x-ray's intensity is to pass it through a

medium - this can be air, honey etc.
To work out the reduction in intensity the below equation is used

I0 = Original intensity
e = natural root - refer to C3 Exponential and Logarithms in A2 Maths
x = distance travelled through medium
= attenuation coefficient (in metres to the power of -1)
Attenuation occurs when an x-ray passes through a medium
The attenuation coefficient is different depending on the material
E.g.:
Vacuum = 0 m^-1
Flesh = 100 m^-1
Bone = 300 m^-1

X-rays in Medicine

X-rays are primarily used to view bones as they absorb more x-ray intensity than flesh
Collimated X-rays are passed through the patient onto an x-ray film.
Where more x-rays are absorbed the whiter the film appears.

This enables fractures and breaks in the bone to be identified as x-rays aren't absorbe

X-rays however are low clarity 2D images as the x-rays have to pass through the whol

Improvements to X-rays
X-rays have been improved over time so to enable them to do more and be
more accurate

Ultrasensitive x-ray photographic film

Fluorescent Intensifier screen placed behind film to

provide more accurate images

Contrast media

Image Intensifiers

Barium Meal

A Barium Meal is an example of a contrast media

A barium meal is used to enable x-rays to show the difference between tissue with s

Barium (or iodine) has a high attenuation value which means that fewer x-ray phot

Barium is eaten and ingested coating the intestines. This enables the intestines and

Image Intensifiers
Image intensifiers turn the x-rays into visible light which are then
picked up by a camera
When one x-ray photon hits the phosphur plate many visible light
photons are produced. This means the intensity of the x-rays can be less
This enables real-time organ movements and high quality images
This can also lower the time the patient needs to be vulnerable to the xrays