10-Axial Turbines (Compatibility Mode)

PEMP
RMD 2501
Axial Turbines
Session delivered by:
Prof Q.H.
Prof.
Q H Nagpurwala
10
M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies
Session Objectives
PEMP
RMD 2501
This session is intended to introduce the following:
Construction and types of axial turbines

Euler turbine equation and velocity triangles
Vortex theory and radial equilibrium
Turbine blade loading
Loss mechanisms and loss correlations
Turbine performance characteristics
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
C
Compressor
C b t
Combustor
Intake
T bi
Turbine
Exhaust
A i l Turbine
Axial
T bi
A ttriple-stage
i l t
turbine
t bi with
ith
single shaft system
10
Types of Axial Turbines

Axial turbines can
be single stage or
multistage
lti t
..
PEMP
RMD 2501
Rotor
blades
Nozzle
guide vanes
Single stage
turbine
Multistage
axial turbine
.. but the basic design

g
principles remain the same
10
Types of Axial Turbines
PEMP
RMD 2501
Axial turbines can also be classified as:

Subsonic turbines
Transonic turbines
Supersonic
p
turbines
10
Expansion Process on T-S Diagram
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Velocity Triangles
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Euler Turbine Equation
PEMP
RMD 2501
In a turbine, the fluid does work on the rotor.

H
Hence,
th
the specific
ifi workk is
i given
i
by
b
Wt
&
Wt =
= (U 2Cw 2 U 3Cw3 ) > 0 Watt . s /kg
m&
Specific
p
work can also be related to the change
g in total enthalpy:
py
W&t = (Wt m& ) = (U 2Cw 2 U 3Cw3 ) = (h02 h03 ) Watts s /kg
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Turbine Efficiency
isen
h01 h02
Actual enthalpy drop
=
=
Isentropic enthalpy drop h01 h02 s
=
c p (T01 T02 )
c p (T01 T02 s )
(T01 T02 ) = t (T01 T02 s )

T02 s p02
=
Q
T01 p01
T02 s
= tT01 1
T01
( 1)
1 ( 1)
T01-T
T02 = tT01 1
p01 p02
10
02
Compression process
on T-s diagram
Flow in Axial Turbine Stage
PEMP
RMD 2501
Now consider a 1 stage turbine with the following nomenclature
10
10
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
11
PEMP
RMD 2501
Using the above nomenclature
Since
we get
f repeating
for
ti stages
t
with
ith AVR = 1
Temperature and pressure ratios can be expressed in terms of reaction, R
10
12
Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages
PEMP
RMD 2501
Hence, the low and zero reaction turbines have a higher temperature drop
(work output) but lower temperature ratio and pressure ratio than does a
corresponding high reaction turbine for the same mass flow, blade speed,
and relative inlet flow angle.
For repeating stages having axial exit flow with no swirl (

i.e. repeating stages with constant axial velocity and axial exhaust,
),
Therefore,
Th
f
a zero reaction
ti tturbine
bi ((~ iimpulse
l tturbine)
bi ) produces
d
twice as much work as a 50% reaction turbine.
10
13
PEMP
RMD 2501
Temperature
drop is higher for low/zero reaction turbines, hence the

subsequent blade rows have lower temperatures and lower cooling
requirements.
Rotor faces relative stagnation
g
temperature
p
and stator faces absolute
stagnation temperature. Both these quantities are low for an impulse rotor
and stator with consequent lower cooling requirement.
The
Th
disadvantage
di
d t
off an iimpulse
l stage
t
is
i that
th t all
ll the
th acceleration
l ti occurs in
i
the stator passage, producing increased losses.
Thus, an impulse stage has lower efficiency than a

Thus
corresponding reaction turbine.
10
14
PEMP
RMD 2501
Degree of reaction
varies from a high
value at the tipp to a low
value at the hub.
The degree of
reaction
ti during
d i mean
line design should be
chosen such that it
d
does
nott become
b
negative at the hub
causing the flow to
d l
decelerate.
A decelerating flow
will give rise to lower
work output.
10
15
PEMP
RMD 2501
Consider an impulse stage (R ~ 0).
and all the static ppressure drop

p occurs in the nozzle or the stator and all the
stagnation pressure drop occurs in the rotor. For AVR = 1,
For a 50% reaction turbine, the velocity triangles are symmetrical and
10
16
PEMP
RMD 2501
At a given 1, increases linearly
with .
At a fixed , an increase in 1 results

in increased .
For example, at =0.5, increasing 1

from 50 to 70 increases from 0.2
0 2 to
1.75 !
Current design trend is to use high 1

nozzles.
l
High 1 increases W1 for a given
blade speed. Flow may become

supersonic limiting the mass flow rate.
Plot of the equation
for a 50% reaction turbine
10
17
Turbine Efficiency
PEMP
RMD 2501
Apart
from total-to-total
total to total and total-to-static
total to static efficiencies,
efficiencies another useful
performance measure of a rotor is the efficiency based on the kinetic energy
at the inlet to the rotor.
This
represents how well the rotor converts potential and kinetic energy
into mechanical power.
KE at exit can not be zero,, hence KE=1 can not be achieved in ppractice.
For isentropic turbines, the optimum values of KE are:

where = V1/U is
the velocity ratio
to be optimised
10
18
Turbine Efficiency
For a reversible impulse stage
Similarly, for a reversible 50% reaction stage
PEMP
RMD 2501
Because 1 is usually large, the best KE is achieved when V1/U is close to

y for a 50% reaction turbine and close to 2 for an impulse
p
turbine.
unity
10
19
Choice of Blade Loading
PEMP
RMD 2501
Data compiled and correlated by Kacker and Okapuu (1982) from 100 sets
of data from 33 turbines
10
20
Choice of Blade Loading
PEMP
RMD 2501
Efficiency of a turbine depends on the loading coefficient and

the flow coefficient
coefficient.
Loading coefficient influences pressure gradient in the passage,

and this increases losses.
Higher flow coefficient (higher mass flow rate) results in higher

pressure drop and corresponding losses also increase.
Hence, highest efficiencies are achieved at low loading and low

flow coefficient.
10
21
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Degree of Reaction:
T2 T3
R=
T1 T3
Ca
(tan 3 tan 2 )
2U
2U
C
1
= + 2 a (tan 3 tan 2 )
2
U
=
Also,
= 2 (tan 2 + tan 3)
R = (tan 3 - tan 2)
where = Ca / U
10
22
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Degree off R
D
Reaction,
i
R is
R,
i defined
d fi d as the
h ratio
i off the
h static
i enthalpy
h l drop
d
in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in the whole stage.
T A
R=
T A + T B
Since
TA : Static temperature drop in the rotor

T B : Static temperature drop in the stator
c p T0 s c p Ts
W = cp ( TA + TB ) = cp Ts = cp (T1 T3 )
= c p (T01 T03 ) = UCa (tan

t 2 + tan
t 3 )
Also,
1 2
c p TA = c p (T2 T3 ) = Ca tan 2 3 tan 2 2
2
It can be shown that

C
C
1
R = a (tan 3 tan 2 ) = + 2 a (tan 3 tan 2 )
2U
2
U
10
23
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Z
Zero
Reaction
R
i Stage
S
Velocity
i diagram
i
and Mollier
i diagram
i
for
f a
zero reaction turbine stage
Mollier
i diagram
i
for
f an impulse
i
turbine stage
From the definition of reaction, when R = 0, we have h2 = h3 and 3 = 2. As h02rel =

h03rel and
d h2 = h3 for
f R = 0 it mustt follow,
f ll
th f
therefore,
th t W2 = W3. Because
that
B
off
irreversibility, there is a pressure drop through the rotor row. The zero reaction stage
is not the same as an impulse stage; in the latter case, by definition, there is no
press re drop through
pressure
thro gh the rotor.
rotor The Mollier diagram for an impulse
imp lse stage is also
shown, where it is seen that the enthalpy increases.
10
24
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
50% Reaction
R
i Stage
S
Velocity diagram and Mollier diagram for a 50% reaction turbine stage
The combined velocity diagram for this case is symmetrical since 3 = 2. Because
of the symmetry it is obvious that 2 = 3, also. With R = 1/2 , the enthalpy drop in
the nozzle row equals the enthalpy drop in the rotor, or h1 h2 = h2 h3.
10
25
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
100% Reaction
R
i Stage
S
Diffusion
Diff i within
i hi Blade
Bl d Rows
R
Any diffusion of the flow through turbine blade
rows is particularly undesirable and must, be
avoided This is because the adverse pressure
avoided.
gradient (arising from the flow diffusion) coupled
with large fluid deflection (usual in turbine blade
rows), increases the chances of boundary-layer
separation causing large scale losses. A
compressor blade row, on the other hand, is
designed to cause the fluid pressure to rise in the
direction of flow,
flow i.e.
i e an adverse pressure
gradient. The magnitude of this gradient is strictly
controlled in a compressor, mainly by having a
fairly limited amount of fluid deflection in each
blade row. Substituting tan 3 = tan 3 + U/Cx in
the earlier equation, we get
Velocity diagram for a 100%

reaction turbine stage
Thus, when 3 = 2 , the reaction is unity. It will

be apparent that if R exceeds unity, then C2 < C1
(i.e. nozzle flow diffusion).
10
26
Choice of Degree of Reaction
Consider Ca3=Ca2 and C3=C1
The
PEMP
RMD 2501
repeating stages.
blade speed U is limited by stressing considerations.
Overall temperature drop is fixed from cycle calculations, but the

choice of R is infinite
designer
d i
can choose
h
one or two
t stages
t
off large
l
or a larger
l
number of stages of smaller .
The
Th
Any
y
turbine for a gas

g turbine plant
p
is a relativelyy low pressure
p
ratio (20(
40:1) machine compared to steam turbine plants (1000:1).
Impulse stages are desirable owing to low rotor tip leakage losses and
h
hence
these
h
are employed
l d in
i the
h high
hi h pressure stages off steam turbines.
bi
Reaction stages result in excessive tip leakage.
Impulse stages are not employed in gas turbines because the pressure
levels are relatively too low.
10
27
Choice of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
For the same total enthalpy drop (h01- h02) in a stage, an

optimum reaction turbine requires a higher blade speed than an
optimum impulse turbine.
If the blade speed is fixed, it can be shown that a reaction

turbine requires more stages (for the same total output power) than
an impulse turbine.
10
28
Effect of Reaction on Efficiency
PEMP
RMD 2501
Rotor diameter : 82 cm
Pressure ratio : 4
Loading coefficient : 1.62
Flow coefficient : 0.351
Rotational speed : 13232 rpm
High shock losses and viscous losses at

high pressure ratios due to large
acceleration of relative flow with
supersonic exit flow
Data from Turbine

T rbine for Energy
Energ Efficient Engine
[Thulin et al (1982) and Leach (1983)]
10
29
3-D Flows in Turbine Blade Rows
PEMP
RMD 2501
Some of the three dimensional inviscid effects are due to:
10
30
Radial Equilibrium of Fluid Element
PEMP
RMD 2501
Radial equilibrium flow through

a rotor blade row
A fluid element in radial

equilibrium (Cr = 0)
10
31
Radial Equilibrium Equation
PEMP
RMD 2501
The basic assumption

ass mption of the radial equilibrium
eq ilibri m is that the radial velocity
elocit Cr is
zero at entry and exit from a blade row.
Starting from the equation of motion in cylindrical coordinates, the variation in
Cr is written as
Cr C2
Cr C Cr
1 p
Cr
+
+ Cx
=
r
r
x
r
r
If there are large number of blades, then variations in direction may be
neglected.
Cr
Cr C2
1 p
Cr
+ Cx
=
r
x
r
r
Further, if there is no component of velocity in the radial direction, i.e. if there is
radial equilibrium, then Cr = 0, and the above equation reduces to
1 p C2
=
r
r
10
Radial equilibrium equation indicating that

the
h pressure forces
f
on the
h fluid
fl id particles
i l
are balanced by the centrifugal forces
32
Axial Velocity Distribution

For incompressible flow:
and
1
p0 = p + C x2 + C2
2
PEMP
RMD 2501
dC x
dC
1 dp0 1 dp
=
+ Cx
+ C
dr
dr dr
dr
C2
dC x
dC
=
+ Cx
+ C
dr
r
dr
dC x C d
(r.C )
= Cx
+
d
dr
r dr
d
If the total pressure is assumed constant along the radius, then
dC x C d
(r.C ) = 0
Cx
+
dr
r dr
or
10
( )
d 2
1 d
(r.C )2 = 0
Cx + 2
dr
r dr
Gives variation
Gi
i ti off axial
i l
velocity with radius
33
Axial Velocity Distribution

Similarly, for compressible flow:
h0 = h +
1 2
C x + C2
2
PEMP
RMD 2501
dh0 dh
dC x
dC
=
+ Cx
+ C
dr r
dr
dr
T
But
ds dh 1 dp
=
+
dr r dr
dh0
dC x
dC
ds 1 dp
T
=
+ Cx
+ C
dr
dr dr
dr
dr
= Cx
If
dh0
ds
= 0 and T
=0
dr
rr
dC x C d
(r.C )
+
dr
r dr
dC x C d
(r.C ) = 0
Cx
+
dr
r dr
d 2
1 d
or
(r.C )2 = 0
Cx + 2
dr
r dr
Then
( )
10
Gives variation
Gi
i ti off axial
i l
velocity with radius
34
Types of Whirl Distribution
PEMP
RMD 2501
The whirl (vortex) distributions normally used in compressor

design practice are:
Free vortex
r C = constant
Forced vortex
Constant reaction
Exponential
C / r = constant
R = constant
C1 = a b/r (after stator)
C2 = a + b/r (after rotor)
Free
F vortex
t whirl
hi l distribution
di t ib ti results
lt in
i highly
hi hl twisted
t i t d blades
bl d
and is not advisable for blades of small height.
The current design practice for transonic compressors is to use

constant pressure ratio across the span.
10
35
PEMP
RMD 2501
Free and Forced Vortex Velocity Distribution
10
36
Free Vortex Design
PEMP
RMD 2501
For free vortex design

a) The stagnation enthalpy ho is constant over the annulus
(i.e. dho /dr = 0),
b) The axial velocity is constant over the annulus,
c) The whirl velocity is inversely proportional to the radius,
Then the condition for radial equilibrium of the fluid

elements, is satisfied. A stage designed in accordance with
( ) (b) andd (c)
(a),
( ) is
i called
ll d a free
f vortex stage.
10
37
Free Vortex Design ( contd.)
PEMP
RMD 2501
Applying this to the stage in the figure, we can see that with
uniform inlet conditions to the nozzles then, since no work is
done by the gas in the nozzles, h0 must also be constant over
the annulus at outlet. Thus condition (a) is fulfilled in the space
between the nozzles and rotor blades.
10
38
Free Vortex Design ( contd.)
PEMP
RMD 2501
Furthermore, if the nozzles are designed to give Ca2 = constant and

Cw2r = constant, all three conditions are fulfilled and the condition
f radial
for
di l equilibrium
ilib i
is
i satisfied
ti fi d in
i plane-2.
l
2
Similarly, if the rotor blades are designed so that Ca3 = constant

and Cw3r = constant,
constant it is easy to show as follows that condition
(a) will be fulfilled, and thus radial equilibrium will be achieved in
plane-3 also. Writing for the angular velocity we have
Ws = U (Cw 2 + Cw3 ) = (Cw 2 r + Cw3 r ) = constant
10
But when the work done per unit mass of gas is constant over the
annulus, and ho is constant at inlet, h0 must be constant at outlet
also; thus condition (a) is met.
39
Constant Nozzle Angle Design
PEMP
RMD 2501
Nozzles are designed using the relation
Ca2r
sin
i 2 2
= constant
Normally
nozzle angles are greater than 60, and quite a good

approximation to the flow satisfying the equilibrium condition is
obtained byy designing
g g with a constant nozzle angle
g and constant
angular momentum, i.e. 2= constant and Cw2r = constant.
If
this approximation is made and the rotor blades are twisted to

give constant angular momentum at outlet also, then, as for free
vortex flow, the work output per unit mass flow is the same at all
radii.
10
40
Constant Nozzle Angle Design
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Normally nozzle angles are greater than 60, and quite a good
approximation to the flow satisfying the equilibrium condition is
obtained by designing with a constant nozzle angle and constant
angular momentum, i.e. 2= constant and Cw2r = constant. If this
approximation is made and the rotor blades are twisted to give
constant angular momentum at outlet also, then, as for free vortex
flow, the work output per unit mass flow is the same at all radii.
41
Types of Turbine Blades
Part span snubber
Impulse type blades

10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Nozzle guide vanes and

rotor blades
Reaction type blades
42
Axial Turbine Parameters
PEMP
RMD 2501
Blade Loading Coefficient or temperature drop coefficient , which

expresses the work capacity of a stage, is defined as
U Ca (tan 2 + tan 3 )
=
=
2
U 2
U2 2
c p T0 s
or
2 Ca
(tan 2 + tan 3 )
=
U
T2 T3
R=
T1 T3
Degree of Reaction, R is defined as

if
then
10
Ca 2 = Ca3 = Ca
and
C3 = C1
Ca
(tan 3 tan 2 )
R=
2U
43
Axial Turbine Parameters
PEMP
RMD 2501
The expressions for , and R can be

derived in terms of the flow angles
= Flow coefficient = Ca / U
= 2 (tan 2 + tan 3)
R = (tan 3 - tan 2)
Similarly, the expressions for flow angles
can be derived in terms of , and R
tan 3 = ( / 2 + 2 R )
tan 2 = ( / 2 - 2 R )
tan 3 = tan 3 - 1/
tan 2 = tan 2 + 1/
10
44
Effect of and
PEMP
RMD 2501
Low means more stages

for a given over all turbine
output.. Low means a
l
larger
turbine
t bi annulus
l area
for a given mass flow
In industrial gas turbines,
when size and weight are of
little consequence and a low
sfc is vital, it is sensible to
design with a low and a
low .
For aeroengines, it is
desired to keep the weight
and frontal area minimum
and this requires using
higher values of and .
For example,
example = 3 to 5 and
= 0.8 to 1.0
10
45
Comments on Variation of and
PEMP
RMD 2501
Efficiency contours superimposed on - plot

Designs
g havingg a low and low y
yield the best stage
g efficiencies.
Low values of and imply low gas velocities and hence reduced
friction losses.
Low means more stages for a given over all turbine output. Low
means a larger turbine annulus area for a given mass flow.
In industrial gas turbine when size and weight are of little consequence
and a low sfc is vital, it would be sensible to design with a low and a
low . Certainly in the last stage a low axial velocity and a small swirl
angle 3 are desirable to keep down the losses in the exhaust diffuser.
diffuser
For an aircraft propulsion unit, it is important to keep the weight and
frontal area to a minimum and this means using higher values of and
. For example,
e ample = 3 - 5 and = 0.8
0 8 - 1.0
10
10
46
Polytropic Efficiency
The isentropic efficiency described
earlier, although fundamentally valid,
can be misleading if used for
comparing
the
efficiencies
of
turbomachines of differing pressure
ratios. Now any turbomachine may be
regarded
d d as being
b i composed
d off a large
l
number of very small stages
irrespective of the actual number of
stages in the machine.
machine If each small
stage has the same efficiency, then the
isentropic efficiency of the whole
machine will be different from the
small stage efficiency, the difference
depending upon the pressure ratio of
the machine.
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Mollier diagram showing expansion process through

a turbine split up into a number of small stages.
47
Polytropic Efficiency
Isentrop
pic efficien
ncy, t
Polytropic
P
l t i efficiency
ffi i
i the
is
th efficiency
ffi i
off a
turbine stage operating between
infinitesimal pressure differential p. It is
used in comparing the performance of two
turbines having the same pressure ratio but
operating at different temperature levels.
In multistage
li
turbines,
bi
the
h polytropic
l
i
efficiency can be used in defining the
isentropic efficiency of individual stages.
p ( 1)
Pressure ratio, p02/p01
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
p02
1
p01
t =
1
p02
1
p01
48
Blade Loading
PEMP
RMD 2501
Blade loading primarily depends upon two parameters:
Blade spacing
Flow turning
Blade Spacing
Close spacing
larger number of blades
smaller force per blade
larger weight
increased frictional losses due to increased blade surfaces
Large spacing
smaller number of blades
Larger force per blade
smaller weight
reduced frictional losses due to fewer blade surfaces
10
49
Zweifels Blade Loading Criterion
PEMP
RMD 2501
Hence, there is an optimum value of blade spacing which will provide reasonably
good efficiency as well as tangential momentum.
Zweifelss loading criterion is based on the non
Zweifel
non-dimensional
dimensional force in a cascade.
Cz axial chord
Equating the work done to the enthalpy rise
V2 exit velocity
Vz axial velocity
F blade force
From the relation

and assuming that the flow is incompressible (Vz1 = Vz2), it can be proven that
2 is usually negative
for a turbine
10
50
Zweifels Blade Loading Criterion
PEMP
RMD 2501
Zweifel suggested a value of 0.8 for the coefficient Z.
The
maximum turning allowed is dictated by the viscous effects and

the Mach number considerations.
Hence, a good performance can be obtained with
Very high turning and fewer number of blades

Small turning with a large number of blades
Zweifels criterion can be used to determine S/Cz or number of blades
for a known value of 1 and assumed value of 2.
10
It has been used for compressible flows also with some success.
51
Losses in Turbine Blade Passages
PEMP
RMD 2501
a) Profile loss associated with boundary layer

growth over the blade profile (including
separation loss under adverse conditions of
extreme angles
l off incidence
i id
or high
hi h inlet
i l
Mach number).
b) Annulus loss associated with boundary layer
growth on the inner and outer walls of the
annulus.
c) Secondary flow loss arising from secondary
flows which are always present when a wall
boundary layer is turned through an angle by
an adjacent curved surface
surface.
d) Tip clearance loss near the rotor blade tip the
gas does not follow the intended path, fails to
contribute
t ib t its
it quota
t off workk output,
t t andd
interacts with the outer wall boundary layer.
10
52
Viscous Effects
PEMP
RMD 2501
1. Decrease in turbine efficiency through stagnation pressure loss

and increase in entropy
2. Decrease in pressure drop in turbines
3. Introduce three
three-dimensionality
dimensionality and change in flow properties,
thus affecting the blade rows downstream also
4. Affect the coolingg and heat transfer in turbine blades
5. Introduce flow blockage which affects mass flow rate and
pressure drop
6. Introduce unsteadiness in the downstream blade rows owing to
wake blade interaction; unsteady pressures generate blade
vibration
ib ti andd noise
i
10
53
Complex Flow in Turbine Blade Passage
PEMP
RMD 2501
Turbine passage flows are complex and three-dimensional.
Major aerodynamic losses occurring in turbine blade passages are due to

secondary
y and tip
p clearance flows ((nearly
y 50-60% of total internal loss)) and reduce
efficiency by about 2-4%.
Growth of secondary and tip clearance

losses across turbine blade
(Bindon, 1989)
a) Turbine passage flow physics

10
b) Internal turbine stage losses
54
Loss Mechanisms
10
Annulus wall boundary layer loss
Secondary flow loss
Profile loss due to blade surface

boundary layer
Tip clearance loss
PEMP
RMD 2501
55
Shock Waves in Transonic Turbines
PEMP
RMD 2501
www-pgtu.de.unifi.it/CFDBranch/rd/eurd.html
10
56
Losses in Turbine Blade Passages
The profile loss coefficient Yp is

measured directly in cascade tests.
Losses (b) andd (c)

L
( ) cannot easily
il be
b
separated, and they are accounted for
by a secondary loss coefficient Ys.
The tip clearance loss coefficient,

which normally arises only for rotor
blades, will be denoted by Yk.
The total loss coefficient Y comprises

the accurately measured twodimensional loss,, Yp, pplus the threedimensional loss (Ys + Yk) which
must be deduced from turbine stage
test results.
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Typical cascade results showing

the effect of incidence on the
profile loss coefficient Yp for
impulse (R = 0 and 2 3) and
reaction type blading
57
Losses in Blade Rows
T-s diagram for a reaction stage

10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Full line connects stagnation

states.
Chain dotted line connects

static states.
To2 = To1 because no work is

done in the nozzles; and the
short horizontal portion of
the full line represents the
stagnation (pressure drop)
po1- po2 due to friction in the
nozzle.
Ideally the gas in the nozzle

would be expanded from To1
to T2 but due to friction the
temperature at the nozzle
exit is T2, higher than T2.
58
Loss coefficient for the nozzle blade
T2 T2'
N = 2
C 2 2c p
PEMP
RMD 2501
or
p01 p02
YN =
p02 p2
Both and Y express the proportion of the leaving energy

which is degraded by friction.
YN cN is more easily used in design.
an easily be measured in cascade test.
10
Isentropic expansion in the whole stage would result in a

final temperature T3 and in the rotor blade passage above
T3. Expansion
E
i with
i h friction
f i i leads
l d to a final
fi l temperature T3.
59
PEMP
RMD 2501
Similarly, loss coefficient for the rotor blade
T3 T3''
R = 2
V3 2c p
p02rel p03rel
YR =
p03rel p3
T02
It can be shown that YN N '
T2
and
T03rel
YR R "
T3
Also, N and R can be related to the stage isentropic efficiency
1
S
1 Ca R sec2 3 + (T3 T2 )N sec2 2
1+
2 U tan 3 + tan 2 (U Ca )
10
(1)
60
Cascade Nomenclature
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
61
Estimation of Stage Performance
PEMP
RMD 2501
Estimate (Yp)N and (Yp)R from the gas angles of the proposed design
by using the loss data in conjunction with the interpolation formula,
t/c 2 /3
2
Yp = Y p(2=0 ) + Y p(2 = 3 ) Y p(2 =0 )
0.2
3
(2)
This equation represents a correction for a change in inlet angle at a

constant outlet angle, so that Yp(2=0) and Yp(2=3) are the values for a
nozzle and impulse
impulse-type
type blade having the same outlet gas angle 3 as
the actual blade. Equation also includes a correction for t/c if it
differs from 0.2, a reduction in t/c leading to reduced profile loss for
all blades other than nozzle-type
no le t pe blades (2= 0).
0) The degree of
acceleration of the flow in the blading decreases with the degree of
reaction as 2 / 31, and the influence of blade thickness becomes
more marked
k d as th
the acceleration
l ti is
i diminished.
di i i h d The
Th correction
ti is
i
considered reliable only for 0.15 < t/c < 0.25.
10
62
Profile Loss Coefficient
PEMP
RMD 2501
Profile loss coefficient for conventional blading with t/c = 0.20
10
63
Correction for Incidence
PEMP
RMD 2501
If the blades operate at a non-zero

incidence at the design point, a
correction
ti to
t Yp would
ld be
b required.
i d
This
correction is really only

important when estimating
performance at part load.
It involves using correlations of
cascade data to find the stalling
incidence is for the given blade (i.e.
incidence at which Yp is twice the loss
for i = 0);
) and then usingg a curve of
Yp/Yp(i=0) verses i/is to find Yp for the
given i and the value of Yp(i=0).
10
Variation of profile loss with

incidence for typical turbine
blading (adapted from Ainley
and Mathieson 1951)
64
Loss Correlations Profile Loss
PEMP
RMD 2501
Ainley and Mathieson correlated the profile losses

of turbine blade rows against space/chord ratio s/l,
fluid outlet angle 2, blade maximum
thi k
thickness/chord
/ h d ratio
ti t/l andd blade
bl d inlet
i l t angle.
l The
Th
variation of Yp=Yp (i=0) against s/l is shown here for
nozzles and impulse blading at various flow outlet
angles.
g
For other types
yp of blading
g intermediate
between nozzle blades and impulse blades the
following expression is employed:
where all the Yps are taken at the same space/chord

ratio and flow outlet angle.
Profile loss coefficients of turbine nozzle
and impulse blades at zero incidence
(t/l = 20%; Re = 2 x105; M < 0.6) (adapted
from Ainley and Mathieson 1951).
10
65
PEMP
RMD 2501
Loss Correlations Secondary Flow Loss

Secondary Flow Loss
The secondary losses arise from complex three-dimensional flows set up as a

result of the end wall boundary layers passing through the cascade.
cascade
1. Ainleys Correlation:
where is a parameter
parameter, which is a function of the flow acceleration
through the blade row. For incompressible flow,
hence
where Z is the aerodynamic loading coefficient.
2.. Dunham
u a and
a d Came
Ca e Correlation:
Co e a o :
Thi represents significant

This
i ifi
iimprovement over Ai
Ainleys
l correlation
l i
10
66
PEMP
RMD 2501
Loss Correlations Secondary Flow Loss

Secondary Flow Loss
Recently, more advanced methods of predicting losses in turbine blade rows
have been suggested which take into account the thickness of the entering
boundary layers on the annulus walls.
3. Cames Correlation:
This is a modified form of Dunhams correlation, and represents the net

secondary loss coefficient for one end wall only and where Y1 is a massaveraged inlet boundary layer total pressure loss coefficient. It is evident that the
increased accuracy obtained by using this relation requires the additional effort
of calculating the wall boundary layer development.
10
67
Secondary and Tip Clearance Losses
PEMP
RMD 2501
Secondary and tip-clearance loss data for Ys and Yk have been

correlated using the concepts of lift and drag coefficient.
(ref.
notes on axiall compressor).

)
C L = 2(s/c )(tan 2 + tan 3 ) cos m

where
m = tan 1 [(tan 3 tan 2 )/ 2]
It is convenient to treat Ys and Yk simultaneously. The proposed

correlation is
k C L
Ys + Yk = + B
h s / c
10
cos 2 3
3
cos
(3)
68
Definition of B, h and k
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
69
Definition of and f
PEMP
RMD 2501
Th
The degree
d
off acceleration
l i is
i indicated
i di
d by
b the
h ratio
i off the
h areas A3cos3 /
A2cos2 normal to the flow direction.
A cos 2 r
3
1 + r
The qquantityy is approximately

pp
yg
given by:
y = f 3
A 2 cos 2
r1
Variation of with f
10
70
Correction for Trailing Edge Thickness
PEMP
RMD 2501
Correction to be applied if the trailing edge

thickness/pitch ratio (te /s) differs from 0.02
10
71
Correction for M and Re
PEMP
RMD 2501
Cascade data and other loss correlations are strictly applicable only to
designs where Mach numbers are such that no shock losses are incurred
in the blade passages.
p
g
If the outlet relative Mach number is greater than unity, then the following
correction should be applied to Yp obtained from equation (2):
][
Yp corr = Y p from eqn(2) 1 + 60(M 1)
(M is exit relative Mach number for rotor blades and exit absolute Mach number
for nozzles)
If the mean Reynolds number of the turbine based on blade chord differs
much from 2x105, then an approximate
pp
correction to the overall
isentropic efficiency is given by:
Re
(1 t ) =
5
2 10
10
0.2
(1 t )Re=210
72
Correction for and B
PEMP
RMD 2501
The Ainley-Mathieson correlations outlined here predict efficiencies to

within +3% of measured values.
The method becomes applicable to a wide range of turbines,

turbines including small gas
turbines, if the following corrections suggested by Dunham and Came are
incorporated.
C l l by
Calculate
b the
h expression
i
c cos 3
= 0.0334
h cos 2
for nozzles
Replace B(k/h) by the expression
c k
B
h c
10
3 = 2 and 2 = 1
0.78
B = 0.47 for radial tip clearance

= 0.37 for side clearance on
shrouded blades
73
Estimation of Turbine Performance
PEMP
RMD 2501
1. Estimate (Yp)N and (Yp)R from eqn.(2) applying corrections for

incidence, Mach number and trailing thickness
2. Estimate (Ys+Yk) from eqn.(3) applying corrections for the
parameters B and
3. Calculate total losses YN and YR
4. Calculate N =
YN
T02 T2'
and R =
(T
YR
03 rel
T3"
5 Calculate turbine stage efficiency from eqn.(1)

5.
eqn (1)
6. Apply Re correction if required
7 Repeat
7.
R
t the
th calculations
l l ti
for
f off-design
ff d i conditions
diti
10
74
Turbine Performance
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
75
Session Summary
10
PEMP
RMD 2501
Basic construction and application of axial turbines is

discussed.
discussed
Aerothermodynamics of turbines is explained through T-s
diagram and velocity triangles.
S l i off whirl
Selection
hi l distribution
di ib i is
i discussed
di
d based
b d on the
h radial
di l
equilibrium theory.
Loss mechanism in turbine blade rows and various loss
correlations are discussed.
Turbine blade loading criteria and performance characteristics
are explained in detail.
detail
76
PEMP
RMD 2501
Thank you
10
77

10-Axial Turbines (Compatibility Mode)

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

10-Axial Turbines (Compatibility Mode)

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

PEMP

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

This session is intended to introduce the following:

Construction and types of axial turbines

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Types of Axial Turbines

.. but the basic design

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Types of Axial Turbines

Axial turbines can also be classified as:

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Expansion Process on T-S Diagram

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Euler Turbine Equation

In a turbine, the fluid does work on the rotor.

W&t = (Wt m& ) = (U 2Cw 2 U 3Cw3 ) = (h02 h03 ) Watts s /kg

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

(T01 T02 ) = t (T01 T02 s )

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Flow in Axial Turbine Stage

Now consider a 1 stage turbine with the following nomenclature

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Flow in Axial Turbine Stage

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Flow in Axial Turbine Stage

Using the above nomenclature

Temperature and pressure ratios can be expressed in terms of reaction, R

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages

For repeating stages having axial exit flow with no swirl (

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages

drop is higher for low/zero reaction turbines, hence the

Thus, an impulse stage has lower efficiency than a

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages

Consider an impulse stage (R ~ 0).

and all the static ppressure drop

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages

At a given 1, increases linearly

At a fixed , an increase in 1 results

For example, at =0.5, increasing 1

Current design trend is to use high 1

High 1 increases W1 for a given

blade speed. Flow may become

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

For isentropic turbines, the optimum values of KE are:

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

For a reversible impulse stage

Similarly, for a reversible 50% reaction stage

Because 1 is usually large, the best KE is achieved when V1/U is close to

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Choice of Blade Loading

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies

Choice of Blade Loading

Efficiency of a turbine depends on the loading coefficient and

Loading coefficient influences pressure gradient in the passage,

Higher flow coefficient (higher mass flow rate) results in higher