Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Bioconversion of sugarcane crop residue for value added products e

An overview
Raveendran Sindhu a, *, Edgard Gnansounou b, Parameswaran Binod a, Ashok Pandey a
a
b

Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, CSIR, Trivandrum, 695 019, India
Ecole Polytechnique F

ed

erale de Lausanne, Institute of Urban and Regional Sciences, GC A3, Station 18, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 8 January 2016
Received in revised form
16 February 2016
Accepted 19 February 2016
Available online 2 March 2016

Sugarcane is a major crop cultivated globally and the residue left over after the crop harvest and
extraction of juice is a good biomass source that can be used for the production of several useful
chemicals. The sugarcane bagasse is an excellent substrate for the production of various biochemicals
and enzymes through fermentation. Now major interest is focused on the utilization of these residue for
biofuel production. The sugarcane crop residue is rich in cellulose and hemicellulose, hence it can be
used for the production of bioethanol and other liquid transportation fuels. The present review gives a
detailed account of the availability of sugarcane residue and various commercially important products
that can be produced from this residue. It also provides recent developments in R&D on the bioconversion of sugarcane crop residue for value added products.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Biomass
Bioconversion
Value added products
Sugarcane crop residue
Biorenery

1. Introduction
Sugarcane is a major crop cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical
countries like Brazil, China, India, Thailand and Australia [1]. It
belongs to grass family, Gramineae and its botanical name is Saccharum ofcinarum. It was rst grown in South-East Asia and
Western India. Then the cultivation of sugarcane extended to all
tropical and sub-tropical regions. Sugarcane area and productivity
differ from country to country. It is cultivated in about 200 countries and Brazil is the world's largest cane producer and contributes
to 25% of world's total production. India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world.
Its distinguishing features are high biomass yield, high sucrose
content and high efciency in accumulating solar energy. After
harvesting of sugarcane, leaves, tops and trash are left in the cane
eld while the sugarcane stalks are transported to sugar mills for
the extraction of cane juice for sugar production [2].
Bio-renery concept of complete utilization of sugarcane
biomass will become a prime component for a sustainable sugarcane industry. Biorenery involves fractionation and reforming of
an input feed stock into multiple product streams. Lignocellulosic

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 91 471 2515426; fax: 91 471 2491712.

E-mail addresses: sindhurgcb@gmail.com, sindhufax@yahoo.co.in (R. Sindhu).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.02.057
0960-1481/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

biomass offers tremendous biotechnological potential for use as

substrate in bioconversion processes and can be effectively
exploited for the production of bulk chemicals and value added
products.
The annual global production of sugarcane is about 328 Tg. Asia
is the primary production region which contributes to 44% while
South America is the second largest production region producing
110 Tg of sugarcane which contributes to 34% [3]. Sugar production
is the major use of sugarcane consuming about 92% of sugarcane.
Other uses such as animal feed and so on contribute less than 3%.
Studies have indicated that sugarcane crop when harvested comprises of 75% sugarcane stalk and 25% leaves and tops. This waste
provides a huge potential fuel resource.
Harvesting of sugarcane lead to the production of large amount
of post-harvest residues including sugarcane tops which could be
an abundant, inexpensive and readily available source of lignocellulosic biomass. This can be used as good substrate for the production of bioethanol as well as for other value added products. In
India, it is the most surplus available residue and is usually burnt in
the eld itself and does not nd any suitable application. Burning of
sugarcane tops produce y ash, severely damages soil microbial
diversity and raises environmental concerns [4]. Roong and
compost are some of the other uses. It can be used as an animal
fodder for a few days before the leaves start rotting. Usually for
every 1 MT of sugarcane produced, 0.20e0.30 MT of sugarcane tops

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R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

is generated.
Sugarcane bagasse, the largest agro-industrial residue is a
brous residue of cane stalks left after the crushing and extraction
of juice from the sugarcane. This by-product of the sugar industry is
mainly used by sugar factories as fuel for boilers [5]. Comparing to
other agricultural residues, bagasse can be considered as a rich
solar energy reservoir due to its high yields and annual regeneration capacity. Currently several processes and products have been
reported using sugarcane bagasse as a raw material. This include
electricity generation, pulp and paper production and various
products based on fermentation like industrially important enzymes, bioethanol, organic acids, alkaloids, protein enriched cattle
feed, antibiotics etc. Bagasse in most case is used for co-generation
of heat and power or sometimes used for manufacture of building
materials. Paper plants also purchase bagasse from sugar plants.
Sugarcane molasses are a dark, viscous and sugar rich byproduct of sugar extraction from sugarcane. It is used as a feed
ingredient, binder and as an energy source. Around 3e7 tons of
molasses were generated from 100 tons of sugarcane. The
composition of the molasses varies depending on cane variety,
climate and processes employed for sugar extraction. Molasses
contain approximately 34% of sucrose, 11% of reducing sugars
(glucose and fructose) and several minerals. It can be used as animal feed, for yeast cultivation, for the production of ethanol, rum,
other alcohols and organic acids.
Vinasse is a by-product of sugar-ethanol industry and is acidic
compost with a pH of 3.5e5.0 with a high organic content and
unpleasant odor. On an average 10e15 L of vinasse is generated
while preparing each liter of ethanol [6]. Inadequate and indiscriminate use of vinasse in soils and water bodies leads to several
environmental hazards. Several studies have been carried out for
nding adequate uses and treatments of vinasse. It can be used for
fertirrigation, yeast production, energy production and as a raw
material for the production of livestock and poultry feed [7]. The
chemical composition of vinasse varies depending upon the source
used for ethanol production and distillation. The study revealed
that fertirrigation or the use of vinasse as a fertilizer is the best
alternative for vinasse reuse and disposal. Several new green
methods need to be explored for developing novel uses of vinasse
[8]. Cortez et al., 2007 [9] carried out anaerobic digestion of vinasse
for the production of biogas. The anaerobic digestion was carried
out in two stages-the acidogenic phase and the methanogenic
phase. In the acidogenic phase the complex chains of carbohydrate,
lipids and proteins were hydrolyzed to organic acids and in the
methanogenic phase these acids were converted to methane and
carbon dioxide. Laime et al., 2011 [10] utilized vinasse for the
production of yeast. Additional supply of ammonium and magnesium salts as well as high energy consumption for water removal
from the process made it economically unviable.
Chemical compositions of the bagasse may vary for different
sugarcane varieties depending upon the genotype. Several other
factors like location, age of crop, environmental and cultivation
parameters also affect the composition of the biomass. A study
conducted by Benjamin et al., 2014 [2] showed wide variation in
agronomic parameters, chemical composition and sugar released
after pretreatment of sugarcane varieties harvested for two
growing seasons. A signicant difference was observed among
varieties over harvest years. The study revealed severe drought
negatively inuenced the performance in cane yield except for
variety containing the highest lignin.
Leaves and tops contain higher amounts of salts and nutrients.
The sugar contained in the stem is 90% sucrose and small amounts
of glucose and fructose. The greatest difference in composition of
sugarcane is seen in the moisture content which varies between
13.5% in the dry leaves and 82.3% in the tops. The content of carbon,

hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur showed similar values in dry leaves

and in tops.
Bagasse contains 50% of cellulose, 25% each of hemicellulose and
lignin. Chemically it contains about 50% a-cellulose, 30% pentosans
and 2.4% ash [5]. Bagasse offers numerous advantages over other
crop residues like rice straw and wheat straw because of its low ash
content. Rice straw and wheat straw have 17.5% and 11.5% of ash
respectively. Bagasse is the raw material for 20% of total paper
production.
Sugarcane tops contain 29.85% of cellulose, 18.85% of hemicelluloses and 25.69% of lignin [11]. The composition may vary
depending on the geographical location, variety etc.
The present review addresses the potential of sugarcane crop
residue for the production of various value added products.
2. General conversion methods
Native form of lignocellulosic biomass is a tough feed stock for
hydrolysis due to crystallinity of cellulose and due to the compact
packing of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Due to recalcitrant
nature of the lignocellulosic biomass a pretreatment process is
essential for the removal of hemicelluloses and lignin and to increase cellulose conversion efciency. The basic objective of the
pretreatment is to make cellulose accessible by the action of cellulases which is achieved by removal of hemicelluloses or lignin
from the biomass. A wide range of physical, mechanical, chemical,
biological, combination and alternative strategies were reported for
achieving these goals. In addition to pretreatment, an effective
cellulase cocktail, enzyme loading and hydrolysis conditions and
nature of the lignocellulosic material are critical for maximum
hydrolysis.
Several reports were available for the pretreatment of sugarcane
tops like acid [11], alkali [12], surfactant assisted acid pretreatment
[13], surfactant assisted ultrasound pretreatment [14] and
sequential pretreatment [15]. Among these methods the highest
reducing sugar yield was observed with sequential pretreatment
(0.796 g/g) followed by alkali pretreatment (0.775 g/g). But there
were generation of inhibitors during acid and alkali pretreatment.
The alternative strategies like surfactant assisted ultrasound pretreatment and surfactant assisted acid pretreatment strategies did
not generate any inhibitors. Compared to other pretreatment
strategies employed for sugarcane tops, sequential pretreatment
was found to be better in terms of improved reducing sugar yield
without any inhibitor generation as well as better removal of
hemicelluloses and lignin from the biomass compared to conventional acid and alkali pretreatment as well as other alternative
strategies of pretreatment. Selection of the pretreatment strategy
will be based on the economic feasibility as well as the targeted
product.
Pretreated bagasse serves as an efcient inert support material
for fungal cultivation in SSF. Several pretreatment strategies were
reported for bagasse like acid [2], alkali [16], combined [17],
organo-solvent [18], organic acids [19] and physical [20]. Though
several pretreatment strategies were available only a few seems
promising. One of the most important challenges associated with
pretreatment is to identify the composition of the feed stock and to
device the best pretreatment strategy of the selected item. Proper
pretreatment can improve the biomass digestibility and increase
accessibility of enzymes to the materials. Cellulose crystallinity,
accessible surface area, degree of cellulose polymerization, lignin
and hemicelluloses seal as well as degree of acetylation of hemicelluloses are the critical factors to be considered for developing a
suitable strategy for pretreatment of a specic biomass. Composition plays an important role. Hence ne tuning of specic pretreatment strategies to be developed for each biomass which will

R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

make the process economically as well as ecologically viable.

Intensive R and D efforts are going on in this direction. Development of a proper pretreatment strategy will minimize the capital
and operating costs.
Most of the commercial plants use dilute acid pretreatment. The
main advantage of this strategy is that a separate pentose and
hexose stream will be generated. The pentose stream can be utilized for the production of various value added products while the
hexose stream can be used for the production of bioethanol. Dilute
acid hydrolysis gives high reaction rates and improves the cellulose
hydrolysis rate. Under optimized conditions 95% of hemicelluloses
can be recovered from the lignocellulosic biomass.
3. Value added products from sugarcane crop residue
Several value added products can be produced by utilization of
various crop residues and by-products of sugarcane like bagasse,
sugarcane tops, molasses and vinasse. This include bioethanol,
biodiesel, biobutanol, 2, 3-butanediol, biohydrogen, bioelectricity,
biopolymer, different enzymes, organic acids, amino acids, pigments, animal feed, composite, chelating agents, alkaloids etc.
Table 1 shows different value added products produced from sugarcane crop residue.
Schematic representation of value added products from sugarcane crop residue is presented in Fig. 1.
3.1. Bioethanol
Increasing energy demand and depletion of fossil fuels leads to
increase interest on alternative fuels. The requirement to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions leads to use of many types of biomass as
alternative energy sources. Since the biomass is produced by
photosynthetic reduction of carbon dioxide, utilization of biofuels
can be carbon neutral with respect to build-up of atmospheric
greenhouse gases. Bioethanol is the most abundant biofuel for
automobile transportation. It is a renewable fuel and contains 37%
of oxygen by weight. Oxygen enhances the combustion of petrol in
engines and contributes to reductions in exhaust emissions of

205

carbon monoxide. Ethanol can be produced from fermentation of

sugars obtained from lignocellulosic biomass which serves as the
future feed stock for bioethanol production because of its low cost
and huge availability. Its high carbohydrate content and low lignin
content makes it a suitable substrate for bioconversion to ethanol.
Sugarcane is the most efcient raw material for bioethanol production [21].
Ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse by Zymomonas
mobilis using simultaneous saccharication and fermentation was
reported by dos Santos et al., 2010 [22]. The optimum conditions
were biomass loading of 30%, enzyme loading of 25 FPU/g and cell
concentration of 4 g/L. Maximum ethanol concentration and productivity were 60 g/L and 1.5 g/L/h respectively.
Few reports were available on exploitation of sugarcane tops for
the production of bioethanol [11]. Fermentation of the hydrolyzate
obtained after acid pretreatment and enzymatic saccharication
with Saccharomyces cerevisiae yielded 11.365 g/L of bioethanol with
a fermentation efciency of 50%.

3.2. Biodiesel
Depletion of petroleum reserves and the impact of environmental pollution lead to search for new alternative fuels for use in
diesel engines. Biodiesel are monoalkyl esters of fatty acids derived
from vegetable oil or animal fat. Trans-esteried renewable oil has
been proven to be a viable alternative diesel engine fuel with
characteristics similar to diesel. The energy density of biodiesel is
comparable to petroleum diesel. Biodiesel has a number of advantages. Since it is derived from biomass it does not contribute to
atmospheric CO2 emissions, low toxicity and biodegradable and can
be used in existing diesel engines blended with petroleum diesel or
can be run unblended in engines with minor modications.
Utilization of low cost agricultural residues of pineapple peels
and sugarcane bagasse for lipid accumulation and biodiesel production in Scenedesmus acutus PPNK1 was carried out by Rattanapoltee and Kaewkannetra, 2014 [23]. The maximum biomass
concentration, productivity, lipid content and lipid yield using
sugarcane bagasse were 3.85 g/L, 160.42 mg/L/day, 40.89% and

Table 1
Value added products from sugarcane crop residue.
Sugarcane residue

Product

Microorganism

Reference

Bagasse
Sugarcane tops
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Molasses
Bagasse
Sugarcane tops
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse lignin
Molasses
Molasses
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Sugarcane pith bagasse
Bagasse

Bioethanol
Bioethanol
Bioethanol
2,3- butanediol
2,3-butanediol
Biohydrogen
Biohydrogen
Biohydrogen
Polyhydroxyalkaonates (PHA)
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB)
Composite
Composite
Xylitol
Xylitol
Xylitol
Xylitol
Xylitol
Chelating agent
Carotenoides
Carotenoides
Modied catalysts
L-glutamic acid
Animal feed
Ergot alkaloides
Penicillium

Zymomonas mobilis
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Scenedesmus acutus PPNK1
Klebsiella pneumoniae CGMCC 1.9131
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Clostridium butyricum TISTR 1032
Thermoanaerobacterium aotearoense
Clostridium butyricum
Ralstonia eutropha
Comomonas sp.
e
e
e
e
Debaromyces hansenii
Williopsis saturnus
Candida tropicalis IEC5-ITV

Santos et al., 2010

Sindhu et al., 2011
Rattanapoltee and Kaewkannetra, 2014
Zhao et al., 2011
Song et al., 2012
Plangklang et al., 2012
Lai et al., 2014
Whiteman and Kane, 2014
Jian and Heiko, 2008
Prabisha et al., 2014
Acharya et al., 2011
da Silva et al., 2013
Sarrouh et al., 2009
Branco et al., 2011
Prakash et al., 2011
Kamat et al., 2013
Costanon- Rodriguez et al., 2014
Goncalves et al., 2002
Valduga et al., 2008
Freitas et al., 2014
Marquez de Silva et al., 2013
Nampoothiri and Pandey, 1996
Okano et al., 2010
Hernandez et al., 1993
Dominguez et al., 2001

Sporidiobolus salmonicolor CBS 2636

Rhodosporidium toruloides NCYC 921
Brevibacterium sp.
Pleurotus eryngii
Claviceps purpurea
e

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R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of bioconversion of sugarcane crop residue to value added products.

1.24 g/L respectively. The study revealed that there was a 2.13 fold
increase in lipid content when sugarcane bagasse was used and
using agricultural residues as carbon source could lead to an increase in the lipid content and reduces the cost of biofuel production. FAME obtained from S. acutus PPNK1 after trans-esterication
showed fatty acid compositions of chain lengths between C16 to
C18. This indicates that agricultural residues like sugarcane bagasse
were suitable for the production of good quality biodiesel. Utilization of agro-residue is a promising way to reduce environmental
pollution and lower cost for lipid production.
3.3. Biobutanol
Butanol is a four carbon primary alcohol with a higher energy
intensity and lower volatility as compared to ethanol. It can be used
as fuel in current gasoline based engines with practically no
changes in engine [24]. It is also an important feed stock for
chemical industry since it is used for paint, solvents and plasticizers
production. Butanol production from renewable source involves
ABE (acetone-butanol-ethanol) fermentation of sugars derived
from lignocellulosic biomass. But this method has few limitations
like low productivity and low n-butanol concentration due to
product inhibition. Another strategy commonly adopted for nbutanol production from lignocellulosic biomass is the ethanol
chemistry route where, ethanol is used as feed stock. However
production of n-butanol in the sugarcane biorenery makes the
process more economically viable by producing a biofuel more
suitable for use in chemical industry.
Dias et al., 2014 [25] developed a strategy for butanol production
in a sugarcane biorenery using ethanol as feed stock. In this study
novel catalysts were used both in vapor and liquid-phase catalysis.
Techno-economic analysis revealed that the best results were
observed with n-butanol production through vapor phase catalysis.
Biobutanol produced through liquid and vapor phase catalysis
presents lower environmental impact.
3.4. 2, 3- butanediol
2, 3-Butanediol is used as a solvent, liquid fuel and as a precursor
of many synthetic polymers, fumigant, moistening and softening
agents, explosives, plasticizers, cosmetics, printing inks, medicines
and resins. Methyl ethyl ketone produced by dehydration of 2, 3butanediol is used as a liquid fuel additive [26]. Several microorganisms are known to produce 2, 3-butanediol using glucose.
However major cost in most biomass conversion processes appears
to be the substrate cost. Exploitation of sugarcane bagasse for 2, 3butanediol seems promising.
Zhao et al., 2011 [27] developed a strategy for the production of
2, 3- butanediol by simultaneous saccharication and fermentation
of alkali-peracetic acid pretreated sugarcane bagasse by Klebsiella

pneumoniae CGMCC 1.9131. The yield was 0.35e0.50 g/g consumed

sugar depending on the fermentation time.
Production of 2, 3-butanediol by K. pneumoniae from enzymatic
hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse was reported by Song et al., 2012
[28]. The enzymatic hydrolyzate of alkali-peracetic acid and dilute
acid pretreated samples were used for the production of 2, 3butanediol and the yields were 0.36 and 0.42 g/g of sugars
respectively. The enzymatic hydrolyzate of alkali-peracetic acid
pretreated sugarcane bagasse contains 30.54 g/L of glucose and
13.87 g/L of xylose, while the enzymatic hydrolyzate obtained from
dilute acid pretreated sugarcane bagasse contains 42.59 g/L of
glucose and 5.36 g/L of xylose. Since xylose is not utilized by the
strain for 2, 3-butanediol production, the nal concentration of 2,
3-butanediol was considerably higher for the dilute acid pretreated
material (17.35 g/L) than that of alkali e peracetic acid pretreated
sugarcane bagasse (14.53 g/L).

3.5. Biohydrogen
Biohydrogen is considered as a future energy for its high energy
content and zero CO2 emission. Hence it is a promising alternative
to conventional fossil fuels. Currently majority of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels. Lignocellulosic biomass can serve as a
source for sustainable production of hydrogen. Thermophilic
hydrogen conversion seems promising, since it can convert a variety of biomass based substrates into hydrogen at high yields.
Plangklang et al., 2012 [29] developed a strategy for enhanced
biohydrogen production from sugarcane by immobilized Clostridium butyricum TISTR 1032 on sugarcane bagasse. Immobilized
cells showed approximately 1.2 times improved hydrogen production rate than free cells. The optimum conditions of hydrogen
production by immobilized C. butyricum were an initial sucrose
concentration of 25 g COD/L and pH was maintained at 6.5. The
highest hydrogen production rate (HPR) and highest hydrogen
yield (HY) were 3.5 L H2/L and 1.5 mol H2/mol hexose consumed.
The study revealed that efciency of hydrogen production from
sugarcane juice by C. butyricum was enhanced by immobilization
technique. The immobilized cells can tolerate harsh environmental
conditions like wider range of pH and sucrose concentrations better
than the free cells. The immobilized cells showed same HPR and HY
for ve successive cycles.
Lai et al., 2014 [30] used sugarcane bagasse as a substrate for
biohydrogen production using Thermoanaerbacterium aotearoense.
Various process parameters affecting hydrogen production were
optimized. The study revealed that dilute sulfuric acid pretreated
sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate was suitable for hydrogen production by T. aotearoense due to the presence of glucose and xylose and
low level of inhibitors. Maximum hydrogen production was
observed when pretreatment was carried out with 2.3% of H2SO4
for 114.2 min at 115  C. The hydrogen yield and hydrogen

R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

production rate (HPR) under the best conditions were 1.86 mol H2/
mol total sugar and 0.52 L/L respectively. Catabolite repression was
not observed during the fermentation which would be benecial
for higher hydrogen production and shorter retention time.
Comparative modeling efciencies for biohydrogen production
by C. butyricum on sugarcane molasses adopting articial neural
network and response surface modeling were evaluated by
Whiteman and Kana, 2014 [31]. Parameters like concentration of
molasses, pH, incubation temperature and inoculum concentration
were optimized. The data obtained were used to develop models
for ANN and RSM. The ndings revealed that ANN has greater accuracy in modeling the relationships between the considered
process inputs for fermentative hydrogen production.
3.6. Biopolymers
Increase use of conventional non-biodegradable plastics leads to
severe environmental as well as ecological problems. This leads to
search for biodegradable plastics which can serve as an alternative
to petroleum based polymers. The main competition between
biodegradable plastics and petroleum based plastics is based on the
cost of production. One of the main limitations for the production
of biopolymer is the cost associated with the carbon source. More
than 50% of the production cost is contributed by the carbon source
[32]. Utilization of agro-residues or waste by product stream makes
the process economically viable.
Jian and Heiko, 2008 [33] utilized dilute acid pretreated sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate for the production of polyhydroxyalkaonates (PHA) by Ralstonia eutropha. PHA biopolyesters
were synthesized and accumulated 57% w/w of biomass. Only few
reports are available on biopolymer production utilizing sugarcane
trash as the sole carbon source. Prabisha et al., 2014 [34] evaluated
the ability of Comomonas sp. isolated from a dairy efuent sample
for the production of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) using biomass
hydrolyzate obtained after mild alkali pretreatment of sugarcane
tops. The hydrolyzate obtained after enzymatic saccharication is
devoid of major fermentation inhibitors like furfural, 5hydroxymethylfurfural, acetic acid, formic acid and propionic
acid. The optimum conditions for PHB production were incubation
time of 96 h, pH 7.0, reducing sugar concentration of 1.25% and
KH2PO4 concentration of 1.05%. The bacterium accumulated 55.85%
of PHB with a productivity of 0.195 g/l.
3.7. Enzymes
Various agro-residues, especially sugarcane bagasse serve as a
good substrate for the production of various industrially important
microbial enzymes adopting a SSF strategy. Some of the enzymes
that a produced by SSF utilizing sugarcane crop residues or byproducts of sugarcane industry include a-amylases, cellulases,

207

xylanases, pectinases, protease, invertase, lipase and inulinase.

Table 2 presents different enzymes produced from sugarcane crop
residue.
3.7.1. a-amylase
a e amylases are enzymes which convert starch to glucose and
maltose or variety of malto-oligosaccharides. Amylases play a signicant role in starch, detergent, beverage and textile industries.
Industrial production of enzymes can be made economical by utilizing low cost substrates like agro-industrial residues in the production medium.
Currently there has been an increasing effort on efcient utilization of sugarcane bagasse [2]. Sugarcane bagasse can be used as a
raw ber in solid state fermentation or as acid hydrolyzed simple
sugars in submerged fermentation. Rajagopalan and Krishnan,
2008 [35] reported a-amylase production from catabolite derepressed Bacillus subtilis KCC103 utilizing sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate (SBH). Addition of SBH (1% reducing sugar w/v) to the
nutrient medium supported maximum a-amylase production
(67.4 U/ml). Media engineering improved a-amylase production 2.2
fold by statistical optimization using response surface method.
Existence of catabolite repression in this strain allowed production
of a-amylase synthesis in B. subtilis KCC103 in the presence of
simple sugars in the SBH. The study demonstrated the economical
production of a-amylase using sugars derived from low cost agricultural byproduct sugarcane bagasse.
3.7.2. Cellulases
The conversion of cellulose to glucose involves synergistic action of three enzymes-endo-b-1, 4-glucanases, cellobiohydrolases
and b-glucosidases. Hydrolytic enzymes contribute a major cost in
biofuel plants.
Pereira et al., 2013 [36] evaluated Penicillium echinulatum for
cellulase production using sugarcane bagasse as carbon source.
Highest enzyme production (3.7 FPU/ml) and productivity (25.7
FPU/l/h) were observed with fed-batch cultivation. The study
revealed that this enzyme performs better than commercial cellulase for biomass hydrolysis and can be used on site enzyme platform for bioethanol production from sugarcane lignocellulosic
residue.
A novel promising Trichoderma harzianum L04 strain for the
production of cellulolytic enzymes using sugarcane bagasse was
reported by Benoliel et al., 2013 [37]. The study revealed
T. harzianum L04 to produce signicant levels of cellulase when
grown on sugarcane bagasse. Around 60% of sugar yield was obtained after 18 h of hydrolysis indicating the potential of cellulolytic
enzymes of T. harzianum for biomass hydrolysis.
3.7.3. Xylanases
Microbial production of xylanase is gaining importance due to

Table 2
Enzymes produced from sugarcane crop residues.
Sugarcane residue

Product

Microorganism

Reference

Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Molasses/Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse

a-amylase

Bacillus subtilis KCC 103

T. harzianum L04
T. auroviride
Trichoderma sp.
Kluveromyces marxianus NRRL Y-7571
Bacillus licheniformis
A. niger GH1
Rhizomucor pusillus/Rhizopus oryzae
Rhizopus oryzae
A. fumigatus
A. awamori

Rajagopalan and Krishnan, 2008

Benoliel et al., 2013
Carneiro de Cunha et al., 2013
Norazlina et al., 2013
Mazutti et al., 2006
Rathakrishnan et al., 2012
Vaena et al., 2014
Cordova et al., 1998
Vaseghi et al., 2013
Naqvi et al., 2013
Baladhandayutham and Thangavelu, 2011

Cellulase
Xylanase
Xylanase
Inulinase
Protease
Invertase
Lipase
Lipase
Lipase
Pectinase

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R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

its wide industrial and biotechnological applications. Xylanases are

widely used for bleaching paper and pulp to reduce the usage of
chlorine. It is also used for brewing, baking, fruit and vegetable
processing and as feed additives in broiler and animal diets. Xylan is
the major component of hemicellulose and its complete degradation takes place by the synergetic action of xylanolytic enzymes like
endoxylanase, b-xylosidase and accessory enzymes like a-arabinofuranosidase, acetylesterase and a-glucuronidase. Production
cost is the major factor limiting its use indicating the need for low
cost production systems. Cane molasses an important residue of
the sugar industry serves as cost effective carbon source for the
production of various industrially important enzymes.
Production of xylanase by lamentous fungi using sugarcane
and sugarcane bagasse as substrate was reported by da Cunha et al.,
2013 [38]. Fungal species isolated from various parts of sugarcane
were evaluated for xylanase production using sugarcane bagasse as
sole carbon source. Trichoderma auroviride showed highest xylanase production (2037 U). The optimum conditions of xylanase
production were an incubation temperature of 35  C, 150 rpm
stirring intensity and incubation time of 120 h.
Xylanase production by Trichoderma sp. by SSF using sugarcane
bagasse was carried out by Norazlina et al., 2013 [39]. Highest
xylanase activity (380 U/g) were observed with 5.6 g of sugarcane
bagasse, 1% of sucrose, incubation temperature at 50  C, incubation
time of 6 days and moisture content of 70% (v/w). The study
revealed that xylanase can be produced by Trichoderma using
sugarcane bagasse as substrate which is cheap and available
throughout the year.
3.7.4. Inulinase
Inulinase are important enzymes used for the production of
high fructose syrups from inulin. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of inulin
into fructose and fructo-oligosaccharides which are widely used as
food additives. Inulinase based hydrolysis of inulin can yield
products with 95% of fructose. Mazutti et al., 2006 [40] optimized
conditions for inulinase production by Kluveromyces marxianus
NRRL Y-7571 using sugarcane bagasse as substrate for solid state
fermentation. Maximum inulinase yield and productivity were
390 U/g and 3.34 U/g/h and this is the highest reported value.
Sugarcane bagasse seems to present a great nutritional potential for
growth of K. marxianus NRRL Y-7571 and production of inulinase.
3.7.5. Proteases
Enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds are called proteases. It is
an important industrial enzyme which nds application in detergent, leather, food, pharmaceutical and for bioremediation processes. They regulate various metabolic processes like blood
coagulation, brinolysis, complement activation, phagocytosis and
blood pressure control. Rathakrishnan et al., 2012 [41] developed a
strategy for protease production using sugarcane bagasse under SSF
using Bacillus licheniformis. Various process parameters affecting
protease production were optimized by adopting Plackett- Burman
design. The results indicate that sugarcane bagasse serves as a best
source for the production of protease. Under optimized conditions
146.28 U/gds of protease activity was observed.
3.7.6. Invertases
Invertases are enzymes which catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose. This enzyme is very important in
food industry for the production of articial sweetener. This
enzyme has fructosyltransferase activity which is important for the
synthesis of short chain fructo-oligosaccharide compounds. This
improves intestinal microora and prevents cardiovascular disease,
colon cancer and osteoporosis [42]. Utilization of sugarcane
molasses and bagasse was evaluated for the production of fungal

invertase in solid state fermentation using Aspergillus niger GH1

was reported by Veana et al., 2014 [43]. The by-products of sugar
industry molasses and bagasse were employed as substrates for
invertase production. Fermentation with A. niger GH1 yielded
5231 U/L of invertase. Utilization of sugar industry by-products for
invertase production by A. niger GH1 seems promising since it
lower the enzyme production cost as well as the enzyme yield is
high since the enzymatic yield is higher than those reported by
other A. niger strains under SSF using dilute acid treated bagasse
hydrolyzate.
3.7.7. Lipases
Lipase hydrolyzes fats into fatty acids and glycerol at the
waterelipid interface and can reverse the reaction in non-aqueous
media. It nds application in different industries like food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, oleo-chemicals, fuel and detergents. The use
of solid state fermentation for the production of thermo-stable lipases is an interesting alternative to the valorization of bagasse and
olive oil cake. Lipase production by SSF using olive oil cake and
sugarcane bagasse by Rhizomucor pusillus and Rhizopus rhizopodiformis was reported by Cordova et al., 1998 [44]. The maximum
lipase activity for R. pusillus and R. rhizopodiformis were 1.73 U/ml
and 0.97 U/ml respectively. The study revealed that when sugarcane bagasse and olive oil cake were mixed in equal proportion, the
lipase activity increased to 43.04 U/ml and 10.83 U/ml respectively.
The synergetic effect of olive oil cake added to bagasse has been
conrmed.
Vaseghi et al., 2013 [45] evaluated production of active lipase by
Rhizopus oryzae from sugarcane bagasse in a tray fermenter. A tray
reactor was designed for the extracellular enzyme production. The
results indicate that the newly constructed tray bioreactor had the
potential to produce lipases with high activity. Addition of olive oil
resulted in a 1.6 fold increase in lipase activity. Maximum activity
observed under optimized conditions is 215 U/gds.
Lipase production using different pretreated sugarcane bagasse
hydrolyzate supplemented with mineral salts was evaluated for the
production of lipase by Aspergillus fumigatus [46]. Maximum yield
of 40 U/ml was observed for 0.6 N NH4OH pretreated sugarcane
bagasse medium supplemented with mineral salts in comparison
to other acid and alkali pretreated bagasse hydrolyzate. Sugarcane
bagasse serves as a cheap source for the production of lipase.
3.7.8. Pectinases
Pectinases catalyze the hydrolysis of pectin. It nds extensive
applications in food and beverage industries. It is used for clarication of fruit juice, pulp and paper industry, coffee and tea
fermentation, waste management, protoplast isolation, retting of
ax and vegetable bers and haze removal from wines. SSF using
agro-industrial residues is an attractive option since it presents
higher productivity, lower capital and operating costs and easier
downstream processing compared to submerged fermentation.
Baladhandayutham and Thangavelu, 2011 [47] reported pectinase
production by Aspergillus awamori using sugarcane bagasse and
rice bran as substrate. Maximum pectinase production (103.33 U/
ml) was observed when 85% of rice bran and 15% of sugarcane
bagasse were used and incubation temperature of 35  C.
3.7.9. Laccases
Laccases are multi-copper containing enzymes which catalyze
the oxidation of a wide variety of aromatic compounds with
concomitant reduction of oxygen to water. Potential applications of
laccase include biopulping and biobleaching, industrial dye
degradation, improving the digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass,
delignication, removal of phenolic compounds and toxic pollutants. The use of inexpensive agro-residues for the economic

R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

production of laccase seems promising. Singh et al., 2010 [48]

evaluated laccase production by Aspergillus heteromorph using
distillery spent wash and lignocellulosic biomass. The study
showed that lignocellulosic biomass enhanced laccase production.
Anaerobically treated distillery spent wash and lignocellulosic
biomasses like sugarcane bagasse are cheap and easily available
and serve as an ecofriendly and economic strategy for the production of laccase.
3.8. Composites
Natural bers serve as emerging alternatives to glass-reinforced
composites. Few advantages of natural ber composite are low cost,
light weight, renewable and biodegradable. Other environmental
advantages include lower greenhouse gas emissions and enhanced
energy recovery [49].
Alkali treatment of bagasse was carried out to increase the
adhesion between the ber and the resin matrix and the mechanical properties of the composite samples to different environmental treatments were carried out by Acharya et al., 2011 [49].
A chemical pretreatment was carried out to overcome the drawbacks associated with natural ber-reinforced composites like high
moisture absorption, poor wettability and poor adhesion. The study
revealed that sugarcane bagasse serves as a good raw material for
the production of composite by suitably bonding with resin for a
value added product.
da Silva et al., 2013 [50] developed a strategy for value addition
of lignin extracted from sugarcane bagasse by organosolv pulping
by reacting with glutaraldehyde. The organosolv ligninglutaraldehyde resin was used to prepare a composite reinforced
with sugarcane bagasse bers. The study revealed that the use of
phenolic materials originating from renewable resources for
various industrial applications could contribute to an increase in
the protability of bio-reneries where lignin is generated as
byproduct.
3.9. Organic acids
Fermentative production of organic acids is a promising
approach for obtaining organic acids from renewable carbon
source. Organic acids constitute the key group among the building
block chemicals which can be produced by microbial processes.
Biotechnological processes are favorable from a chemical as well as
economic point of view. Table 3 shows different organic acids
produced from sugarcane crop residue. Some of the organic acids
that are produced using sugarcane crop residue or using byproducts of sugarcane industry include itaconic acid, succinic
acid, citric acid, lactic acid, butyric acid and propionic acid.

209

3.9.1. Itaconic acid

The wide spread use of itaconic acid in synthetic resins, synthetic bers, surfactants, rubbers, plastics and oil additives have
resulted in an increased demand for this product [51]. It also provides possibilities for selective enzymatic transformations to create
useful poly-functional building blocks. Many researchers have
attempted to replace the expensive carbon source used for itaconic
acid production with cheaper alternative substrates.
Nubel and Ratajak, 1960 [52] reported improved yield of itaconic
acid by replacing rened glucose with less expensive carbohydrate
source like sugarcane and sugar beet molasses. They developed a
strategy for conversion of inexpensive carbohydrates to itaconic
acid in high yield by submerged aerobic fermentation. The
molasses were pretreated with ion exchange resins, ferrocyanide,
bentonite and lime for the removal of impurities like heavy metals
or alkaline earth substances from the molasses. The molasses medium was inoculated with Aspergillus terreus and A. itaconicus,
which are capable of producing itaconic acid by submerged
fermentation of carbohydrates. Cane molasses medium (1800 ml)
was diluted to 18% w/v of sugar and mixed with beet molasses
medium (200 ml) was diluted to 18% w/v of sugar and inoculated
with a spore suspension of A. terreus and incubated at 35e40  C.
Fermentation was carried out until the itaconic acid concentration
reached 5 g/100 ml. The fermented broth is ltered and concentrated to crystallize the product.
Sugarcane bagasse was utilized for the production of itaconic
acid from A. niger, A. oryzae, A. avus and Penicillium sp. in solid
state fermentation by Paranthaman et al., 2014 [53]. Among the
different fungi screened, A. niger produced highest itaconic acid
(8.24 mg/kg) in SSF. The study revealed the suitability of sugarcane
bagasse powder for the fermentative production of itaconic acid.

3.9.2. Succinic acid

Succinic acid is a dicarboxylic acid and is produced by plants,
animals and microorganisms. It nds wide applications in industries involved in producing food, green solvents, biodegradable
plastics and ingredients used for the stimulation of plant growth
[54]. Succinic acid is mostly used as surfactant, additive, foaming
agent and detergent. It is also used as ion chelator which prevents
corrosion and pitting in the metal industry and also as antimicrobial and avoring agent and also as an additive in the production of
vitamins, antibiotics and amino acids [55]. The cost of succinic acid
production is affected by its productivity, raw material cost, and
yield as well as product recovery system. Hence exploiting the
potential of cheaper and surplus available lignocellulosic biomass
as carbon source will makes the process more economical.
Borges and Pereira, 2011 [56] developed a strategy for succinic
acid production from sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolyzate

Table 3
Organic acids produced from sugarcane crop residue.
Sugarcane residue

Product

Microorganism

Reference

Molasses
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse/Vinasse
Bagasse
Molasses
Bagasse
Bagasse
Molasses
Bagasse
Bagasse

Itaconic acid
Itaconic acid
Succinic acid
Succinic acid
Citric acid
Citric acid
Citric acid
Lactic acid
Lactic acid
Butyric acid
Propionic acid
Propionic acid
Propionic acid

A. terreus/A. itaconicus
A. niger/A.oryzae/A. avus/Penicillium
Actinobacillus succinogenes
Actinobacillus succinogenes
A. niger DS1
A.niger
A. niger
e
Bacillus
C. tyrobutyricum
Propionibacterium freudenreichii CCTCC M207015
Propionibacterium freudenreichii CCTCC M207015
Propionibacterium acidipropionii

Nubel and Ratajak, 1960

Paranthaman et al., 2014
Borges and Pereira, 2011
Xi et al., 2013
Kumar et al., 2003
Oliveira et al., 2012
Amenaghawon et al., 2013
Lunelli et al., 2010
Peng et al., 2014
Wei et al., 2013
Feng et al., 2011
Chen et al., 2012
Zhu et al., 2012

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R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

by Actinobacillus succinogenes. The study revealed that supplementation of NaHCO3, MgSO4 and yeast extract played a signicant
role in succinic acid production. The conversion yield of succinic
acid from sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate was relatively high and
produced 22.5 g/l.
Production of succinic acid using A. succinogenes by ultrasound
pretreatment and hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse was reported by
Xi et al., 2013 [57]. Sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolyzate
was used as the carbon and nitrogen source for green and
economical production of succinic acid. Ultrasound assisted dilute
acid hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse serves as a time saving and
economical method for hydrolyzing sugarcane bagasse. The nondetoxied hydrolyzate produced 23.7 g/l of succinic acid with a
yield of 79% and productivity of 0.99 g/l/h.
3.9.3. Citric acid
Citric acid nds application in various industries. It is used as an
anti-oxidising, avoring, preserving, chelating and buffering agent
in the food, beverages, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries
[58]. Traditionally it is produced by submerged fermentation using
A. niger. The increase in demand of citric acid leads to search for
more economical means for its production. Recently studies have
been carried out by several researchers for the production of citric
acid using agricultural residues.
SSF process for the production of citric acid by A. niger DS1 using
sugarcane bagasse as a carrier and sucrose or molasses based medium as a moistening agent was reported by Kumar et al., 2003
[59]. Sugarcane bagasse serves as a good carrier since it did not
show agglomeration after moistening with the medium and helps
in better heat and mass transfer during fermentation and higher
product yield. The citric acid yield from sucrose, claried and nonclaried molasses medium were 69.6, 64.5 and 62.4% respectively
after nine days of incubation. The decrease in citric acid yield when
non-claried molasses were used is due to inhibition by metal ions.
Though metal ions supported growth of the fungus it has a negative
impact on citric acid yield.
Oliveira et al., 2012 [60] developed a strategy for the production
of citric acid using sugarcane bagasse with vinasse by A. niger. The
fermentation was carried out in a packed bed reactor with sugarcane bagasse impregnated suspension of A. niger and vinasse with
80% moisture, incubation temperature of 25  C, aeration ow rate
of 0.4L/min of water saturated air and incubation time for 6 days.
The citric acid yield under these conditions was 1.45 g of total acid/g
of dry bagasse/day. The study represents an alternative to conventional submerged processes for obtaining bio-products from
A. niger.
Amenaghawon et al., 2013 [61] carried out modeling and optimization of citric acid production from solid state fermentation of
sugarcane bagasse using A. niger. Various process parameters
affecting citric acid production like media pH, substrate loading and
incubation time were optimized by adopting response surface
methodology. The optimal fermentation conditions were media pH
of 2.0, incubation time of 6 days and substrate loading, 80 g/L.
Under optimized conditions the citric acid produced was 18.63 g/L.
Yadigary et al., 2013 [62] optimized conditions for citric acid
production from sugarcane bagasse by adopting Taguchi design.
The study revealed that sugarcane bagasse serves as a cost effective
substrate for the production of citric acid. The residue left out after
extraction of citric acid and destroying the microbes can be used as
an animal feed since SSF decreases the concentration of antinutritional factors in bagasse.
3.9.4. Lactic acid
Lactic acid is used in the pharmaceutical, chemical, cosmetic and
food industries as well as for biodegradable polymer and green

solvent production. It can be produced by chemical synthesis or by

fermentation. The fermentative production of lactic acid has
received a lot of interest in the present scenario since it offers an
alternative to environmental pollution caused by petrochemical
industry and the limited supply of petrochemical resources [63].
Currently lactic acid consumption has been increased a lot due to its
role as a monomer in the production of biodegradable polymer,
poly lactic acid (PLA).
Use of rened materials for the production of lactic acid increases the costs for production even though the cost for product
purication should be signicantly reduced. Several attempts were
going on for the economical production of lactic acid. Utilization of
cellulosic materials seems promising since they are cheap, abundant and renewable. Lunelli et al., 2010 [64] reported fermentative
production of lactic acid using sucrose obtained from sugarcane
molasses. Fermentation was carried out at pH 5.0, incubation
temperature of 34  C, 200 rpm and sucrose concentration of 12 g/L.
The yield of lactic acid obtained from diluted sugarcane molasses
fermentation was 0.83 g/g.
Peng et al., 2014 [65] developed an efcient open fermentative
production of polymer grade lactic acid from sugarcane bagasse
hydrolyzate by thermotolerant Bacillus strain P38. In this study the
lactic acid reached a concentration of 185 g/L with a volumetric
productivity of 1.93 g/L/h by using sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate
as the sole carbon source along with cotton seed meal as cheap
nitrogen source. This is the highest reported lactic acid production
using lignocellulosic source. The high tolerance of Bacillus strain
P38 to the toxicity of fermentation inhibitors indicate that this
strain can be used for the development of an efcient and
economical process for lactic acid from various lignocellulosic
biomasses.
3.9.5. Butyric acid
Butyric acid nds applications in chemical, food and beverage,
cosmetic, plastic and textile ber industries. Its applications as
bioactive and therapeutic agents in nutraceutical market in
growing rapidly [66]. Currently butyric acid is produced by petroleum based oxo-synthesis of butyraldelyde from propylene. Due to
rising oil price, the production of butyric acid by anaerobic
fermentation form natural resources has become attractive [67].
A fermentation process for the production of butyric acid from
sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate by Clostridium tyrobutyricum
immobilized in a brous bed reactor was reported by Wei et al.,
2013 [67]. The acid pretreated and enzymatically saccharied
sugarcane bagasse was used as carbon source without any detoxication. The butyric acid yield and productivity were 0.48 g/g and
0.51 g/L/h respectively. This is the rst report demonstrating the
feasibility of butyric acid production from sugarcane bagasse
hydrolyzate.
3.9.6. Propionic acid
Propionic acid is an important short chain fatty acid with many
applications. It nds applications in industries like cellulose plastic,
herbicides, perfumes and food. The traditional route of propionic
acid production is by the oxidation of propane or propionaldehyde.
Currently, the traditional petrochemical route faces more challenges due to limited supply of petroleum. In this scenario, the
production of propionic acid from renewable sources seems
promising. Considering the cost-efciency of microbial fermentation, the exploitation of low cost, renewable carbon sources have a
positive impact. The utilization of cheap and surplus available
sugarcane bagasse as a renewable source for the production of
propionic acid will reduce the cost considerably.
Green and economic production of propionic acid by Propionibacterium freudenreichii CCTCC M207015 in plant brous bed (PFB)

R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

reactor was reported by Feng et al., 2011 [68]. Propionic acid production from molasses was studied in PFB reactor. With nontreated molasses yielded 12.69 g/L of propionic acid where as PFB
fermentation yielded 41.22 g/L of propionic acid. When fed-batch
fermentation was performed with hydrolyzed molasses in PFB
yielded 91.89 g/L of propionic acid after an incubation time of 254 h.
The study revealed that low cost molasses can be utilized for the
green and economical production of propionic acid by
P. freudenreichii.
Chen et al., 2012 [69] evaluated propionic acid production in a
plant
brous-bed
bioreactor
(PFB)
with
immobilized
P. freudenreichii CCTCC M207015. Sugarcane bagasse was applied to
the PFB as immobilizing material. The highest propionic acid concentration obtained was 136.23 g/L which is 1.4 times higher than
the highest concentration previously reported (97.0 g/L). Compared
with free cell fermentation the uxes of propionic acid synthesis
and the pentose phosphate pathway in PFB fermentation were
increased by 84.65% and 227.62% respectively. The results suggest
that PFB is a simple and effective method for the high concentration
production of propionic acid.
Improving the productivity of propionic acid with brous bed
bioreactor (FBB) e immobilized cells of an adapted acid-tolerant
Propionibacterium acidipropionici was carried out by Zhu et al.,
2012 [70]. A propionic acid concentration of 51.2 g/L with a high
productivity of 0.71 g/L/h was achieved via fed-batch fermentation
in FBB system. The productivity was increased by supplementation
of sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate gave 58.8 g/L of propionic acid.
The results revealed the potential of sugarcane bagasse as a substrate for the economic production of propionic acid at industrial
scale.
3.9.7. Gluconic acid
Gluconic acid is a dehydrogenation product of D-glucose which
nds application in food, feed, pharmaceutical, textile, cement and
chemical industries. The process of gluconic acid production can be
made more economic by utilization of agro-industrial residues as
substrates for SSF. Singh et al., 2003 [71] developed a strategy for
gluconic acid production by A. niger in SSF, SmF, SF (surface
fermentation) and SmSF (semi solid state fermentation). The study
revealed that overproduction of gluconic acid was observed under
SSF conditions using sugarcane bagasse as substrate.
3.10. Xylitol
Xylitol is a polyol naturally found in various fruits and vegetables and possess a high sweetening power which nds application
in food and pharmaceutical industries. Being a sugar substitute it is
used in dietary foods for insulin deciency patients. Currently the
large scale production is typically carried out by a chemical process
of D-xylose hydrogenation [72]. Waste utilization for xylitol production seems promising. Hence development and optimization of
methods for obtaining xylose from lignocellulosic biomass and
conversion to xylitol seems promising.
Production of xylitol using hydrolyzate obtained after dilute acid
pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse was reported by Sarrouh et al.,
2009 [73]. The study revealed that post hydrolysis of the dilute acid
pretreated sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate resulted in an increase in
xylose release in the hemicellulose fraction. The advantage of using
post-treated hydrolyzate is that it requires less concentration of
sugars resulting in a lower concentration of fermentation inhibitors
and there was an increase in high xylose to xylitol conversion efciency (0.7 g xylitol/g xylose) and volumetric productivity
compared to the usage of original hemicellulosic hydrolyzate
(0.65 g xylitol/g xylose). The post-hydrolysis stage resulted in an
increase of xylose concentration from 18.4 g/L to 23.5 g/L. Hence

211

there is no need for concentration of the hydrolyzate and resulted

in lower fermentation inhibitors like phenolic compounds and
acetic acid which in turn have a positive impact by increasing
productivity by 13% and xylitol yield by 7%.
Branco et al., 2011 [74] developed a strategy for enzymatic
production of xylitol using sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate with
glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) system for NADPH in situ generation
as well as to verify technical feasibility and potential of enzymatic
production of xylitol as an alternative to traditional production
processes. Enzymatic strategy is a new alternative for conventional
microbiological process which can achieve 100% conversion. The
high conversion rate is due to direct transformation of xylose to
xylitol which cannot be achieved in conventional fermentative
process. The enzymatic strategy involves the direct reduction of
xylose to xylitol by the enzyme xylose reductase assisted by the
coenzyme reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADPH). The study revealed that 40% v/v concentration
of sugarcane bagasse hemicellulosic hydrolyzate (SCBHH) does not
interfere with xylitol production but when high content of SCBHH
e 80% and 100% v/v, showed a negative impact on xylitol production. Fine tuning of the various process variables affecting xylitol
production will improve the yield.
Prakash et al., 2011 [75] exploited the potential of microbial
production of xylitol from sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose using
free and immobilized cells of Debaryomyces hansenii. The efciency
for free and immobilized cells was compared for xylitol production
in batch culture at 40  C. The maximum xylitol yield and volumetric
productivity produced by free cells were 0.69 g/g and 0.28 g/L/h
respectively after detoxication with activated charcoal and ion
exchange resins. The maximum xylitol yield and productivity of
calcium alginate immobilized cells of D. hansenii were 0.82/g and
0.46 g/L/h respectively. As compared to free cells, immobilized cells
produce xylitol more efciently and can be reused for six cycles
without any apparent loss in their fermentation capability.
Coupled production of biodiesel, xylitol and xylanase from
sugarcane bagasse in a biorenery concept using fungi was reported by Kamat et al., 2013 [76]. Dilute acid pretreated sugarcane
bagasse hydrolyzate was utilized for the production of xylitol by
Williopsis saturnus resulted in a yield 0.51 g/g of xylose consumed
after 72 h of incubation.
Co-cultures for simultaneous production of ethanol and xylitol
under continuous multistep versus fed-batch production modes
using Candida tropicalis IEC5-ITV and S. cerevisiae ITV01-RD in a
simulated medium of sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzate was reported
by Castanon- Rodriguez et al., 2014 [77]. The study explores the
biotechnological production of ethanol and xylitol by two wild type
yeasts as a strategy for biorenery. The best condition was observed
for simultaneous culture was S. cerevisiae co-culture and
C. tropicalis sequential cultivation at 24 h. The xylitol productivity
and yield at simultaneous culture condition were 0.10 g/L/h and
0.31 g/g respectively. For fed-batch culture the xylitol productivity
and yield were the same. The results suggest that the co-culture of
these wild type yeasts has the potential for fermenting lignocellulosic substrates to simultaneously produce xylitol and ethanol
using continuous cultures. This is a good strategy to make complete
use of lignocellulosic residues while obtaining simultaneously two
value added products.
3.11. Chelating agents
Chelating agents are used for removing heavy metals from industrial efuents. A good chelating agent contains functional
groups with high electronic density like carbonyl, amines, thiols,
hydroxyls and aromatic rings. Since the lignocellulosic biomass
component, lignin contains several of these groups can be used as a

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chelating material.
Enzymatic systems serve as a promising strategy for oxidation of
lignin. Polyphenoloxidases (PPO) oxidizes lignin producing cresols
or quinone structures increasing the number of chelating groups in
the lignin. Goncalves et al., 2002 [78] developed a strategy for the
production of chelating agents through the enzymatic oxidation of
acetosolv sugarcane bagasse lignin. Oxidation of lignin obtained
from acetosolv pulping of sugarcane bagasse was performed by
polyethylene glycol to increase the number of carbonyl and hydroxyl groups in lignin for improving the chelating capacity. The
study revealed that the chelating capacity of lignin oxidized with
PPO showed a 73% increase in chelating property when compared
to original lignin and is due to incorporation of vinyl hydroxyl
groups. Chelating property increases with increase of molecular
weight of lignin and is due to increase of polar groups in the lignin
and cause an increase in hydrodynamic volume which in turn
resulted in an increase in molecular weight.

efuents in a large pH range, which is very useful in industrial

processes.
3.14. Amino acids
Amino acids nd wide range of applications as food additives,
feed supplement and therapeutic agents. L-glutamic acid is a nonessential acidic amino acid. It is an important neurotransmitter
and plays an important role in neural activation. Monosodium
glutamate, the sodium salt of glutamic acid is widely used as avor
enhancer.
Nampoothiri and Pandey, 1996 [84] reported L-glutamic acid
production by solid state fermentation by Brevibacterium sp. using
sugarcane bagasse as substrate. The media was moistened to
85e90% level with mineral salt solution containing glucose, urea
and vitamins. The maximum glutamic acid yield was 80 mg/g dry
substrate. This is the rst report on cultivation of Brevibacterium sp.
in solid cultures for the production of glutamic acid.

3.12. Carotenoids
3.15. Animal feed
Carotenoids are natural pigments responsible for coloring foods
and have important biological activities. It nds application in
pharmaceutical, chemical, food and feed industries. Biotechnological route for carotenoid is currently limited by the high cost of
production. However the cost can be minimized by using high
pigment producing strains cultured in cheap industrial byproducts
or agro-residues as nutrient source [79].
Bio-production of carotenoids by Sporidiobolus salmonicolor CBS
2636 using pretreated agro-industrial substrate was reported by
Valduga et al., 2008 [80]. Fermentation was carried out with 10 g/L
of sugarcane molasses, 5 g/L of corn steep liquor, 5 g/L of yeast
hydrolyzate, agitation at 180 rpm and initial pH of 4.0 produced a
total carotenoid content of 541.5 mg/L.
Freitas et al., 2014 [81] evaluated low-cost carbon sources for
carotenoid production by Rhodosporidium toruloides NCYC 921. The
yeast carotenoid productivity in sugarcane molasses was 3.85 mg/L/
h. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that most of the yeast cells
grown on sugarcane molasses displayed permeabilised cytoplasmic
membranes.
3.13. Modied catalysts
The utilization of lignocellulosic materials as supports for the
adsorption of metallic cat-ions has received much attention due to
their low cost. Several research groups have developed adsorption
materials based on lignocellulosic matrices as solid supports with
good chemical afnity for metallic ions [82]. Modied sugarcane
bagasse can efciently adsorb metallic cat-ions present in water
bodies and efuent, making positive impact from an economical
and environmental point of view [83].
A novel use for modied sugarcane bagasse containing adsorbed
Co2 and Cr3 ions as heterogeneous catalysts for the autooxidation of monoterpenes were evaluated by Marquez da Silva
et al., 2013 [82]. They developed a process that uses agricultural byproducts like sugarcane bagasse modied with organic ligands like
succinic anhydride and EDTA dianhydride and used for the removal
of Co2 and Cr3 ions from single metal aqueous solutions. These
adsorbent materials containing adsorbed Co2 and Cr3 as heterogeneous catalysts for the chemical transformation of natural
terpenic substrates were evaluated. The study revealed that these
materials serve as promising catalysts for the oxidation of monoterpenes. This is the rst report in which lignocellulosic adsorbents
are applied in a catalytic oxidation process. The catalysts can be
reused for three cycles without any loss of activity. The adsorption
studies also demonstrated the potential of these adsorbents to treat

One of the major causes of poor livestock productivity in tropical

regions of the world is due to inadequate nutrition. This is due to
shortage of feed as well as high cost of feed constituents. Exploiting
the surplus available sugarcane bagasse for animal feed production
seems promising. Sugarcane bagasse has commonly been used for
the production of protein enriched animal feed. Treating of sugarcane bagasse with fungus like Pleurotus would remove lignin from
the bagasse and improves the nutritive value. Okano et al., 2010
[85] cultivated Pleurotus eryngii on sugarcane bagasse to enhance
the digestibility of bagasse. The study revealed that cultivating P.
eryngii on bagasse completely removed lignin after incubation for
95 days and there is no difference in in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD), in vitro gas production (IVGP) and in vitro
NDFom digestibility (IVNDFom D). After 95 days of biological
treatment with P. eryngii the spent bagasse substrate could be used
as feed for ruminants.
3.16. Ergot alkaloids
Ergot alkaloids are mycotoxins produced by several species of
Claviceps. There are four main groups of ergot alkaloids e clavines,
lysergic acids, lysergic acid amides and ergopeptides. The demand
for ergot alkaloids and their derivatives has increased in recent
years due to applications in the treatment of various diseases.
Hernandez et al., 1993 [86] used impregnated sugarcane pith
bagasse to grow a fungal culture for the production of ergot alkaloids. Sixteen different combinations of liquid nutrient medium
were used for impregnating bagasse for the production of ergot
alkaloids by Claviceps purpurea. The study revealed that it is
possible to achieve tailor made spectra of ergot alkaloids by
changing the liquid nutrient media composition used for impregnation. This opens a new avenue of achieving tailor made spectra of
ergot alkaloids at an economical cost.
3.17. Antibiotics
Antibiotics are one of the best groups of the secondary metabolites synthesized by microorganisms which are active against
other microorganisms. Due to its importance in human health care,
demand for antibiotic is increasing worldwide. Several efforts have
been made to decrease its production cost by process optimization
using agricultural residues. Utilization of agro-industrial waste
products as substrate has opened the potential to reduce production costs up to 60% by reducing the cost of raw material during

R. Sindhu et al. / Renewable Energy 98 (2016) 203e215

fermentation [87]. Antibiotic production using SSF requires low

energy, less investment cost, higher productivity and ecofriendly
than SmF. An advanced SSF system in which a liquid medium
adsorbed on an inert sugarcane bagasse support has been applied
for antibiotic production by Dominguez et al., 2001 [88]. The main
components of the medium are bagasse, nutrients and water. The
study revealed that bagasse content strongly controls penicillin
production in the SSF system. The bagasse content of the solid
medium affects physiology and particular idiophase. The higher
bagasse content facilitates water and nutrient transport in the solid
medium. Hence, decreasing the bagasse content in the solid medium reduces the growth rate to a more adequate level for Penicillin production.
3.18. Plant growth hormone- gibberellic acid
Gibberellic acid is an important fungal secondary metabolite
and is a plant growth stimulant widely used in agriculture.
Currently gibberellic acids were produced by SmF and the cost is
very high due to extremely low yield and expensive downstream
processing. SSF production of gibberellic acid has attracted a great
deal of attention. Tomasini et al., 1997 [89] evaluated gibberellic
acid production by Gibberella fujikuroi in SSF system using different
agroresidues. The study revealed that this phytohormone can be
produced effectively by SSF on sugarcane bagasse and cassava our.
4. Conclusion and future perspectives
Bioconversion of crop residues is an ecofriendly biotechnological application for sustainable development. Sugarcane crop residues and by-products from sugar industries like bagasse, molasses
and vinasse offers great opportunities for interesting product outlet
including the production of a wide variety of value added products.
Utilization of these residues for alternative energy sources and high
value products could improve the sustainability of the bioenergy
chain and reduce the negative environmental impacts related to
inappropriate disposal. Several R and D activities are going on in
this direction to develop an economically as well as ecofriendly
strategy for the sustainable production of bioenergy and other
value added products. The by-products generated from agroindustrial processing of sugarcane serves as an efcient carbon
source for the production of various value added products of
commercial interest, most of this is still in infancy and scaling up to
pilot scale is a necessity. Targeting on one product is not economically viable, therefore alternative strategies for targeting production of some value addition like production of low volume high
value products like amino acids seems promising and make the
process economically viable. Though several pretreatment strategies were available none of them can be used as a standard method
for the pretreatment of sugarcane crop residues or by products of
sugar industry. Several key factors like technical, economic and
environmental considerations to be taken into account before
selecting a technology for bioconversion. Based on the targeted
product, the best pretreatment method has to be selected. Sometimes development of an integrated approach seems promising and
ne tuning of the process will make it economically viable. Lot of
opportunities are possible for the fundamental R and D for successful exploitation of the full biomass potential by ne tuning
technological development and performance improvements to
achieve economically feasible and environmentally sustainable
yields of desired products.
Acknowledgments
One

of

the

authors

Raveendran

Sindhu

acknowledges

213

Department of Biotechnology for nancial support under DBT BioCARe scheme. Raveendran Sindhu and Parameswaran Binod

de

rale de Lausanne for nanacknowledge Ecole Polytechnique Fe
cial support.
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