Electrical Technology

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ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
SJ VAN ZYL
5TH
EDITION
Published by:
lg rata
P O Box 6201
Vandsrbijlpark
1900
Tel: 082 852 0340
LERATo 2011
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocoqYing, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written

permission of the publisher. This book may not be lent, resold, hireO
out or
otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other
than that in which it is published, without the prior consent of t[e publishers.
ISBN : 978-0-9814483-3-G
l*;
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
SJ VAN ZYL
sTH EDITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
1.1
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
WATTMETER APPLICATIONS
1.1.1 ONE-WATTMETER METHOD 2

1.1.2 BLONDELL'S THEOREM 4
1.1.3 TWO-WATTMETER METHOD 6
1.1.3.1
1,1.4
TWO-WATTMETER METHOD OF OBTAINING THE POWER

FACTOR
THREE-WATTMETER METHOD 10
CHAPTER TWO
2.1
2.2
??.t
2.2.2
- THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
THREE-PHASE
13
SYSTEMS
14
PHASE SEQUENCE OF THREE_PHASE
SYSTEMS
16
BALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

BALANCED, DELTA.CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE
SYSTEM
UNBALANCED DELTA-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE
LOAD
2.2.4.t STAR-DELTA (y_A) CONFTGURATTdN 26
2.2.4.2 DELTA-DELTA (A_A) CONFTGUMTTON 28
UNBALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE LOAD
2.2.s.7 DELTA-STAR (A_y) CONFTGURATiON 30
2.2.s.2 STAR-STAR (y_y) CoNFTGURATTON 3s
2.2.5.3 MILLMAN'S THEOREM 35
2.2.5.4 DELTA-STAR (A_y) CoNVERSTON 39
2.2.5.s STAR-DELTA (y_A) CONVERSTON 43
COMPLEX POWER 48
REACTIVE POWER 51
?.?.1
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.3
2,4
2.5
2.1
2.2
EXERCISE
54
POWER MEASUREMENT IN THREE-PHASE
EXERCISE
74
CHAPTER THREE
3.1
SYSTEMS
19
23
26
30
59
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
INTRODUCTION
BO
3.1.1 POSTTTVE PHASE_SEQUENCE

3.1.2 NEGATTVE PHASE_SEQUENCE 8282
3.1.3 ZERO PHASE-SEQUENbE 82
3.2
RESOLUTION OF AN UNBALANCED, THREE-PHASE

SYMMETRICALCOMPONENTS 83
SYSTEM
OF
PHASORS
INTO
ITS
3.3
3.4
3.5
SiGNiFICANCE OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS IN PROTECNVE

SYSTEMS 85
DETECNON OF P.P.S AND I.I.P.S COMPONENTS OF CURRENT
86
DETECTION OF P.P.S AND N,P.S COMPONENTS OF VOLTAGE
88
E(ERCISE
101
CHAPTER FOUR
INTRODUCTION
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
REASONS FOR
THREE-PHASEINDUCTION REGULATOR 108

SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER 111
VALUE OFTHE SENDING-END VOLTAGE 113
AUTOMATIC LOAD DISPATCHING TT4
POWER TMNSFER TL4
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1
5.2
5.2,1
5.2.2
5,2.3
5.2.4
5.3
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.5
5,6
6.6
T32
POWER ECONOMICS
MOST ECONOMICAL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF A CONDUCTOR OT

TRANSMISSION
KELVIN'S LAW T42
LIMITATIONS TO THE APPLICATION OF KELVIN'S LAW T43
TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE 144
GENEMTING COSTS L45

MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR 145
TARIFFS 146
CHAPTER SIX
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
INTRODUCTION 139
MAXIMUM DEMAND 139
ENCOUMGEMENT TO DIVERSIFY THE LOAD 139
ENCOUMGEMENT OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 140
LOAD AND FORM FACTORS I4O
LOSS FACTOR 741
EXERCISE
6.1
6.2
6,3
6.4
6.5
TO4
INTER-CONNECTIONS IO7
TAP-CHANGINGTRANSFORMER 110
EXERCISE
160
PER UNIT SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION 163
PER-UNrT QUANTTTTES 163
ADVANTAGES OFTHE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 165
DISADVANTAGES OF THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 165
THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM 165
THREE-PHASE EQUIPMENT 167
BASE SELECTTON FOR PER_UNrT
QUANTTTTES 168
CHANGING BASE VALUES 168
PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER 169
APPLICATION IN NETWORK CALCULATIONS L7O
EXERCISE
---
INTER.CONNECTED SYSTEMS
4.I
4.8
ii
IB7
LINE
141
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.I
7.2
7.3
7.3.T
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.4
7.4.L
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.5
7.5.1
7.6
- ALTERNATING
AND DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
INTRODUCTION 191
REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS !92
CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS T92
NATURE OF CURRENT T92
TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION 193
CONNECTION SCHEME 193
CONNECTION CIRCUITS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 193
RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 193
RING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 194
INTER-CONNECTED SYSTEMS 195
DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 196
DIRECT CURRENT RING DISTRIBUTOR T97
ALTERNATING CURRENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 205
EXERCISE
2TB
CHAPTER EIGHT
_ ELECTRIC LIGHTING
8.1
INTRODUCTION 227
8.2
TROUBLE SHOOTING WITH
8.1.1 LAMPS 227

8.1.2 DICHROIC COLOUR CHANGE 222
8.1.3 FIXTURES AND PARTS 222
8.1.4 MECHANICAL LUMINAIRES 222
8.1.5 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS 222
8.1.6 ELECTRONIC HIGH-FREQUENCY BALLASTS 223
LUMINAIRES 224
8.2.1 FAULT CONNECTION OF LAMP WIRES 224

8.2.2 LAMP WIRES NOT CONNECTED 224
8.2.3 CATHODE BROKEN 225
8.2.4 COLD ENVIRONMENTS 225
8.2.5 POOR WIRE CONTACTS 225
8.2.6 TOO LONG LAMP WIRES 226
8.2.7 HUMIDITY IN THE AIR 226
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8,4
8,5
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3
8.6
8.6.1
8.6.2
8.6.3
8.6.4
8.6.5
8.6.6
LIGHTING DESIGN 226

VISUAL RESPONSES 227
VISUAL PERFORMANCE 227
CHARACTER OF LIGHT 228
PRODUCTION OF MDIATION 230
LAMP MATERIALS 23I
GLASSES 237
METALS 237
GASSES 232
DEFINITIONS 232
LIGHT
OUTPUT 232
AVEMGE
LIFE
232
EFFICACY 232
COLOUR-RENDING INDEX 232
LUMINOUS FLUX 233
LUMINOUS INTENSIW 233
8.6.7
8.6.8
8.6.9
8.6.10
8.7
8,7.1
8.7.2
8.7.3
8.7.4
8.7.5
8.7,6
8.7.7
8.8
8.8.1
8.8.2
8.8.3
8.8.4
8.8,5
8.9
8.9.1
8.9.2
8.9.3
LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY 233
ILLUMINANCE 233
SPECIFIC OUTPUT 233
SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION 234
LAMPS 234
INCANDESCENT LAMPS 234
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS 237
FLUORESCENT LAMPS 237
MERCURY VAPOUR LAMPS 243
METAL-HALIDE LAMPS 245
SODIUM-XENON LAMPS 246
ELECTRODE-LESS INDUCTION
LIGHTING CONTROLS 246
LOCALISED MANUAL SWITCHING 247

TIME-BASED SYSTEMS 247
DAYLIGHT-LINKED SYSTEMS 247
OCCUPANCY-LINKED SYSTEMS 247
LIGHTING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 247
EMERGENCY LIGHTING
ESCAPE LIGHTING 248
248
SAFETY LIGHTING 248

STANDBY LIGHTING 248
CHAPTER NINE
9.1
LAMPS 246
HARMONICS
IN POLY-PHASE CIRCUITS
RELATIVE MAGNITUDES OF LINE AND PHASE CURRENTS AND OF LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES
POLY-PHASE CIRCUITS WHEN THE CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES ARE NOT
OF BALANCED
SINUSOIDAL 249
9.1.1 STAR CONNECTION 25L

9.T.2 DELTA CONNECTION 254
9.1.3 EQUIVALENT STAR AND DELTA VOLTAGES OF BALANCED,
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS WHICH

HAVE NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVES AND THAT CONTAIN ONLY ODD HARMONICS 256
EXERCISE
262
ANSWERSTO EXERCISES 264
iv
CHAPTER ONE
THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
1.1
WATTMETERAPPLICATIONS
\o
I(E
lo
tl(1)
l(^
lftt
\_c
ao,-
ldr
IE
l-c
lP
/lio
Figure 1.1: Connection of a wattmeter between two lines of
three-phase system
to measure ac power in three-phase systems is the

wattmeter, The wattmeter contains a low-impedance current coil that is connected in
series with the load, and which ideally has zero impedance. The wattmeter also has a
high-impedance voltage coil that is connected across the load, and which ideally has
infinite impedance. The connection of a wattmeter is shown in Figure 1,1, The current
in the voltage coil and the resulting magnetic field in this coil are directly proportional
to voltage applied to the circuit. The current in the current coil and the resulting
magnetic field in this coil are propoftional to the current flowing into the circuit. Thus,
the reading on the wattmeter is directly proportional to the active power:
The basic instrument used
P
Where:
V.Lcos 0
0 = the angle between the voltage and the current
= the load angle or the power factor angle

= the angle of the voltage minus the angle of the current
The connections in Figure 1.1 will produce a reading of power delivered to the load.
Since the two coils are completely isolated from one another, they could be connected
anywhere in the circuit and the reading may or may not have any meaning. If one of
the coils on the wattmeter is reversed, the equations for the power are the negative of
what they were before the coil was reversed. This is due to the change in the variable
reference as related to the + terminal.
'
Due to the physical construction of wattmeters, the + terminal of the voltage coil should
always be connected to the same line as the current coil. Any one of the two coils can
be reversed if becomes necessary to reverse a winding to produce an upscale
it
reading.
r0
li
P_
(J
(J
Figure 1.2: Wattmeter connections for the reversal of current
if the current coil is reversed, it
results in the network shown in

Figure t.2.. tthe+terminal of thepotential coil isconnectedtothelinecontainingthe
current coil and the meter is reading upscale, the power is flowing through the
wattmeter from circuit A to circuit B. If a wattmeter indicates a reverse reading when
it is normally phased, i.e. the + ends of the voltage and current coils are connected
together, it means that the voltage and current are more than 90' out of phase' In
sulh cases the terminals of either the current coil or the voltage coil can be reversed.
for the reading to be fonruard and of the correct value'
For example,
1.1.1 ONE.WATTMETER
METHOD
A single wattmeter can be used to measure the power of any balanced three-phase
systeir without breaking the phases, The system can be star-connected or deltaconnected. Figure 1.3 shows tire connection of a single wattmeter in a star-connected,
three-phase lold when a neutral wire is available. The wattmeter measures the phase
power that is then multiplied by three to find the total power in a balanced load'
Figure 1.4 shows the connection of a single wattmeter in a delta-connected, threephase load. The current coil of the wattmeter is connected in one line and the voltage
coil is connected alternately between this line and the other two lines' The total power
is then determined from the two readings on the wattmeter, This method is not of as
much universal application as the two-wattmeter method, because it is restricted to
balanced loads onlY,
Figure 1.3: Single wattmeter connected in a balanced, three-phase, star-connected

system
Figure 1.4: Single wattmeter connected in a three-phase, delta-connected load to

determine the total power
The current Iu through the current coil of the wattmeter is the phasor difference of
and I.u, i.e. the phasor sum of I35 ond I.u reversed.
Iu5
V.u
Figure 1.5: Phasor diagram for the voltages and currents of Figure 1.4
When the voltage coil of the wattmeter is connected to line b, the voltage will be V"u
and the phase difference between this voltage and the current will be (30' - 0). The
reading on the wattmeter will be:
W6
Vu6.Iu. cos lY"b
= Vao.Ia.cos
(30'-
O)
= J3 .Von.Io6.cos (30'-
Where:
=
Iph =
Vor.,
S)
phase voltage in V
Phase current in A
When the voltage coil of the wattmeter is connected to line c, the voltage will be V".
and the phase difference between this voltage and the current will now be (30' + 6).
The reading on the wattmeter will now be:
Wu
Vu..Iu .cos
z!"'
= Van.Ia.cos (30' + 6)
= J3 .von.Ioh.cos (30' + O)
L.L.2
BLONDELL'S THEOREM
In general it takes (n - 1) wattmeters to measure power in a transmission system with
n number of lines. This phenomenon was described by Blondell and is generally known
as Blondell's theorem.
Lr
The voltage return for each wattmeter is connected to the line with no wattmeter in it.
In single-phase systems one wattmeter is required to measure the power. It is clear
that two wattmeters are needed to measure the total power in a three-wire, threephase system. This method will work whether the system is balanced or not, The
readings of the wattmeters are simply added together and the sum is the total power
going down the three-phase (or n-phase) line, Using instantaneous values for an
unbalanced, three-wire, star-connected load can prove Blondell's theorem.
Figure 1.6: Two wattmeters connected in a star-connected system to prove Blondell's

theorem
Wa+Wc = Vab,!a+vcb,ic
But:
And:
V66
= V6n-V56
V66 = V6n-V6n
wa * wc = (vun -vbn)ia+ (v.n - v5n)i.
Yan,ia- tbn,ia
Van.ra
In a star-connected system:
is*
i6
-f i. =
16 = -16-16
* v.n.ir-
v.n.i" + v6n(-i,
v5n.i6
- i.)
And:
1.1.3 TWO.WATTMETER
METHOD
The two-wattmeter method gives true power in the three-phase circuit without regard
to balance the waveform provided in the case of a star-connected load. The neutral of
the load is isolated from the neutral of the power source. If there is a neutral
connection, the neutral wire should not carry any current. This is possible only if the
load is perfectly balanced and there are no harmonics present'
Figure 1.7: Two-wattmeter method of measuring three-phase power

The two-wattmeter method can also be used for a three-phase, four-wire system in
which the neutral wire carries the neutral current. In this method, the current coils of
the wattmeters are supplied from current transformers insefted in the principal line
wires in order to get the correct magnitude and phase differences of the currents in the
current coils of the wattmeter, The reason being that in the three-phase, four-wire
system, the sum of the instantaneous currents in the principal line wires is not
necessarily equal to zero/ as is the case in a three-phase, three-wire system.
The power delivered to a three-phase, three-wire, star- or delta-connected balanced or

unbalanced load can be found by using only two wattmeters, The basic connections
are shown in Figure 1.7. To show the application of the two-wattmeter method to
unbalanced loads, a star-connection is considered. Considering instantaneous values:
Voltage across wattmeter
? = Van
=
Voltage across wattmeter
Vun
Vbn
Vbn
c = Vcb
Total active power
V.n
Vun.Iu
+ V6n.I6 + V.n,I.
The current Iu does not pass through a wattmeter and can be eliminated. In any threephase system:
I.+16+I. .''
.'.
Ib
Total active power =
Where:
Vun.Iu
= -Iu-I.
+ Vnn(- Iu * I.) +
= (Vun - Vnn)Iu + (V.n = Vab.Ia * Vs6.Is

= Wu+W.
Vcn.Ic
Vun)I.
= total active power measured by two wattmeters

= active power reading on wattmeter a
w. = active power reading on wattmeter c
W
wa
in W
Thus, at any instant the total active power is given by the sum of the two wattmeter
readings, This is true for balanced or unbalanced loads as well as star- or delta-
connected loads. To find the power factor from the two-wattmeter readings in
balanced loads, the star-connection of the three equal impedances shown in Figure 1.7
must be considered. The phasor diagram for the abc sequence is shown in Figure 1,8,
A lagging current with phase angle 0 is assumed.
Vu.
V.u
V.n
V.u
Figure 1.8: Phasor diagram (abc phase sequence) for the voltages and currents of
Figure 1.7
With the wattmeters in lines a and c (Figure 1.1), their readings are:
And:
W3
Vu5.I;.cos Zrvjb
w6
V.5.I..cos
ll'b
1.1.3.1TWO-WATTMETER METHOD OF OBTAINING THE POWER FACTOR

From the phasor diagram in Figure 1.8:
tY:'=
And:
3oo+o
z{:o = 3oo-o
When these equations are substituted into the previous equations:
V35.I6.cos (30o
+ 0)
W. =
V.6.I6.cos (30o
- $)
w6
And:
This will be the reading on the wattmeter if the two-wattmeter method is used on
balanced loads, Writing the expressions for W" and W" and using the cosine of the
sum of the two angles:
Wu
V1.I1(cos 30o.cos$
sin 30o.sin $)
And:
W. =
Then:
Wu
+ W.
And:
Wu
- W. =
V1.I1(cos 30o.cos$
J3
.VL.IL.cos
+ sin 30o.sin $)
JE .Vr.tr.sin O
Therefore:
tan
= Jtf*'-*')
(.W. + W.
Thus, the tangent of the impedance angle is J5 times the ratio of the difference
between the readings on the two wattmeters and their sum. With no knowledge of the
lines in which the wattmeters are connected nor of the phase sequence, it is not
possible to distinguish between + $ and - $, However, when both the meter location
and the phase sequence are known, the sign can be fixed by the following equations.
For a positive phase sequence (abc):
tan d
= nltfw' -wt ]
[W.+WoJ
or:
tan6=
or:
tan d
"[tr#)
J3f
*'-w')
[W. +W. J
For a negative phase sequence (cba):
tand
= J5f*t-*.)
(W. +Wb
*.
Or:
tan d
Jrf(.W5 -*t )
+w, )
Or:
tan 6
Jrf
*. -*.
l.W. + W.
)
J
L.L,4 THREE-WATTMETER METHOD

The total power in a three-phase system can also be found by connecting a wattmeter
in each phase of the system to measure the power in each individual phase. These
readings are then added together to find the total power in the system. When the
power delivered to a three-phase system is measured, each voltage coil may be
connected across each load voltage. Similarly, each current coil may be connected in
series with each load current. However, these connections are not always possible in
practice, i.e,, a three-wire, star-connected load would require access to the neutral point
to make connections to the voltage coils. Similarly, in a three-phase, delta-connected
motor winding, it would not normally be possible to open the windings internally, as
would be necessary to inseft the current coils in series with each winding. Due to these
factors, a three-wattmeter method was introduced to measure the power in a threephase system using line voltages and currents instead of load voltages and currents.
!(o
!q.)
P(J
qJ
c
o
(J
I
rO
E
o
!
o
L
o
P
(t
I
Figure 1.9: Three-wattmeter method of measuring power in a three-phase system

Figure 1,9 shows that the current coils are connected in series with the lines, which
means that the currents in the wattmeters are \ne currents. One terminal of each
voltage coil is connected to a line, and the othdr terminals of the voltage coils are
connected together. The voltage coils are therefore connected in a star configuration.
Thus, the voltage coils form a balanced, star-connected system. The voltage across
voltage across each voltage coil lags the line voltage by
each coil is therefore
5, *"
30" in a positive phase sequence system, and leads the line voltage by 30' in
negative phase sequence system.
10
--)
The power rneasured

by each watbneter
is then:
w
+
-f
30.:
_ 30"
# 1fi+l, Ji,''.".i;o #
Il'no'ii"';l?;"Jiil:'"xnf
'tr'.o,
1zl't
so"1
negative phase sequence

positive phase
sequence
g-"? il:":" #".11x",iil!"k;!,1i.fl: se, ro u r- w re, sta r.

i
il:#H*:ln::u;"#i"T"#,'ffrr:,?,.1*:.;ml,jl
Figure 1'10; Three

wattmeters
*nn:T;o
,o
u{ru-ohase,
four-wire, star-connected
From Figure 1.10:

Wu
%n.Iu n.cos
Wo
V6n.I6n.Cos ZFn
z!"n
Ian
lbn
11
t__
I
I
t
t
I
W. =
V.n.I.n,cos ,rY^
-Im
Figure 1.11: Three wattmeters connected to a three-phase, delta-connected load

Since the voltage coils form a balanced, star-connected system, the voltage across each
voltage mil lags the line voltage by 30' for a positive phase sequence and leads the line
voltage
ry 30" for a negntive phase
sequence. Thus, the reading on the wattmeter in
each line:
wa
%=
w.
Where:
L2
.r".*.(zicbt3o.)
H:r-m
(zf-t to")
f;+*(zi%i3o.)
+: rcgilhphffiqsEe
- : FdiE Fl e serFlentB
CHAPTER TWO
THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
2,L
INTRODUCTION
The generation, transmission and distribution of electricity are accomplished by threephase alternating currents. An alternating current circuit having a single alternating
current voltage source is called a single-phase circuit. Electrical power is delivered from
a source/ such as an alternating current voltage generator, to a load by means of two
wires, This arrangement is called a single-phase, two-wire system.
Vun
-.__r
Three-phase,
\/
L--rrJ
Single-phase
three-wire
supply
(V1'n")
,roor,
[I+.'l
(J:;
Vo.
w
Single-phase
supply (V11n")
Figure 2.1: connection of different supplies to a three-phase, four-wire system

(equivalent circuit to Figure 2.4)
Most consumers are fed from a single-phase alternating current supply. One wire is
called the live conductor and the other wire is called the neutral conductor. The neutral
conductor is usually connected to earth via protective gear. The standard voltage for a
single-phase alternating current supply is 220 V. The majority of single-phase supplies
are obtained by connection to a three-phase supply as shown in Figure 2.1. A polyphase circuit is a circuit containing more than one alternating current source and three
or more wires, Upon these wires appear alternating current voltages having different
phase angles. The most common poly-phase circuits are those containing three
alternating current sources and three or four wires.
13
These three-phase circuits are widely used in the electrical power industry to transmit
power from generating stations to metropolitan areas and to distribute that power to
individual consumers.
2.2
THREE.PHASESYSTEMS
Three-phase systems have some advantages over single-phase systems:
.
o
.
.
More efficient use of copper wire for the distribution of power

More constant power from generators and motors
More constant torque on generators and motors
Fewer ripples in the direct current output when alternating current is conveted to
direct current
A three-phase supply is generated when three coils are placed 120' apaft and the
whole rotated in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Figure 2.2. A three-phase
voltage is basically three single-phase voltages. Each voltage is separated from the
next by a phase angle of 120'. The same basic structure found in the single-ffise
generator can therefore be used to generate the three voltages simply by equipping the
rotor with three separate windings. If the windings are spaced 120" apaft, the voltages
induced in these windings will then be shifted from each other by 120' of phase, as
required. This concept is implemented in practical three-phase generators, but the
physical structure is somewhat different. Electromagnetic induction occurs when there
is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, In other words, either the
conductor or the field may be moving while the other is stationary, In practical threephase generators however, the three windings (conductors) are stationary and the
magnetic field is rotated, as shown in Figure 2.2.
.o
^t^.
Figure 2.2: Displacement of voltages in a three-phase system
14
The windings are embedded in the stator and direct current (the excitation) is passed
through brushes and slip rings to the field winding on the rotor, The field produced by
the rotor as it turns, cuts the conductors of the three stator windings. Since the stator
windings are 120" apart, the rotating magnetic field induces voltages that are separated
in phase by 120'. A three-phase generator commonly located in a power station
produces three-phase power. The rotor is driven by a prime mover, i.e. a turbine, and
the rotor poles are excited by direct current. The stator has a three-phase distributed
winding. The axes of the phase windings are displaced from each other by 120
electrical degrees, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Sinusoidal voltages are induced in the stator phases when the rotor is rotated, For a
balanced system, the voltages have equal amplitudes and are 120" displaced in phase,
as shown in Figure 2.4. The equivalent circuit of the stator windings is shown in
Figure 2.3. In this case the windings have a common connection labelled n, called the
neutral, and the windings form a star-connected network. Since the neutral line n is an
output, the output is said to be three-phase, four-wire. The windings can also be deltaconnected.
Figure 2.3: Equivalent circuit of the stator windings of a three-phase generator

Figure 2.1 shows a circuit equivalent to Figure 2.3 and consisting of three alternating
current generators. Shown in Figure 2.3 is the plot of the three voltages, v36, v6 dhd
V"n. Each voltage is taken with respect to the neutral n. Three wires, called lines,
therefore carry a three-phase, alternating current supply. The currents in these wires
are known as line currents and potential differences between the lines are known as
line voltages. The fourth conductor, known as the neutral, is often used with a threephase supply,
15
V.n
I
: 120.
"
t--'' )(i "L20
Figure 2.4: Sinusoidal form of the phase voltages of a three-phase generator, each
with respect to the neutral
If the three-phase windings shown in Figure 2.3 are kept independent, then six wires
are needed to connect a supply source to a load. The three phases are usually
interconnected to reduce the number of wires. This can be done in two ways, namely a
star-connection and a delta-connection. Sgglgg1_qilhlggpha5_9- Supdies, are usually
c91n_eq!9^Q i0-.St?Lwhereas three-phase loads may be connected either in delta or star.
2.2.L
PHASE SEQUENCE OF THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

The double-subscript notation is used to avoid confusion in the direction of voltage and
current. When the double-subscript notation is applied to alternating current circuits,
the sequence of the subscripts indicates the direction in which the current or voltage is
assumed to be positive. Figure 2.5 represents an alternating current source connected
in series with an impedance. The voltage across the impedance is designated V"o to
Thus, if an arrow
symbolise that the potential of a is positive with respect to
representing the direction of this voltage is drawn alongside the impedance, the head
of the arrow should point towards the end that is at higher potential, i.e. towards a in
b.
Figure 2.5,
Iao
H
H
Vao
\,_,/
Figure 2.5: Double-subscript notation of voltage and current in alternating current

circuits
IO
The current through the impedance flows from a to b and is therefore designated f"s.
The phase sequence is the order in which the three phases attain theii maximum
values. The phase sequence can be determined by the order in which the phasors
representing the phase voltages pass through a fixed point on the phasor diagram if
the phasors are rotated in an anti-clockwise direction. The phase seque:nce in
Figure 2.6 is positive or abc. The phase sequence is quite important in the thiee-phase
distribution of power. In a three-phase motor for example, if two phase voltages are
interchanged, the sequence will change and the direction of rotation of the molor will
be reversed.
V."
Figure 2.6: Phasor diagram for a positive phase-sequence, showing phase and line
voltages (Vu as reference)
The phase sequence can also be described in terms of the line voltages. Drawing the
line voltages on a phasor diagram, the phase sequence can be determined by Jgain
rotating the phasors in an anti-clockwise direction. The sequence can be determined
by noting the order of the passing first or second subscripts. In the system of Figure
2'6, the phase sequence of the first subscripts passing the fixed point is abc, itre
phasor diagram is always started with the reference, from where the rest
of the
voltages are drawn according to the specified sequence. The voltages in Figure 2.6 will
be:
%=
VpnZO'V
= Vp6Z-120" V
Vc = Vpnl120" V
Van = VrZ3Oo V
Vn. = Vr-Z-9Oo V
Vca = VrZ150" V
V6
t7
Where:
= phrevolbge
= line volbge
Vpr,
Vr-
The phase sequence can also be negative or cba as shown in Figure 2.7.
(D
V.u
Figure 2.7: Phasor diagram fgr a negative phase-sequence, showing phase and line
voltages (Vu as reference)
The voltages in Figure 2.7 will be:
= VpnZ0o V
Vo = Vpr.Z120'V
Y, = Yp6l-120" V
Vau = VrZ-30" V
Yo, = VtZ-150'V
Vca = VlZ90" V
Va
Remember:
The voltage
giyen
The
voltage
The
referene
is always the
is always the
is always
line voltage, unless othenvise stated.
reference, unless othenruise stated.
0", unless otherwise stated,
In a posiUve phase sequence system, the line voltage leads the corresponding
phase voltage by 3O".
In a negaUve phase sequelrce system, the line voltage lags the corresponding
phase voltage by 3O".
1B
L2.2 BALANCED STAR-CONNECTED,
THREE.PHASE SYSTEMS
Figure 2,8 shows^the

windings of a three_phase
generatol
be three or rour output
rines, whicrrL[::fl?;:rt":lTll?:-.onnected in star. rhere can
three-phase, three-wire
.on"L.tui
ou u
"'
ii''r""lprffi:?:ilT,.?:id*l
'nrllr'.un
Stator
Rotor
Field winding
Neutral
rnreePhase
output
Direct current
excitation
c
b
a
Figure 2.g: Structure

and wiring of a three-phase,
star_connected generator
The voltage induced
,?"lJ:f
,:,rl;:
;Iti:i"",""",:Eni?t:il#:'titi,,1:?itTffi
:Ji;:",:ff fi
rl";ffi :*iililI,ffii:lil"il:,..,,:""i';:t-l'r'ttr#nril1+.r1hll$;tr
19
Eun
a(tr
za
In
o
c)
V,
(E
-c
oI
o
OJ
L
-c
I
Figure 2.9: Phase and line quantities in a symmetrical, three-phase, four-wire, starconnected supply
Figure 2,4 shows the three phase voltages in sinusoidal form, The corresponding
phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2.10. The maximum value of each phase voltage in
Figure 2.4 is E^, so that:
an
enn
ecn
The
srn
dte
=
=
Ean(m1
sin rrlt
E6n161Z0o
=
=
Ebn('y sin (rot
=
=
Ecn(m)
120")
Em@)Z-LZlo Y
sin (<ot + 120')
Ecnln)ZI2lo Y
phase voltages is:
e-' + q"
"n
= t/0'
-0
+ tZ-120 + LlI20'
z0
"q
E
Lbn
Figure 2.1O: Phasor diagram of the phase voltages shown in Figure 2.9
of the load'
Thus, the sum of the phase voltages is zero, regardless of the nature
Kirchhoffs
using
by
determined
rigui! 2.11 show that the line voltage E65 cdh be
voltage law.
Figure 2.11: Determining line voltages using Kirchhoffs voltage law

Using
to Kirchhoffs voltage law considering Figure 2'11:
E*-Eun+E6n Lab -
. 6b
i:.
E
Lbn
Lan
= ll0 - Ll-r20
= iE Epr,1'f30" V
Similarly:
Lbc -
Eun
i"u
E.n
J5 Epr.1'yZ-90'V
2L
= fu,-E=.
E.u
And:
=
If these three Kirchhoft
J3 Epn1.12150'V
equations are added, the sum of the line w{1zqes is also zerro.
is .,'3 times Ereater

than the magnitude of the phase voltages. Thus, in a three-phase, startonnected
These equations also show that the magnitude of the line vollages
system:
n
EL
= 6-on
Eun
I" =
I.n
Figure 2.12: Voltages and currents in a four-wire, star-connected system (pps)

with Eun as reference
Frgure 2.12 shows a phasor diagram of the line and phase voltages. From the phasor
diagram (positive phase sequence) it can be seen that:
.
.
.
The line voltages, like the phase voltages, are 120o apaft.
The line voltages lead their respective phase voltages by 30',
The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages
{30' + 0) with the current lagging the voltage.
:mm
Frgure 2.9
it
is
is apparent that each line current equals the phase current in the
rr*rndirg to which the line is connected. This means that:
= Iun
Iu = Iun
I. = I.n
Iu
in general, in a three-phase, star-connected system:

11
Ipn
Using Kirchhoffs current law at the star point n, the current in the neutral conductor,
flowing towards the neutral point, is:
In= Iu+I5*I.
When the phase currents, as well as the line currents, are equal in magnitude, the
system is balanced. This also means that the impedances of the load are equal. In
this case, the current in the neutral wire will be zero,
2,2,3
BALANCED, DELTA-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Figure 2.13 shows the windings of a three-phase generator connected in delta. There
are just three output lines, which means that every delta-connected system is a
three-phase, three-wire system.
Stator
Rotor
Field winding
rnree- [a
-)'
output [6
ts-
phase
Direct current
excitation
+
Figure 2.13: Structure and wiring of a three-phase, delta-connected generator

Figure 2.13 shows the phasor diagram for the output voltages of a three-phase, deltaconnected system.
= EtlOo Y
eab = Eab(my Sin <Ot
Eo.^ = Etl-120'V
en. = Eu.(r) sin (rrtt Ean
120') V
23
Lca
ELllzT v
A_
Lca
E646y sih (CIt
+ 120') V
E.u
Lah
E
Lbc
Figure 2.14: Phasor diagram for the output voltages of a delta-connected system
(pps)
Figure 2.15 shows a delta-connected system. The phase quantities are those within the
source and the line quantities are those in the output lines connected to the load. It is
eminent from Figure 2.15 that the line and phase voltages are equal.
FlEure 215: Phase and line quantities in a three-phase, delta-connected system
24
when Kirchhoffs current raw is appried at

node a of the derta road in Figure 2.15:
Ia-IaO*Ica=0
Iu=136-I.g
Similarly:
16=I5s-166
And:
I.=Is6-16.
By adding these equations, it will be seen

that:
Ia+Ib*I. =
This means that the sum of the line currents

in a derta-connected system is always
zero' The sum of the phase currents will only
oe zero*r,er tr," rvri"rii;##;..
when the phase currents have equar magniiudes
and ur" ,"pu,,utud in phase by 120"
from one another. In this speciar .ur" *riun
the system i; i6; 2.15 is baranced, the
magnitude of each rine current is J3 times
the magnitude of each phase
current.
Thus:
Ir
6ton
Figure 2.16 shows a phasor diagram of

the rine vortages and currents.
Figure 2.16: Vortages and currents in a

derta-connected system (pps) with
reference
Eu6
as
From the phasor diagram of Figure

2,16 (pps) it can be seen that:
The line currents, like the phase currents,

are 1200 apart.
25
The line currents lag their respective phase currents by 30o.
The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages is
(30o + $) with the current lagging the voltage.
2.2.4 UNBAIANCED
DELTA-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE LOAD
The output of a star- or delta-connected source (generator) may also be connected to

an unbalanced, delta-connected load.
2,2.4.19f
AR- DELTA
(Y-A)
CON FrG U RATTON
Figure 2.17 shows a star-connected source driving an unbalanced delta-connected load'
It is eminent that the magnitude of the voltage across each of the impedances
load (phase voltage) is equal to the magnitude of the line voltage'
Supply
Load
aIa
l''\t:'
za
E."
Vau
Ean
26
V.u
I.u
Iu.
I5
En.
u"t
Ic
Figure 2.17: Star-delta configuration
26
'/r".
of the
Example 2.1
In a star-delta system the following apply to the load:
Z1o
Zy =
7- =
Vun
(L2.8 + j9.6) o
(18.2 - j6.9) o
(15.3 + jzL.q a
is given as 24010"
V.
Use
a negative phase
sequence and calculate
the
line
currents. Draw a phasor diagram of the line and phase currents,
Figure 2.18: Negative (cba) phase sequence with
Vu as reference
Current in each phase:

Vab = IarZuo
(Ji)Q+oz-30')
= (I"bX12.B + j9.6)
Iab = 25.9812.-55.87. A
\,vbc
(Ji)Q+ozeo')
- Ia*Za,
= (rbcx1B.2
- j6.9)
Ib.
= 2L.3572L1O.750 A
%u
(Ji )e+oz-lso.)
I.u
I.u.Z.u
(Ic"X15.3 + j21.4)
L5.8022155.560 A
27
Current in each line:
Iab
Ica
= 25.9BLl-66.87' - 15.8021155.56'
= 39.L251-51,O5" A
I6
Ic
In.
2L.357
47.3282112.06" A
I.u
Iub
2LL0.76
- Z5.9BLZ-66.87'
Ib.
= L5.8022I55.56" - 2L.357 tI10.76'

= 15.O631-115.9o A
tgure 2.19: Phasor diagram

2. 2.4. 2
DELTA{TELTA (A-A) CON FrG

Figure
load.
28
for phase and line currents (not to scale)
RATTON
220 sftors a delta-connected source driving an unbalanced delta-connected
Supply
Load
Ia
Z"u
zru
\\
E.u
E
Lah
V.u
Vau
/ /2,
z";
I.u
Za,
I6
Eu.
_Iu.b
b
Vn.
Ic
Figure 2.20: Delta-delta configuration

Example 2.2
In a delta-delta system the following apply to the load:
= 1B'B 163'4 Q
Zn"'= 24.2139.6't)
Zao
2,. =
L5.LZ-76.6" Q
The load is supplied from a 50-Hz, symmetrical, three-phase supply with vca =
and a positive phase sequence. Calculate the line currents,
44ay
%u
V.u
Vn.
Figure 2.21: Positive (abc) phase sequence with
Vca
- 440v
29
V35
136.235
= (I"bX1B.B 163.4")
Ian = 23.4O42-3.4 4
440160"
V56
I6s,Z5s
4402_60
(Ib)(24.2239.6)
Iu.
= 18.1822-99.6'A
= I.u,Z.u
440ZIB0' = (IcaX15.1 2-76.6)
I.u = 29.1392-LO3.4'A
V.u
16
15
= 166-166
- 29.139 l-103.4"
23.4042-3.4'
4O.4L9241.83" A
156-165
= L8.I822-99.6' - 23.404 1-3.4

= 31.L492-t47.93o A
Is = IG-I6s
= 29.139t-103.4' - tgJgzt-ggs
= LL.O63Z-109.65" A
2.2.5
UNBALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE LOAD

The output of a star- or delta-connected source (generator) may also be connected to
an unbalanced, star-connected load.
2.2.5.L DELTA-STAR (A-Y) CON FrG U RATIO N

Figure 2.22 shows a delta-connected source driving an unbalanced star-connected load,
is equal to the magnitude of the
phase (load) currents.
It is eminent that the magnitude of the line currents
30
Supply
Load
Ia
u"l
Z,u Z"o\\
E'u
E
Lab
%n
V.u
za
% N-
I6
Eo.
Vu.
Ic
Figure 2.22: Delta-star configuration

Using Kirchhoffs voltage law around the terminals in the star-connected load, the
relationships between the phase and line voltages are:
V36+V6-Vu=
Vao
Vs6*Vs-Vu =
V56
= V5-Vg
V.u+Vu-V.=
V.u
Va-Vu
= V.-Vu
When the load is unbalanced, Millman's theorem or star-delta conversion can be used
to do any calculations regarding the load.

Example 2.3
three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load
phase, 380-V, 50-Hz, delta-connected generator.

by:
is connected to a balanced, threeThe impedances of the load is given
= (28.2 - j18,2) o
= (22.4 + j16.4) O
Z, = (32.6 + j12.6) O
Zu
26
31
Take V5. as reference with an abc-rotation.
2.3.L
a if the impedance in this phase suddenly

to infinity.
Calculate the current in phase c if the impedance in this phase becomes shortCalculate the voltage drop in phase
rises
2.3.2
circuited.
2.3.7
c
b
Figure 2.23: Three-phase, three-wire star-connection with phase a open-circuit
vc
Figure 2.24: Positive (abc) phase sequence with
32
Vss oS reference
Vcb = Icb(Zc
+ zb)
3802180" = (Id)(22.4 + jL6.4 + 32.6 + j12.6)
6.tI2Zt52.2
Tlcb -
r"
Vr=
Ir.Z,
= (6.712tI52.2)(32.6 + jL2.6)
= 213,6162L73.33V
Using Kirchhoffs voltage lawl
%-V.*V." = 0
Vu = V.-V.u
= 2I3.6I6t173.33" - 3B1t-LZO"
= 354.589Z93.S8 V
This example can also be solved using line b:
l"
Vao
Figure 2.25: Three-phase, three-wire star-connection with phase

a open-circuit
Y6r=
16r(Z6+Zr)
= (16)(22.4 + jI6.4 + 32.6 + jIZ.6)

I6s = 5.11.22-27.8 A
-f6
38020'
33
= Is.Z6
= (6.LIZI-27.8')(22.4
V6
+ j16.4)
169.6828.4L V
Using Kirchhoffs voltage law:
Va-Vun-Vn =
Vu=
V66
V5
3B0lL20 + L69.6818.4'
354,597293.58" V
2.3.2
vac
)
tur
t'/4
Figure 2.26: Three-phase, three-wire star-connection with phase c short-circuited
=
380260" =
Vu.
Iu.,Zu
(IacX2B.2
Iac
-j18.2)
11.322292.84'A
V66
I6a.Z6
3ffitr = (tN)(72.4 + j15,4)

It = 13.6882-36.21 A
34\
.-r' \FY
'i\'
ib "
-t--
I.= - (I". + I5.)

=
225,2
STAR-STAR
(y-y)
CO N
- (II.322292.84 + 13.6882-36.2L)
to,967z-162.920 A
Frc
RATTON
Flgure 2.27 shows a star-connected source driving an unbalanced star-connected load.

Since the neutral is connected between the load and the source, this is called a threephase, four-wire system. The other systems are all three-phase, three-wire systems
because of only the three connection points on the delta.
Supply
Load
I"
za
za
E.u
zc
E
Lab
Van
V.u
zc
Zo
26
I5
Eo.
Vn.
Ic
Figure 2.27: Star-star configuration

Four-wire systems are useful when two different load voltages are required. These
voltages are the line voltage and the phase voltage that is J3 times smaller than the
line voltage. It is eminent from Figure 2.27 that the voltage across each impedance of
the star-connected load is equal to the phase voltage of the source, Since these load
voltages equal the phase voltages of the source and the sum of the phase voltages is
zero, the sum of the load voltages is also zero, whether the load is balanced or not.
2.2.5.3 MILLMAN'S THEOREM
In a four-wire system, the neutral is available to keep the star point at earth potential.
With only three lines connected to an unbalanced, star-connected load, the star point of
the three load impedances is not at earth potential and is marked with s instead of n.
The voltages across the three impedances can vary considerably from line to neutral.
The voltage V.n is known as the displacement neutral voltage or the star-point
potential.
Figure 2.28: Representation of the star-point potential in relation with the phase
voltages in an unbalanced, three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load
Refer to Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.28. Millman's theorem states that if any number of
linear impedances, i.e.2u,26 and 2", meet at a common point n, and the voltages from
another point s to the free ends of these impedances are known, the voltage drop
between the neutral of the source (generator) and the floating neutral of the load
is
given by:
V"n =
E"n,Yu + E* .Y6 + E"n.Y"
Y" +Y6 +Y.
The admittance in each phase, in Siemens, is:
Yu=
Yu=
1
1
z,
1
t-
lis s -:'+: ':'ir. h'lillman's theorem states that parallel-connected current sources
c?- r '?=,=:=::, a single equivalent current source. This is also applicable in the
r3-r ,,,-t-i :'E-= t -::rneced voltage sources can be reduced to one equivalent
I-
ir r3J :":,-= --*s i an unbalanced, three-wire, star-connected load, the star-point

:i::e-:,? --- 1r= --,1- e:e: dlrectly by using Millman's theorem. In triangle ans in
Fg-'e I -! -s.E *.*:l-,:Fs 'r'cltage law:
*r
36
-:---
Vb" = Eun - Vrn

Similarly, in triangle ans:
%n+%r-Ern
= 0
Va" = E.n
V.n
And in triangle cns:
%n+V.r-Ecn =
V".
E"n_V"n
Example 2.4
In a delta-star system the following apply to

the load:
Za = 17.52-34.2. e
Za = 13.9268.1'O
Za = 74.22-49.7. e
The load is supplied from 380-V, 50-Hz,
symmetricar, three-phase suppry, Take
Eu5 as
a nesative pr,ur" ,"qr"ni.. use Miitman,, [n"or",
and
catcutate
the
,r,;5:il::r[lh
Figure 2.29: Negative (cba) phase sequence

with
Eu6
as reference
37
Using Millman's theorem to find the neutral displacement voltage:
'vsn -
E".Yu + En.Y6 + En.Y.
Y.+Yb+Y.
380130"r3802150.r3801-90
r
r
(E)run.*u
(E)w st-34z)
rEroou-*rt
r1r1
17.51-34.2' r3.9t68.r' t4.21-49.7"
= 213.363232.32'V
Voltage in each phase:
Vu,
Eu-Vrn
= 3BoJsz:o' - 2t3.363 z3z.3z

= 1..O.635Z-24.31.V
Vo.
=
=
Eu
Vrn
z-150'
3Bo
J3
213.363/32.32
= 37O.3342-L79.32V
v.,
= E.-Vrn
*_
fio l-90"
./3
1r
-.,3.363132.32.
-.-= 379.093Z-II.8.4'
Current in each phase:
= Iu'Zu
= (I)(I7.52_34.2.)
Ia = 0.60829.89" A
Vu'
10.635 /._24.31o
V55
16.2g
= (IbX13,9Z6B.1.)
Io = 26.4232LL2.58 A
370.334t_179j2
= I.,2.
= (I)(I4.2t_49.7")
I. = 26.6971-68.7'A
V.,
379.093 t_L1B.4o
3B
eJ.5i4 DELTA-STAR (A-y) coNvERSIO
some electrical circuits have no components in

series and no components in parallel,
These circuits can therefore not be reduced to
simpi"riircuits
that contain equivalent
impedance of the series or parallel combinationil rn
runy
cases, however, it is
possible to convet a circuit, or part
of a circuit, in luch a way tl.rat irre resulting
configuration does contain series- and parallel-.onnuit"o
components. The equivalent
circuit is produced by the conversion in the sense
that the currents and voltages in the
converted components remain the same. In view
of the relationship o"t*""n the line
and phase cullents and voltages, an equivalent star
may replace any delta-connected
system, such that the impedance measured.between
any two terminals is unchanged.
For example, a three-phase, delta-connected system
having a phase voltage of Vs and
a phase current of
may be replaced by a star-connected system having
a line
voltage Vr and a line current 11. similarly, a balanced
delta-connected load in which
each phase impedance is 3zl$ ohms, may be replaced
by an equivalent star-connected
load having equal branch impedances of Zlg ohms.
#,
Zn,
Figure 2.3o: Impedance in star- and derta-connections

consider the delta and star networks of impedance
shown in Figure 2,30. In the delta
network, the impedance measured between terrinuf,
a in;
;;;,
7,
Lao
Zuo(Zo,
+Zu)
- I;+zb, +z;
In the star network this impedance is (Zu + 26).

Hence, for equivarence:
-=
Z" + Zn
Zun(Zo'
Zao
+ZJ
+2y- +Z*
39
Similarly:
76*7,
And:
7u+2"
Thus:
7u-26
Z,rr(Zu +Z^t)
7"6 +26, +Z*
Z*(7,0, +Zuo)
+Zn
Zu6 +76..
Zor.7
u.Z
",o
Z,o,Z
2"6 +26.-
u,o
Z,or.Z
+7o
z7zab -zbc.zab
Zu6 +76.. +Zo
2Zu =
And:
Therefore:
7"=
Similarly:
''
And:
tLc
7u,Z* +Zo.Z"t +Zu.Zu,o

2"6 +26r+Zu
-Z,or.7"n
Zab'2""
Zaa
*Zy
+2.^
7â'Z*
Zaa -Zg -Z.u
-
Z"b
Z*'2.
+Ze +2.
Note that each of the impedances is equal to the product of the impedances in the two
closest branches of the delta network, divided by the sum of the impedances in the
delta network,
Example 2.5
The network in Figure 2.31 connected to a 380 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
2.5.L
2.5.2
40
Calculate the total impedance of the network, using delta-star conversion,

Calculate the current drawn from the supply,
(7.8 + j12.3)
(B.B + jB.B)
(13.4
- je.3) o
j7"2)
(e.s
- j16.2) o
Figure 2.31: Delta_star

conversion
2.5.1
Convert the delta to an

equivalent star:
Zu
Z"o'Zu
lu6 + 26,- +Zo
(14.4 + j7.2)(B.B + jB.S)

= 74.4_j7.2%
6.127271.920
= -1"6 Zao'Zo'
+26, +Zo
Zt
7 -
L?-
9.2462-32.70 t,
Z^..2-^
2"6 +26, +Zo
<
= 7.1472_14.26o e
The star as shown in
Figure 2.32 nowrepraces
the derta in Figure 2.31.
47
(7.8 + j12.3) o
6.12727r.92'O
7.147t-r4.26 0
(13.4
9.246t-32.7" O
- je,3) o
Figure 2.32: Equivalent star circuit diagrann
Zt= 7u+(7.8+j12.3)
= 2O.558261.840 O
Zz= 7,+(13.4-j9.3)
= 23.L4LZ-28,55o
a- La-
Zt'Zz
Zr+2,
t6r.84")(23.r4rt -28.55")
= (20.558
20.558 z6L.U" + 23.I4I t 28. 55'
15.42L220.O50 cr
a_
z--
76+23
= 9.246 z-32.7o
+ L5.421 220.050
22.26910.750
2.5.2
L-
d2
LZ
38020'= (r)(22.26s20.7s") '
l=
42
L7.O6424.75
1"
25s
STAR-DELTA (y-A) coNvERSTON
The star-delta conversion is normally derived from the

delta-star conversion. From
FiEure 2'30 and by forming three possible products
rrom the oerta-star eqruiion*
z2z;b'zbc.zca
7 7.
(Zao
+Zo, +Zu)2
z2=
Z6c'Zcd'Zab
7, 7
(Z"a +Z.6,- +Zo)2
7-
7
1c'La
zz*,zuo,zo,
G;irrn;f
Adding these three equations give:
Z*Z6+Z6Zr+Zr.Zu =
ô.Z,or.Z
(Zua
(Z ao + Zo.^ + Z
u)
6.- +Zu)z
zab'Zbc.zca
Zu6
+2y- +Zu
Thus:
7_
aab
-
Z^.Za +Z,o,Z, +Zr.Z"

zc
Or:
z.a=
zu*26t+
Similarly:
za"
Zn =
And:
Thus,.
= zb+zc.-+
a star of
Z"tZ^-+
impedancest
zat 26 and
2",
may be repraced
by the derta of
impedances, zat, zb. and 2"", if the above relaiions
are satisiieo. Note that the value
of each of the impedances of the delta is equal to
the sum of the possible product
combinations of the impedances of the star,
divided by the impedances of the star
fathest from the impedance to be determined.
43
Example 2.5
three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load with a phase sequence of abc, is
connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, 360-V supply. The load has the following
impedances:
= I2.0IZB7 35' a
= 19'57145'54'{>
7, = L6.92/-6L7B Q
Za
Zo
Conveft the load to an equivalent delta-connected load to find the phase currents and
then calculate the star-point potential. Take V5 as reference.
Solution:
vulr2lo
Eo,l30o
Ea6ZL50o
Y6200
vc/-r20o
Figure 2.33: Positive (abc) phase sequence with Vb as reference
Delta-con nected im pedances:
7,x = 7.-r
7x
Zu'70
zc
.35') (L9 .57 245,

16.922-61.78"
(L2.01 zB7
= t2.01187.350 + 19.57145.540 +
= 22,462287.90 O
a
a
L^--L.aL-A
-
r 1
")
77
-C'-d
zb
= 16.92'-$1,78o + t2.0I287.350
= L9.42!l-19.42o O
44
54
(16.92t
- 6t.78.)(tz.0ttg7 .35")
19.57
245.54"
Current in each phase of the delta-connected loadr
r-Vao
rab_
d
3601150"
22.452287.9"
= L6.O27262.1o
r-Vca
l^.
-
/'
cA
360
t-90"
19.42rt-19.42
18.5372-70.58'A
Ia = Iuo-Ica
Vu,
V'n
16.027162.10
31.675187.580 A
LB.537l-70.58"
= Iu.Zu
= (3I.675 zB7.5BoX12.0
= 380.4172174.93V
=
Vu-Vu'
= l-l[:ooz]zo"l \J3)
=
I tB7 .35o)
3*o.4t7tt74.s3"
311.5375228'030 V
Example 2.7
The load of a three-phase, delta-star system consists of the following impedances:
= (L5.6 + j12.4) o
= (I5.2 - 18.3) o
Z" = (24.I + j16.7) o
Zu
26
E6u
is 440 V and a negative phase sequence is used.
45
2.7.r
2.7.2
use star-delta conversion to calculate the currents drawn from the supply,
Calculate the voltage across each impedance in the load.
2.7.t
E,"160o
Ev6lIB0o
vbz-30
v^l-L50"
E,orZ-60

Delta-connected
im
7"n=
pedances
7^+2,6+'4"
Lc
15.6 + j12.4
+ I5.2 - j18.3
(15.5 +
jtz.4)(Ls.2- j18.3)
24.1+ j16.7
(1s,2
j18.3X2a.1+ j16.7)
Zn+zc+t+
la
15.2
- j18.3 + 24.I + j16.7
56.9192-26.570
7_
as reference
= 45.25652-22.270
7or=
Eba
15.6 + j12,4
C)
L+z-*7''7u
zb
z4.t + j16.7 +
15.6
56.457262.20 A
46
+ j12.4 +
(24.1+ j16.7x1s.6 + jt2.4)
ls.2 - j18.3
r
F
C.ru.r"ent
in each phase of the

delta_connected load:
,i
Iao
%!Zao
4402780"
as.ag22 _
22fi
= 9.6742_157.190 A
T, -
Vu.
.DC -
zo,
4402_69.
66sl6z_16r;r
6.5752_33.430 A
T-Vca
-
rca
z^_
k
440Zffi,
id.os?
z6n"
= 7.8492_2.20 A
Current in each line of
the delta_connected load:
Iu = Iuo-I.u
= 9.6742_LS7.Ig" _ 7.B4gZ_2.2o
= t7.tt2Z_169.37o A
Io = Io.-I"n
= 6.5752_33.430 _ 9.6742_757.tgo
= I4.4OSZO.51o A
I. = I.u-Ib.
= 7.8492-2.20 - 6.575Z_33.430
=
2'7.2
%s
4.O72ZS4.OSo A
= I6.Zu
= (17.1122_168.37)(1s.6 + j12.4)
= 341.0O64_t2g,ggo V
47
Vb, = Ia'Zo
= (74.40s t0.s1ox ls.2
j 18.3)
342.685t49.780 V
V., = Ir.7"
= (4.0722s4.6sox24, 1
+ jL6.7)
LLg.394289.370 V
2.3
COMPLEX POWER
Apparent power consists of real (active) power and reactive power, This
power
ignores the phase relationship between the current and the voltage, When this phase
angle is 0o, the apparent power equals the active power. When the phase angle is 90',
the apparent power equals the reactive power, The apparent power is defined to be:
S=
E.I
Complex power also consists of real (active) power and reactive power, However,
the phase relationship between the current and voltage is included in this power.
Active power is unidirectional and reactive power reverses direction twice each field
cycle and results in reactive energy near the oscillating source. This energy directly
i
nfl uences, affects a nd im its operationa I characteristics.

I
Ite
,tul
zz+
Figure 2.35: Circuit for the explanation of power relationships
To develop a relationship between complex power and other power
quantities,
consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.35. The complex power is defined to be:
Sx
Where:
4B
= E.Ix
E = the rms value of the supply voltage

Ix = the complex conjugate of the rms value
of the current
The conjugate of a quantity is the mirror image of that quantity. If the current is
T. = l0 A, the conjugate of this current will then be I = l-0 A, as shown in Figure 2.36.
I*:Il-e
Figure 2.36: Phasor diagram showing
and its conjugate
I*
The complex power is then:
S*
= EL\.IZ-j
= E.Iz(9 - 0)
= PljQ
P = E.I.cos$ = I2.R
Q = E.I.sin$ = r2.x
Where:
Where:
real or active power in W
reactive power in VA'r
power factor angle
cos$:
Gos$
powerfactor
cos
Zl
The magnitude of the complex power is simply what was called apparent power, and
the phase angle of the complex power is the power factor angle. The relationship
between the complex power, active power and reactive power is shown in Figure 2.37
and in Figure 2.38. In Figure 2.37 it is shown that the phasor current in be split into
two components. The active component that is in phase with the voltage and the
reactive component that is 90' out of phase with the voltage:
=
Ireactive =
factive
I.cos $
Lsin d
49
figurd Z.Zl:
Representation of the active and reactive components of current
The in-phase component produces the real (active) power and the quadrature
component produces the reactive power, In Figure 2.38 it can be seen that, if the
reactive power Q is positive, the load is inductive, the power factor is lagging and the
complex power S lies on the positive side of the positive real x-axis.
Q (lagging power factor)
\J
-Q (leading power factor)
Figure 2,38: Power triangles showing lagging and leading power factor
If the reactive power Q is negative, the load is capacitive, the power factor is leading
and the complex power S lies on the negative side of the positive real x-axis. If the
reactive power Q is zero, i.e. the load is resistive, the power factor is unity and the
complex power S lies along the positive real x-axis. It is impoftant to know that
complex power is conserved like energy. This means that the total complex power
delivered to any number of individual loads is equal to the sum of the complex powers
delivered to each individual load, regardless of how the loads are interconnected,
50
2,4
REACTIVE POWER
Figure 2.39: A pure resistive circuit
Figure 2.40: Waveforms generated when an alternating voltage is applied to the

circuit in Figure 2,39
Figure 2,39 shows a pure resistive circuit with a switch. Figure 2.40 shows the
resulting waveforms when an alternating voltage is applied to this circuit, The current
waveform is exactly like the voltage waveform, which means that at each time instant
Ohm's Law is obeyed. The power dissipated in the resistor is the instantaneous
product of the current and voltage. The power is therefore a direct current component
that alternates at double frequency. However, the power dissipation is always positive,
51
-t
Figure 2.4L= A simple alternating current transformer
The waveforms of the voltage and current, shown in Figure 2.42, show that, due to the
inductance of the coil, the current can't keep up with the voltage at the moment when
the switch is closed. The current therefore lags the voltage for a few cycles and then
attains a steady alternating value, with its waveform lagging the voltage waveform by
90'.
Figure 242: Waveforms generated when an alternating voltage is applied to the

transformer in Figure 2.41
The mean product of the voltage and current is zero, as the magnetising current in this
case carries mo power. Power flow oscillates positively and negatively at twice system
frequency amd hence the name reactive power. When an open-circuit transmission
line is connerted tn a voftage source/ the line can absorb a large amount of electric
charge dure b rapffiihnce. When the switch is closed, a surge of current into the line
occurS.
52
This current reduces to a steady alternating value that is required

to keep the line
electrically charged atthe applied voltage. In ttris case, the current
waveform leads the
voltage waveform by 90'. There is theiefore again no transfer
of real power. 1y5;.
load is connected to a transformer or transmission line, the load
current is added to the
reactive current' This means that the total current iags or leads
ilre vortaje ty-an
angle less than 90', depending on the ratio of the current corresponding
to t-he active
power loss in the load and the reactive power required to energise
the transmission line
or the transformer' The instantaneous power flow therefore cJnsists of
a constant level
plus an offset alternating reactive power. All practical electrical
components have
resistance' The current flowing in these components therefore causes resistive
losses
and heating. The heating can restrict the load-carrying capability of a transmission
line
or transformer or the output capability of a generator. Reactive power involves
current
flow and therefore creates losses just like aitive power. However, the total current
is
the phasor sum of active and reactive components of the currents. Therefore,
component ratings have to be carefully chosen to match the reactive requirements
of a
circuit.
53
.d
EXERCISE 2.L
1.
An unbalanced, three-phase, four-wire, star-connected load is connected to a 3BO-V,

symmetrical, three-phase, star-connected supply. The value of the neutral current
flowing away from the neutral point- is 35.55176.40 A. The load consists of
Za = 8.961-33,20 f) and 26 = 10.12161.3" o. Z. is unknown. With a positive phase
sequence, take$as the reference phasor.
1,1
Calculate tlre value of the impedance in phase c.

Calculate the active reactive and complex power absorbed by this impedance.
t.2
2.
Refer
to
Figure 2.43 and calculate the line current
I..
The load is connected to
symmetrical, three-phase, cba-rotation supply with Eu = 24010o Y.
18256.3"O
7'O
Figure 2.43: Three-phase star-connected load with line c short-circuited

3.
An unbalanced star-connected load is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, threewire, abc-rotation supply with Ea = 24BZ.IB0o V. The impedances of the load are the
following:
z"
Z,o
z,
= (33,6 - j42.8) fJ
= (27.7 + j18.4) O
= (9.7 + j14,5) o
If the
impedance of 4 sgddenly rises to infinity, calculate the voltage between the

neutral point n of the load and phase c of the supply.
54
ll
A balanced, three-phase, 360-V, four-wire, negative phase sequence supply with E5 as

reference, is connected to a star-connected load with the following load impedances:
= L2.Bz-32.8o o
= 2I'412I'4o e)
4 = 37.92-87.90 f)
7u
Zo
.r43
Calculate the line currents.

Calculate the neutral current.
Calculate the total complex, real and reactive power in the load.
The phases of an unbalanced, four-wire, star-connected load consists of the following
",u
4e
components:
Phase
Phase
Phase
a: 28.4-7tF capacitor in parallel with a 45.2-a resistor

b: 39.6-prF capacitor in parallel with a 22.4-fl- resistor
c: 1B.B-prF capacitor in parallel with a 31.6-ft resistor
This load is connected to a thr,ee-phase, 400-V, 50-Hz supply, Take

with a positive phase-sequence.
i"2
53
Enu
as reference

Calculate the complex, real and reactive power in each phase of the load.
Calculate the total active, reactive and complex power in the load.
The phases of an unbalanced, four-wire, star-connected load consists of the following

components:
Phase
Phase
Phase
a: 28.4-ttF capacitor in series with a 45.2-A resistor

b: 39.6-pF capacitor in series with a 22.4-0 resistor
c: 1B.B-pF capacitor in series with a 31.6-fi resistor
This load is connected to a three-phase,3B0-V,60-Hz supply. Take

with a negative phase-sequence.
6"1
6"2
6"3
Eu5
as reference
Calculate the power absorbed per phase.

Calculate the total active, reactive and complex power in the load.
55
7.
balanced, three-phase, three-wire, cba-rotation supply
with V"r
connected to a star-connected load with the following load impedances:

za
26
zc
=-
360 V,
is
= 12.81-32.80 Q
= 2lAl2L4o e)
= 37.91-87.9" Q
7.t
7.2
7.3
Calculate the total power consumed.

Draw a coniplete phasor diagram of the voltages and the currents.
B.
An unbalanced, three-wire load is star-connected to a three-phase, 440-V symmetrical

supply of which the neutral is eafthed. The phase sequence is positive and the
reference phasor is E5u. The impedances of the load are:
za
26
Z,
8.1
8.2
= (13.6 - j12.8) o
= (L7.7 + j19.4) O
= (12.7 + j10.5) O
Use Millman's theorem and calculate the voltage between the neutral point of the load
and eath.
9.
The unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load in Figure 2.44 is connected to

360-V ac supply.
9.1
9.2
Calculate the total input impedance of the circuit.

Calculate the input power,
56
1il
(8.4 + j3.6)
(4.s + j9.6)
(8.4 + j3.6) o
(12.4
-l
-j7.s) o
(7.5 +j4.8) o
Figure 2.44t Circuit diagram for

euestion 9
A balanced, three-phase,
con nected
star-connected
with a negative phase sequence
to a derta-con nected road with .source
*re- i"rr"*i,' g' r*o',:#["ou
n.u*
Zao
72.82-32.80
Za, = 27.422L4o t)
Zru = 37.92-B7.go t)
The source emf is given by:
eb(t) = 339,411 sin (rot
#)V

calculate the totalcomplex,
rearand reactive power in
the road.
57
IT
is
11.
The phases in the load of an unbalanced, star-delta system consists of the following
components:
Phase
Phase
Phase
ab: 28.4-stF capacitor in series with a 45.2-o resistor

bc: 39.6-pF capacitor in series with a 22.4-0 resistor
ca: 1B.B-pF capacitor in series with a 31.6-f) resistor
This load is connected to a positive phase sequence, three-phase, 60-Hz supply with:
e6(t) = 381.'b3B sin (rot
11.1
Lt.z
11.3
L2.
- #) v

Calculate the power absorbed per phase.
Calculate the total active, reactive and complex power in the load'
A three-phase, star-delta system with a negative phase sequence and V6. = 390l25o V
at 50 Hz, has the following load impedances:
Zac = 1B.B z75o Q'
Zou = 15.62200 {'
7co = 2L'4250o Q
tz.L
I2.2
t2.3
13.
currents.
consumed,
Calculate the line

Calculate the total power
Draw a complete phasor diagram of the voltages and the currents
Consider Figure 2.45. Use delta-star conversion and calculate the current drawn from
the supply.
73.25t42.25" O
B.tt57.L
14.5239.4" O
L0.22r0.2 0
16.55250.6'O
360V,50H2
Figure 2.45: Parallel

network for Question
5B
t\
ti\
13
2"5
POWER MEASUREMENT IN THREE.PHASE SYSTEMS

Example 2.8
A single wattmeter is used to determine the power in phase cof an unbalanced, threephase, delta-connected load. The load is supplied from a balanced, three-phase,
380:V, alternating current source. The voltage coil is connected to lines b and c. The
load consists of the following impedances:
= (3.1+ j3.9) O
= (6.2 + j9.6) CI
Z,u = (4.8 - j7.2) a
2"6
26.^
Take E.u as reference with
positive rotation and calculate the reading on the
wattmeter.
Figure 2.46(a): Circuit diagram for Example 2.8
59
Figure 2.45(b): Positive (abc) phase sequence with

Consider the load:
r-Vn.
Ihr
-
Lb,
380
1L20"
6.2+ j9.6
=
T_
rca
33.252262.86. A
Vca
zca
38020
4.8-W
43.914256.310 A
I.=
I.u
Iu.
= 43.914 t5631'
- 33.252t62.86"
rL.52r237.O90 A
W.=
V.5.I..cos
zf
= (380X11.52l)cos(- 60'
=
50
540.367 W
37.09')
E.u as reference
Example 2.9
A balanced, three-phase load is connected to a supply of 440 V with a positive phase
sequence, The load has a power factor of 0.39 lagging, Two wattmeters are
connected in lines a and c to measure the active power. The wattmeters show the
input to be 64 kW. Determine the readings on the two wattmeters.
cos
0=
0=
0.39
57.050
= J5f*.-*..]
l.W. *W. l
*')
tan 67.050 = .;El*' ,
tand
lu)
W.-Wu = 87.261*kW
But:
W.+Wu
= 64
W.= 64-Wa
W.-Wu
87.26r
64-Wa-Wu
87,26L
2Wu
W,
W.*Wu =
- 23.261
- 11.6305 kW
$4
= 64
Wc = 75.6305
W.-11.6305
kW
Since the reading on Wu is negative, it means that the wattmeter in line a reads down
scale. It is therefore obvious that, when the power factor is less than 0,5, the reading
on Wu must be negative.
61
Example 2.10
2.10.1 A 380-V, three-phase, delta-connected induction motor has an output of

18.04 kW at a power factor of 0.82 lagging. The efficienry of the motor is B2o/o.
Calculate the readings on each of the two wattmeters connected in lines a and
c to measure the input. The motor is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase
supply with a positive phase sequence.
2.L0.2 Another star-connected load of 12.81 kW at a power factor of 0.86 lagging is

then added in parallel to the induction motor. Determine the current drawn
and the power taken from the line.
2.10.1
Pout
D.
'ln
18.04
0.82
Pin
Pin
22 kW
W"+W. = 22kW
cos0
= 0.82
0=
tan0
tan34.e2o=
W.
But:
Wu
W.+Wu
34.920
n(w, - w" )
t'[w.
*.1
"[ry)
8.867 kW
= 22
W. = 22-Wa
And:
Or:
W.-Wu =
8.867
D-W=-Wa =
8.867
2W_
And:
62
W=
13.133
5'5555 kW
Wc
=22
=22
Wc
Wa+Wc
6.5665 +
And:
cJmotor
2.70.2
15.4335 kW
D
I motor
a"torotor
22
0s2
27.8482-34.920 kVA
CoS
= 0.86
Otoao = 30'680
$636
loaa
Sload =
COS $1es6
72,8r
0,86
Stot =
L4.8952-30.680 kVA
S6e1e1
S1s36
27 .B4B Z.-34.92o
+ 14.8952-30.68'
= 42.7L6t-33,440 kVA
=
D-
'Stot
42.7L6
.'.
t03
Ir
(3s.644 - j23.s41) kVA

35.644 kW
J3 ,v..I,
(
Js Xseoxr,)
LL2.4LT A
Example 2.11
Refer to Figure 2.47 and prove Blondell's theorem. The load is supplied by a balanced,
three-phase, three-wire supply system with a positive phase sequence at
Eu. = 48010'V,
63
(8.2 + j17.4
(18,3 + j1s.1)
(24.2-j16.4) f)
c
Figure 2.47tTwo wattmeters connected to a delta-connected load
E""
60'
Flgure 2.48: Positive (abc) sequence with

O.rrert h ad! ehffi of the load:
r-Val
r*=/aa
_ ffi1ffi"
18.3
115.1
: *?5l.LAA7o
64
Eu. as reference
T-
rbc
Vn.
zn
4E0z-ffi"
=
24.2- jr6.4
L6.41952-25.880 A
T_
rca
Vca
za
4BOIIffi"
8.2 +
jIn
= 25.L9121L5.490 A
Active power in each phase of the load:
P65
V36.Iso.cos
Zls
= (480x20.231)cos
= 7489.919 W
Pb. = V6.,I5..cos
(60o
ZO.4to)
Z[h
(480X16.4195)cos
(-
OOo
25.BBo)
= 6524.699 W
D_
rca -
V.u.I.u.cos Zrv;
= (480X25.19l)cos (1800
115.49o)
= 5203.698 W
D-
Ps6*P6s*P63
= 7489.9L9
+ 6524.699 + 5203.698
19218.316 W
Current in lines a and c:
Iu=
Ian
Ica
= 20.23I t20.47 0
- 25.I9LzLL5.4go
33.66t2-27.730 A
65
I.=
=
I.u
Io.
25.t9t tLL5.49"
16.4195 t-Z\.BB"
39.3752L30.580 A
Readings on wattmeters in lines a and c:
W3
= V65.I3.cos zi%b
= (480X33.661)cos (600 + 27.73o)
= 639.967 W
W.=
V.5.I.,cos z['o
(480X39,375)cos (120o
130.58o)
18578.591W
W=
Wa+Wc
= 639.967
+ 18578.691
19218.658 W
P = W, which
proves Blondell's theorem.
Example 2.12
unbalanced, three-phase, three-wire, star-connected load is supplied from a
balanced, three-phase source with a negative phase sequence at 380 V, 50 Hz. The
phase impedances of the load are the following:
An
za
26
zc
= 24.8/36" Q
= 721-75" Q
= 18.61840 Q
Use Millman's theorem and determine the power absorbed by the load using the twowattmeter method if the wattmeters are connected in lines a and c respectively. Take
E" as reference.
66
vbclgjo
vb1l20o
valjo
vubl-30"
vcaz-rs}"
vcl-Izgo
Figure 2.49: Negative (cba) system with
Eu
as reference
Millman's theorem to find neutral displacement voltage:

Vrn =
%.%+V6.Y6+V..1
Yu +Y5 +Y.
38020",3802120",3901-720
(43)(24.8236") (J3)(722-7s) (J:xra.6ze+.)

=1rl_!1
24.8236"' I2l-75"' 18.6zg4"
= 356.5112-169.59"V
Voltage in each phase of the load:
Vu,
Vu-V.n
3Bo
lo" -
J3
3s6.6rrt-169.59.
= 573.76426.45"V
%, = V.-Vrn
380 z -I20"
_ 356.6Lr2_169.s9"
= _-_E-
= 27L,7882-27.52V
Current in each phase of the load:
Vu,
Iu.Zu
= (Iu)(24.8t36.)
Iu = 23.1362-29.55
573.764t6.45.
67
V., = Ir.Z"
27I.7BBZ-2752 = (IcX1B.6ZB4")
I.=
[4.6L2Z-L11.52' A
Readings on the wattmeters in lines a and c:
Wu=
Vu6.Iu.cos z1%o
(380X23.136)cos(- 30' + 29.55')
8791.409 W
w. =
vgs.Is.cos zYd
= (380x14.612)cos(- 90" + 111.52')

= 5165.489 W
!{= Wa+W.
879L.409 + 5165.489
=
13955.898 W
Example 2.13
delta-connected load is connected to a 380-V,
phase
positive
sequence. The load impedances are the
50-Hz supply with a
following:
2.L3.t An unbalanced, three-phase,
Zao
7n,
7ru
= (11.45 + j 14.44) a
= (17.53 + j24.22)o
= (20.08 + j L6.77) a
Take
Eu5
as reference and calculate the total power delivered to the load by
using the load voltages and current.
2.13.2
6B
If a wattrneter
is connected in each line of the load in Question 2.I3.L,

calculate the readings on the wattmeters and show that the sum of these
readings is equal to the total power calculated in Question 2.13.1.
Eo"
Figure 2.50: positive (abc) phase sequence with
2.13.1 Current in each phase of the load:
r-Vao
-
raD
=laa
36010"
11.45 + j14.44
= 19.5352-51.59.
I5.
=
=
-Ss-
lb,
3@t-L20"
17.53 + j24.22
= L2.O4lZ-l74.l
T-Vca
rca
-
=lca
=
=
3ffi2120"
20.08 + jI6.n
13.761280.13. A
Active power in each phase of the load:

P35
=
=
V66.I6 b.COS
/.y"b
rab
(360X19,535)cos(0. + 51,59.)
4369.246W
Eab
as reference
Pb. = V5..16.,cos Z[tr
(360X12.04l)cos(- 120" + 174.t')
254t,783 W
P.u
V.u.I.u .cos
zl'
= (360x13.761)cos(120" - 80.13")
= 3802.159 W
P =Pan*P66*P66
= 4369.246 + 254I.783 + 3802.169
= 10713.198 W
2.13.2 Current in each line:
16=I36-Is6
= 19.5352-51.59' - l3.76tl90.l3
= 3O.4762-7t.29" A
= Iu. -
Iub
= I2.04IL-I74.L - 19.5351-51.59'
= 27.9182149.74'A
= I.u - Ib.
= 13.761 t80, 13' - I2.04LIL7 4.I'

= 2O.5OtZ45.9o A
Since the voltage coils form a balanced, star-connected system, the voltage across each
voltage coil lags the line voltage by 30" (positive phase sequence). Thus, reading on
6:;." d!*e++'r""**'..w
wattmeter in each line:
w.
u+
.Iu,.o,
J3
fry.l(30.476)cos (0, + 7r.zs
70
'. r,3
zf,o
ra
./
4759.475W
t :0")
-
30-.)
wn
= $.t6..o,
J3
( zr;%.r 3o')
rr
= (#),r
r18)cos(- 120"
w.=
2878.49 W
f.t.,.or1zl"tso";
[#),m
= 3O74.9
W
- 14s.74.- 30")
ro1)cos(120.
4s,e.
- 30.)
Wa
=
=
4759.475 + 2878.49
*W5 +W.
+ 3074.9
LO7L2.865 W
Example 2.14
36.5t36.6 A
25.5t25.5"a
Figure 2.51: Three wattmeters connected to an unbalanced star-connected load
77
Refer to Figure 2.51. The unbalanced, three-phase, four-wire load is connected to a

symmetrical, three-phase supply of 440 V. Calculate the readings on the wattmeters to
find the total power drawn by the load, Use E5. as reference with a negative phase
sequence.

Current in each phase of the load:
Vun
4401-90'
J5 X1.,Xs6.6236.6')
I"n
6.94'-Z-126.60 A
Vun
Iun'Zon
(.''6 Xro.X+s.sz-4s.5")
440/,34'
5.583275.5'A
Iun
T2
Iun,Zun
V.n
Irn'Zrn
4402150'
dt)e,)(25.522s.5.)
I"n
9.9622124,5" A
Ebc
as reference
Wu=
Vun,Iun.cos
z{an
(#)(6.e41)cos(- eo' + 126.6")

1415.s69 W
Wu=
W.
V6n.I6n,cos
ZIM
t#)(5.583)cos(30'
- 7s.s')
994.08 W
V.n.I.n.cos ZtV;
(#)(e.e62)cos(lso' -
124.s")
= zzellszw
W
= Wu *Ws +W.
= 1415.569 + 994.08 + 2284.L62
= 4593.811W
73
EXERCISE 2.2
1.
Calculate the readings on two wattmeters connected in lines a and c of a three-phase

system. The load is star-connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, delta-connected source
with eu5(t) = 622.254 cos (ot + 90o) V with a positive rotation. The impedances of the
load are:
za
26
zc
2.
= L2.4139" A
= 18.6l-56'A
= 2L.726I" {l
Two wattmeters are connected to an unbalanced, three-phase, star-delta system with a

positive phase sequence. The following readings were taken:
T-
10,55231.50 A at a power factor of 0.85264 lagging
aLbc -
20.23t25.20 A
rab -
Zr" = 30.34t-90.90 0
The load is connected to a 360-V, 50-Hz supply. Prove Blondell's Theorem if the current
coils of the wattmeters are connected to lines b and c.
3,
The following impedances are connected in delta in the load of a three-phase sytem:
Zou
Zco
zu,
= (I2.4 + j15.5) O
= (15.6 + j9,3) O
= (9.5 - j18.2) o
The coils are connected across a symmetrical, 480-V, three-phase supply with
phase sequence and Eu. = - 480 V,
negative
3,1 Calculate the line currents.

3.2 Calculate the readings on each of the two wattmeters connected in lines a and b to
measure the total power.
3.3 Convert the delta to an equivalent star-connected load,
3,4 Calculate the readings on each of the two wattmeters connected in lines a and b of the
star<onnected load to measure the total power.
74
-the following
three impedances are connected in the load of a three-phase, delta-star
system with a positive phase sequence:
1 = (72.4 + j15.5) O
1 = (15.6 + j9.3) O
L = (9.6 + j18.2) o
The voltage measured between lines
and
1.25 ms after passing through zero was
205.6545 V,
4,1 Calculate the line currents.

4.2 Prove Blondell's Theorem if two wattmeters are connected in lines a and b to measure
the total power.
Calculate the readings on two wattmeters connected in lines a and c of a three-phase,

three-wire system. The load is unbalanced and star-connected to a symmetrical, threephase supply with Eou = 390l15o V with a negative phase sequence. The impedances of
the load are:
Z,
Zy
7-
= (12.4+ j21.3) o
= (18.6 + j28.4) o
= (21.7 - j9.9) o
5.1 Use Millman's theorem and calculate the readings on the wattmeters.
5.2 Use the given and calculated values and prove Blondell's theorem.
6,
A 330-V, three-phase, delta-star system has the following load impedances:
z,
26
za
= 22.22390 Q
= 15.52550 O
= 16.21-450 Q
A wattmeter is connected in the system with its current coil in line b and its voltage coil
between lines a and b, Take Vu6 as reference with a positive phase sequence and calculate
the reading on the wattmeter.
7. A
three-phase, star-delta system has a positive phase sequence source with

e6(t) = 3L0.2785 cos (ot - +) V. The phase impedances of the load are the following:
7_
Lbc a_
Lab
-
42.6172 0
272-4Bo o
Zru = 1832360 A
Prove Blondell's theorem when two wattmeters are connected in lines b and c respectively.
75
i
B.
The circuit in Figure 2.53 is connected to a 440-V, 50-Hz, symmetrical, three-phase supply
with a positive phase squence. The complex power in 25. is 18.28 kVA with a power factor
of 0.76 lagging. Use E6. as the reference phasor.
8,1 Calculate the current in line c.
8.2 Calculate the values of the circuit elements in 25..

8.3 Calculate the reading on the wattmeter.
(ls.s - j31) o
(27.7
-j14.8) o
Figure 2.53: One wattmeter connected in an unbalanced delta-connected load
9,
Prove Blondell's theorem for a load that is supplied by a sinusoidal, balanced, three-wire,
three-phase, cba-rotation supply system that is represented by the equation:
eb.(t)
380 sin
(ot- $)
volt
The impedances of the load are given by:
= 21'5129" {>
= 15.8242 Q
Z< = 25j182 A
Za
7o
10. A three-phase load has a power factor of 0.72lagging, The power in the load is known to
27 .6 kW. Calculate the reading on each of two wattmeters connected in lines a and b of
the load to measure the total power. The load is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase
suppty with a positive phase sequence,
76
:L. The power supplied to a three-phase, delta-connected induction motor is measured by two
wattmeters connected in lines a and c. The motor is supplied from a three-phase,
cba-rotation , 440-V, 50-Hz source. When the motor is running on a light load the
wattmeter readings are 564 W in line c and 358 W in line a.
:l.1Calculate the power taken by the motor.

the power factor of the motor.
:i.3 Calculate the line current.
:1..2 Calculate
-1. When a no-load test is performed on the motor in Question 11, the wattmeter readings are
now 924 W and
444 W respectively.
-2.1Calculate the power taken by the motor.

Calculate the power factor of the motor.
1.2
1.3
J.
Calculate the line current.
Refer
to
2.54. The system is connected to a symmetrical, three-phase, starsupply of 380 V at 50 Hz. Take Ebc as reference with a positive phase sequence
Figure
connected
and calculate the line currents drawn from the supply.
Ia
r3.92-sz o
L3.6t45"
Ic
I6
tB.L/28'o
I5.6t77"
I5.723L" O
12.It52 0
Figure 2.54: Delta-connection in a three-phase system

14, Two wattmeters are now connected in lines a and c between the supply and
Figure 2.54. Use the given and calculated values and prove Blondell's theorem.
the load
tn
77
is used to measure the active power drawn by a balanced,

three-phase, delta-connected load. Each branch of the load draws 3260 W at a power
factor of 0,82 lagging. The load is supplied from a 240-V, 50-Hz, positive phase sequence
supply. Take Eu6 as reference and calculate the readings on two wattmeters connected in
lines a and c to determine the total power.
15, The two-wattmeter method
16. An unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load is connected to a 480-V, 50-Hz supply

with a positive phase sequence. The load impedances are the following:
= (12.6 + j18.4)CI
26. = (15.3 + j24.2) O
7u6
7,u= (21.8+j16.2)O
Take
Eu.
as reference and calculate the total power delivered to the load by using the load
voltages and current.

17.
If a wattmeter is connected in each line of the load in Question 16, calculate the readings
on the wattmeters and show that the sum of these readings is equal to the total power
calculated in Question 16.
18.
An unbalanced, three-phase, four-wire, star-connected load is connected to 380-V

symmetrical supply. Calculate the readings on the three wattmeters if a wattmeter is
connected in each line of the load, Use
The phase impedances are the following:
za
26
zc
E5n
as reference with a positive phase sequence.
= 455236$ {l
= 25.51-45.5" Q
= 36.6225.5 Q
19. The two-wattmeter method is used to measure the

three-phase, star-connected load. Each branch of the
of 0.856 lagging. The load is supplied from a 380-V,
as reference and prove Blondell's theorem when two
and c to determine the total power.
active power drawn by a balanced,

load draws 2970W at a power factor
50-Hz, cba-rotation supply. Take E5.
wattmeters are connected in lines b
20, An unbalanced, three-phase, delta-connected load is connected to a 380-V, 50-Hz supply

with a negative phase sequence. The load impedances are the following:
1n
Zy
z=
= 22.65258,3'Q
= 19j5145.1'O
= 24.85169.8 Q
Take E= as reference and calculate the total power delivered to the load by using the load
voltages and cunent.
7B
21. If a wattmeter is connected in each line of the load in Question 20, calculate the readings
on the wattmeters and show that the sum of these readings is equal to the total power
calculated in Question 20.
79
CHAPTER THREE
SYM M ETRICAL COM PON ENTS
3.1
INTRODUCTION
',1
An unsymmetrical fault on a three-phase system is that fault on a power system that

gives rise to unsymmetrical currents, i.e. unequal fault currents in the lines with
unequal displacement, When the unsymmetrical fault occurs, the currents in the three
lines become unequal, as well as the phase displacement among these currents,
However, the term unsymmetrical applies only to the fault itself and the resulting line
currents. The system impedances and the source voltages are always symmetrical
through the main elements (generators, transmission lines, etc')'
A proper analysis of unbalanced conditions in three-phase networks, i.e. unsymmetrical
faults on transmission lines, is made possible by the fact that any given set of
unbalanced three-phase components can be represented by the sum of three sets of
balanced or symmetrical components. These components may be currents or voltages.
Both diagrams shown in Figure 3,1 represent balanced systems since there is no
resultant in either case, However, only the diagram in Figure 3.1(a) is symmetrical
since all the phasors are equal in magnitude and equally. spaced.
Ec
Ec
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.1: Representation of symmetrical and unsymmetrical phasors
In order to resolve a system into symntetrical components, it is necessary to use a

factor called operator a. a is defined as an operator that advances the position of a
phasor anti-clockwise through 120o.
BO
Consider Figure
3.
1(a):
E. =
Eo
E.
EaZOo
;LA
=
=
Eal24oo
=
=
EalIzOo
crz, Eu
o,Eu
Since these phasors form a symmetrical, balanced system:
[u+eo+E6=
Eu(1
+cx+u2)
=0
Therefore:
1+o(+cx,2
Expressed in terms of the
notation:
a2. Eu
= (_ 0.5 _ jo,B66)Ea
o. Eu
= (- 0.5 + j0.866) Ea
+ s2
= (- 0.5 + j0.866) + (- 0.5 - j0.866)

- -1
And:
Hence:
s.
And, as shown before:
1+cx,+cr2
= 1-1
-0
Also, multiplying any phasor by a3 is the same as multiplying by
cr.c2
= (- 0.5 + j0.S66X= 0,25 + 0.75
0.5
1. In the j
notation:
j0.866)
=l
B1
3.1.1
POSTTTVE PHASE-SEQUENCE
There are three systems of symmetrical arrangement of phasors, One of these

arrangements is the positive phase-sequence, p.p.s. lhis is defined as a system of
three equal phasors, 120o apart, which rotates anti-clockwise in the sequence
Eu -+ Es -) E., as shown in Figure 3'1(a)'
3.L.2
NEGATTVE PHASE-SEQUENCE
Another symmetrical arrangement is the negative phase-sequence, n.p.s. This is

defined as a system of three equal phasors, 1200 apart, which rotates anti-clockwise in
the sequence E. -+ E6 -+ E6, as shown in Figure 3.2. Alternatively, a negative phasesequence may be considered as a system of three equal phasors, 1200 apaft, rotating
in the opposite direction to that shown in Figure 3.1(a). This will give the same
negative phase-sequence'
Ea
E5
Figure 3.2: Negative phase-sequence, n'p.s
3.1.3
ZERO PHASE-SEQUENCE
The third symmetrical arrangement is the zero phase-sequence,
z,p.s. This
is
defined as a system of three equal, coincident, rotating phasors as shown in Figure 3.3,
This is a symmetrical system since the phasors are equal in length and the same angle
displacement, i.e. 0o. However, because of the resultant, this system is unbalanced
whilst the p.p.s. and n.p.s. systems are both symmetrical and balanced.
Eu
Eu
Ec
Figure 3.3: Zero phase-sequence components, z.p,s

82
RESOLUTTON OF AN UNBALANCED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEM OF

PHASORS INTO ITS SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Figure 3.4: Phasor diagram of an original system with a positive phase-sequence

The original system shown in Figure 3.4 can be resolved into three symmetrical
component systems as shown in Figure 3.5,
Original system
Ea
Vao+Vu1 +Vu2
Eo
Vuo*V61 +V62
Ec
V.o
z.p.s. + p,p,s, + n.p.s.
V.1 -F V62
Vnz
Vco
Vaz
Voo
Vao
p.p,s
n.p.s
Figure 3.5: Positive, negative and zero phase-sequence components

Rewriting above mentioned equations in terms of
Ea
Vu6
Eu
only, using the g-operator:
Vu1 -F Vu,
B3
Eu
Vus+u2.V.1 *o.Vs2
E.
Vss*cx,,V31 +cr2.Vu2
Adding these equations:
[u+ Eo+ E. =
So
that:
%o
3.Yo
= *(
+ 56+ E.)
Ea
Voo
=%o
Multiplying by o and by a2:
.'. E, +
cx.
o.
Eu
cx.Vao
o2.
E.
o2.Vjs + V31
3.Var
Eo + cr2, E.
+ Val + o'.Yu,
o,V32
From which:
Val
l(r. * cr.Eo + 612,E.)
Hence:
Vor
cr2,Vut
And:
Vcr
cx.Var
o',
Thus:
Eo
Ec
cr. =
Eu + o',
Eu
+ c.Ec
cx2,%o+cr.Vu1 *Vu2
uVus*cr2.Vu1 +Vu2
3.%z
And hence:
Vuz =
+
Thus:
84
Vnz =
(E" + a2.Eu + u,E6)
cr.V"z
And:
Vc2
It can be seen from
Figure 3.6 that the symmetrical components of each phase sum to
az.Yuz
the original phasors,
Vat
Vco
Figure 3.6: Symmetrical components of each phase summed to the original phasors
Figure 3,7 shows that the resultant of the original system is equal to the sum of the
zero phase-sequence components. This is true of any unbalanced, three-phase system.
balanced, three-phase, asymmetrical system will resolve into p.p.s and n.p.s
components only, A three-phase, symmetrical system will have positive phase
sequence components only. These components will be equal to the original phasors.
\Eu+E.
Ec
-u:h
Ea
E5+Es
Eoh
Figure 3.7: Resultant of the original system equals the sum of the zero phasesequence components
SIGNIFICANCE OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
IN
PROTECTIVE
SYSTEMS
The currents in
balanced three-wire system
with no earth fault present will
resolve into p.p,s components only.
The currents in
three-wire system with no earth fault but supplying an
unbalanced load, will resolve into p.p.s and n.p,s components only.
B5
The currents in a three-wire system with an eafthed star-point will resolve into
p.p.s, n.p.s and z,p.s components when a single-phase to earth fault is present.
The growth of an earth fault current will therefore be indicated by an increase in the
z.p,s components. The growth of an unbalanced load in a three-wire system will be
indicated by an increase in the n.p.s components. If the growth of an eadh fault
current or unbalanced load can be detected and measured separately from the other
components, relays can be arranged to trip the suitable circuit breakers when the level
of unbalance exceeds reasonable limits. Minor unbalance is normally caused by
unequal ph6se loading but harsh unbalance will be caused when a phase-to-phase fault
occurs.
3.4
DETECTION OF P.P.S AND N.P.S COMPONENTS OF CURRENT

In the circuit shown in Figure 3,8, the resistance and inductance of the impedance 21
are such that the current through this impedance lags the voltage across the
impedance by an angle of 60". 22 is a pure resistor and the resistance value of Zz is
equal to that of 21. The circuit in Figure 3.8 detects n.p.s components but not p.p's
components since the relay measures the phasor sum ( Er + Ez ).
<_<E1
Ez
Figure 2.62
In order to detect p.p.s components and not n.p,s components, the impedances 21 and
22 must be interchanged, as shown in Figure
B6
2.63.
'
+<-
E2
E1
Figure 3.8
The detection of p.p.s components can be used in overload protection. The detection
of n.p.s components can be used to limit the level of unbalance, To limit the degree of
unbalance is mainly important when referring to the currents in the stator windings of a
three-phase alternator, If the stator currents consist of p.p.s components only the
magnetic field that is set up by these currents rotates at synchronous speed in the
same direction as the rotor. There is therefore no relative motion between the stator
field and the rotor, If the stator currents contain some n,p.s. components, the field
that is due to the n.p.s components only, rotates at synchronous speed in the opposite
direction to that of the stator. This is due to the fact that a negative phase sequence is
equivalent to a symmetrical system of phasors rotating in a clockwise direction.
---r--
Figure 3.10
87
i
limits set by the design of a machine, extensive

Eddy currents that are induced in the rotor
from
overheating.
may
result
rotor damage
systems, the circuits shown in Figure 3.8
In
four-wire
iron mainly cause overheating.
If the n,p,s component field exceeds
and Figure 3.9 will be disturbed by z.p.s. components. Cross-connected current

transformers, as shown in Figure 3.10, are used to exclude z.p.s components from the
detecting relays. Since the z,p,s component currents of each phase are synchronized,
each cross-connected current transformer secondary provides a low impedance path
that diverts practically all of the z,p.s components from the measuring circuit.
3.5
DETECTION OF P.P.S AND N.P.S COMPONENTS OF VOLTAGE

a
I1
12
71
22
Figure 3.11
In the circuits shown in Figures 3.11 and 3.12, the resistance and inductance of Zldre
such that the current through this impedance lags the voltage across it by an angle of
60". Zz is a pure resistor. The resistance value of this resistor is equal to that of Zt
The circuit shown in Figure 3,11 is arranged to detect p.p.s components only. The
circuit shown in Figure 3,12 is arranged to detect n.p.s components only,
8B
_+
I1
71
Figure 3.12
Several important points may be noted.
The positive phase-sequence voltages (Vur, V61 and V.1), the negative phasesequence voltages (Vuz, Vuz and V.2) and the zero phase-sequence voltages (Vus,
V56 and V.6) separately form balanced systems of voltage. Hence, they are called
symmetrical components of the unbalanced system.
The symmetrical components do not have separate existence. They are only
mathematical components of unbalanced voltages, or currents, that actually flow in
the system,
The symmetrical component theory applies equally to three-phase voltages and

currents both line and phase values.
The negative and zero phase-sequence currents are zero in a balanced, threephase system.
The presence of negative and zero phase-sequence currents in a three-phase

system introduces un-symmetry and is indicative of an abnormal condition of the
circuit in which these components are foundj
The vector sum of the positive and negative phase-sequence currents of an

unbalanced three-phase system is zero. The resultant consists of the three zero
phase-sequence
cu
rrents only.
In a three-phase, four-wire, unbalanced system, the magnitude of the zero phasesequence component is one-third of the current in the neutral wire.
B9
. In a three-phase, unbalanced system, the magnitude of the negative phasesequence component cannot exceed that of the positive phase-sequence
component, If this would happen, the phase sequence of the resultant system
would be reversed.
The current of a single-phase load drawn from a three-phase system comprises

equal positive, negative and zero sequence components.
Example 3.1
Calculate the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence components of the following set of
three unbalanced voltage phasors:
Y" = 2252-38" V
Yo
Y,
= 775169" V
= !4021150 V
Indicate on approximate diagrams how the different sequence components are located.
Vur
= *(Vu + a.V6 + a2.v.;

= +(225t-39o + r7sz189o + t40z3ss")
76.329Z-51.060 V
vbl -
cr2.V"r
7
6.329 t(-51.06"
+ 240")
76.329z-t71.060 V
vc1 -
ct'Var
7
6.329 2(-51.06"
+ 120')
= 76.329268.940 V
Var
Figure 3.13: Positive phase-sequence components for Example 3.1
90
= +(%+a2.V5+a.V.)
Yaz
= +(22st-3Bo + r7sz309o + L4ozz3so)
Vu,
146.9642-61..980V
CLVa2
= L46.964/.(-61.98'
= 146.9642.58.020
=
Vcz
+ 120')
V
d2.Vaz
= 746.9642(-61.98' + 240')
= 1'46.9542178.020 V
Voz
V.z
V"z
Figure 3.14: Negative phase-sequence components for Example 3.1

Vao=
*(V.*V5+V.)
!{zzsz-zeo + r75t69o + r4ottrso)
=
=
=
78.69L24Oo V
Vuo
V.o
%o Vuo %o
Figure 3.15: Zero phase-sequence components for Example 3.1
:,i
i.(i
1l {'
.ti
i
i
91
:l
;fr
ii
I
-J
lfl
Example 3.2
A three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply, with a phase sequence of abc, supplies a
load which impedances are unequally distributed between the three phases. An
analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the loads in line a shows that the
positive phase-sequence current is 1452-450 A and the negative phase-sequence
current is 22.521050
A.
The current .flowing back in the neutral is 27.31640
Calculate the current in each phase.
rrao-
In
T
27.31ffi"
3
= 9.Ll64o
Ia= Iao+Iu1+Iu2
= 9.L1640 + i+.SZ-+So + 22.511050
= 21.386266.820 A
In= 156+I51+I52
= Iu6+cx2.Iu1 *o,162
= 9.1 z640
14.5
t(-45o +
2400) + 22.5 t(L05o+ 1200)
28.3562-L56.110 A
I.=
Ico+Ic1+Ic2
I6e*cx,I31 +a2.lu2
9.Lt64o + 14.52(-450 + 1200) +22.51(L05o + 2400)

33.7L2229.O30 A
92
A.
Example 3.3
In a three-phase. four-wire. star-connected load. the symmetrical components of the

current in line a are the following:
Iar
Iaz
Iuo
= 16.4 l-24o A
= L2.6 136" A
= 18.7 Z72o A
The voltage drops across the phases of the load are the following:
Vun
Vbn
Vcn
= I72l7BoV
= 196 Z4Bo V
= 185 l-702o V
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.
Use a positive phase-sequence and calculate the impedance of the load.

Calculate the complex powelin each phase of the load,
Calculate the total complex power in the load.
Iun
= Iu
= Iao * 161 * 162
= l9.7l72o + L6.42-24o + 12.61360
= 36.O72230.890 A
Inn
=
=
=
=
=
I.n
*
*
z "
La-
161
I52
cx2,Iu1
18.72720
cr,Iu2
+ 16.42(-240 + 240") + 12.62(360 +
120")
23.L751L45.O7o A
= I.
= Ico *
= Iao *
=
=
Iu
Iuo
Iao
Is1
Is2
+ a2,Iu2
!8.7172" + L6.41(-24o + 120") + L2.61(36o + 240')
22.225275.99o A
cr,Iu1
V.n
I.n
I72l7B"
36.072t30.89"
4.768247.110 O
93
a "
Von
LA_
Inn
L96Z4B"
?3.L75 2145.07"
8.4572-97,070
zr=
c)
%n
I.n
t85/-r02"
22.225t75.99"
8.3242-177.990 c,
3.3.2
Vun.Iln
-an
= (17 2 z7
=
Bo )
(36 .07
z-30
.89
5204.384Z47.LLo VA
Siln = Vnn'I[n
(196 z4go )(23.r7
t-r45
.07
4542.32-97.O70 VA
\=
V.n.Iln
-cn
3.3.3
c*-
(tgs z- t02o )(22.225 z-7
4LLL.625Z-177.990 VA
5. 9 9 "
Sln+Sin+Sin
6204.384
t47 .IIo +
4542.3
458.005Z-166.5850 VA
94
2-97.07" + 41IL.625 z*t77 .990
Example 3.4
In a star-connected/ three-phase, four-wire, positive phase sequence load a current of

IB.6l-45" A is flowing back into the neutral. The positive and negative symmetrical
components of the current in line a are:
Ial
Iaz
= 12.62-10" A
= 15.3 l72 A
The voltage drops across the phases of the load are:

va
V5
vc
= B4IBZ"Y
= L26l-60"Y
= I04I4BV
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.I
Calculate the impedances of the load.

Calculate the total active and reactive power in the load using the symmetrical
vofta ge. a nd cqf rgn!:
99-mp91gnt9 .o[ !l-e_.
I"n
In
3
18.62-45"
3
= 6,22-450
Iu= Iao4Iur+Iu2
= 6.22-45' + L2.61-70
= 22.952220.34'A
+ 153272
In= Iuo*I51+I52
= Iao * o2,Iu1 + cr,Iu2
= 621-45 + 12.62230' + I5.32I92'
25.4052-137.33'A
I.= Ico*161*162
= Iao * a.Iu1 + cx2.Iu2
= 6.21-45" + I2.6ZLL0" + 15.31372.
= LL.O3Z-2O.78" A
95
Z"=
=
va
Ia
84ZB2"
22.952t20.34"
3.6626L.65. Q
V^
7_V
LA
"
Ib
t26t-60'
25.405 t - 137.33.
=
4.96277.330 c)
1_
Lr
"
Ic
I04 Z4B"
fl.432-20.78"
9.429168.780 c)
3.4.2
Vao =
*(v.*V6+V.)
t {a+zez + Lz6t-60' + Lo4t4B)
5L.O492t9.59. V
I ry. * '.vb + *2.vc)

t {e+zez' + 126z60' + ro4z299')
47.298z4L.150 V
Va1 =
I {v. + a2,v6 + a,v.;

! {e+zez + tz6ztlo" + ro4z168')
80.0392154.!20 V
3(V.o.I:o + Vu1.Il, + Vur.Il, )
va2 -
Cx
= 3l(51.049 219.59')(6.2 t45") + (47 .298 z4Lt6)(12.6

+ (80,0392154. 12"X 15 .3 t-72)l
6234.L37270.96. VA
And:
96
2032.355 W
5889.324 VAr
zI0")
Example 3.5
The current flowing to a delta-connected load through line a is 12.55 A, Calculate the
symmetrical components of the line currents if line c is open circuit. Take the current
in line a as reference.
Iu
= 12.5510"
I.=0A
Io
= 12'551180'A
Figure 3.16: Delta-connected load with line c open circuit

Refer
to Figure 3.16:
Iu, = {(Iu+a.Is+u2.I.;
t {tz.sszo" + tz.Ssz3ooo + o)
7.246/-300 A
Iut
cr2,Iur
7.2462(-30' + 240')
7,246z-'-500 A
I.t
0'Iat
7.2462(-30 + 120')
7.246z900 A
97
Iaz =
=
| {I, *
cx2.I6
+ a.I.;
! {tzsszo. + r2.55t420o + o)
= 7.2462300 A
TLb2
ct'Iaz
= 7.2461(30'
+ 120')
7.246t1500 A
Ic2 = o2.Tu,
7.2462(30 + 240')
Iao
7.246z-900 A
Ino
= Ico= 0A
(noneutral)
Example 3,5
A three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply with a phase sequence of abc supplies an
unbalanced, star-connected load of the following impedances:
= (t2 + j15) o
Z5n = (15 - j15) O
Z.n = (18 + j12) fJ
zun
An analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the load in line b shows that the
positive and negative phase sequence currents are2L6l-48" Aand 27.31II2'A. The
current flowing in the neutral towards the star point of the supply is 33.3242' A.
3,6.1
3.6.2
3.6.1
Calculate the current flowing in each line.

Calculate the line voltages in the system.
In
lM-
9B
33.3t42"
3
IL,LZ42o A
Ibn = I5s*I51*162
ILLt4zo + 2L6l-4Bo + 27.3tII2o

20.835t53.220 A
T_
ran -
I6s*I31*I32
156*cr.I51 +u2.I62
IL.L z42o
2L.6
t(-48o +
1200) + 27 .3 t(IIzo +2400)
48.422229.9450 A
Icn =
I.6*I.1*I.2
= 156*cr2.151
*o.Inz
LL.IZ4Z" + 2t.62(-48o + 240") + 27.32(rl2o + 1200)

= 35.O22-L47.960 A
3.6.2
Vun =
Iun.Zun
= (48.422 t29.945ox 12 +j 15)
930.Ls6/.81.285" V
Vbn = Idn'Zan
= (20.835 t53,22.X
-j 1 5)
44L.97728.22'V
V.n =
Irn'Zrn
= (35.02 t-747.96oX 1B +j 12)
757.s982-Lt4.27'V
Val
Vun
Von
= 930.156281.285"
44t.977
t8.22
906.1o92L09.1'V
Vn. =
Vnn
V.n
44r.977
t8.22 -
57
.sgg z-r14.27'
= 1062.553245.190 V
99
V.u =
V.n
Vun
757 .598 t*Lr4.27'
930.156 tB1.2B5'
= L672.39Ls2-LOs.69" V
1m
EXERCISE 3
1.. A three-phase, four-wire, star-connected supply with a positive phase sequence supplies
* loads that are unequally distributed on the three phases. An analysis of the currents
flowing in the direction of the load are the following:
.
o
.
The positive phase-sequence current in phase a is 14.82390 A

The negative phase-sequence current in phase a is 9.52-610 A
The current flowing back in the
24t-ILLo
[eu!|9!,js
'
The phase voltages across the loads are:
Va
V5
Vc
= 1502-1Bo V
= I3BZ72oV
= 190147oV
Using the symmetrical components of the voltage and current in phase a, calculate the total
reactive power in the three-phase system.
2.
The symmetrical components of the aphase in an unbalanced, three-phase, star-connected

load are the following:
= 22'8l-670 A
= I2'9135o A
Iaz = LB.3l123o A
Iao
Iar
Calculate the line currents in the load.
3.
Resolve the following three-phase system of voltages into its symmetrical components:
= 2402510 A
= 2I5l-Il0o
V. = 2601930 A
Va
V6
101
4. In a three-phase,
four-wire, star-connected load, the symmetrical components of the
current in line a are:
= 2'62-10o A
Iaz=2ZIBloA
Iao = L'4175o A
Iar
The phase sequence is abc and the voltage drops across the phases of the load are the
following:
=
=
Yrn =
Yan
I27lL27"V
Van
145l-610 V
16521080 V
4.1 Calculate the impedances of the load.

4.2 Calculate the complex power of the load using the symmetrical components of voltage
and current.
LS.i n three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply with a phase sequence of abc supplies an
7un
Znn
zrn
= I2.6t63" A
= L4.51-4B Q
= 72.9145" Q
An analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the load in line b shows that the
positive and negative phase sequence currents are 18.6l-42' A and 2L.3IL0B' A. The
current flowing in the neutral towards the star point of the supply is 27.6239" A.
5.1
5,2
6.
r02
Calculate the current flowing in each line.
Calculate the line voltages in the system.
A three-phase, four-wire supply is coupled to an unbalanced load, The positive phasesequence component of the current in phase a is 2052360 A and the negative phasesequence con'lponent of the current in phase a is I2.91640 A. The current flowing back in
the neutal Is 3C,2--69' A. Calculate the current in each line.
7.
A three-phase, four-wire, symmetrical supply with a phase sequence of abc supplies an

= (12.9 + j15.1) O
= (t6.4 - j12.6) o
Z. = (15.8 + j11.9) O
Zu
26
An analysis of the currents flowing in the direction of the load in line c shows that the
positive and negative phase sequence currents are 24.61-42' A and 2I.92702' A. The
current flowing in the neutral towards the star point of the supply is 36.9242' A.
7.1 Calculate the current flowing in each line.
7.2 Calculate the line voltages in the system,
103
CHAPTER FOUR
INTER.CON
4.L
ECTED SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Any connection between two points of a power system is an inter-connector, but the
name is usually used for a connection between two alternators, power stations or
supply network. Inter-connection increases the amount of current which flows when a
short circuit occurs on a system and requires the installation of breakers able to
interrupt a larger current. The disturbance caused by a short-circuit on one system
may spread to inter-connected systems unless proper relays and circuit breakers are
provided at the point of inter-connection. Not only must the inter-connected system
have the same nominal frequency, but also the synchronous machines of one system
must remain in step with the synchronous machines of inter-connected systems.
Power station A
r_
ll
Power station
Bus_bafs___-,
*T*ry*T*
Transformers
J
To the load on the busbars of power station A
tnter-connector
I
To the load on the busbars of power station B
Figure 4.1: Two power stations joined by an inter-connector

F@ure 4,1 shot''"s a line diagram of two power stations joined by an inter-connector.
Tlne inter--ccnnector is connected to the bus-bars of each power station through
Fansfor'ners, Each power station also has a feeder-load connected through a
transfo,rrer ro nts hus-bars. The power sent across the inter-connector will depend on
the $earr s*Ftrf'r, tc c"e iurbines of each power station.
104
For example, if the feeder load on the bus-bars of power stations A and B are each 50
MW and the output of the generators on the bus-bars of power station A is 30 MW, the
output of the generators on the bus-bars of power station B must then be 70 MW. 20
MW must therefore be transmitted across the inter-connector from power station B to

power station A. The output of the generators depends only on the power supply to
their prime movers. Thus, the power transmitted from point to point in an interconnected network depends ultimately on the steam supplies to the prime movers.
When more than one path is available between inter-connected points, the proportion
of power transmitted by each path may be controlled. The total remains, however,
depend on the load conditions. The control of the power transmitted over the country
is centralised in the control rooms of the generating divisions and in the national control
room. These maintain communication with the generating stations coming under their
control and issue instructions to station engineers to increase or reduce the load on
stations. The control room engineers thus control the frequency and the loading of
transmission links in the network.
Reactive power devices, i.e. reactors, capacitors and synchronous machines are used to
control the bus-bar voltage for improved power transfer and stability, A major
requirement of voltage control devices is to counteract voltage variation across the
supply network components. The supply network is mainly inductive and when power
is transmitted across the inter-connector, there will normally be a large reactive voltage
drop in the inter-connector. The magnitude of this voltage drop will depend on the
impedance of the inter-connector and on the power factor at which the power is
transmitted. This voltage drop may be accommodated in a number of ways. Assuming
that power is being transmitted from power station B to power station A, Figure 4.1:
The bus-bar voltage at power station A or at power station B may be so adjusted

that the difference in the bus-bar voltages is equal to the voltage drop in the interconnector and associated transformers, The disadvantage of this method is that it
affects the voltages at which the loads, connected to the station bus-bars, are
supplied.
The inter-connector transformers may be equipped with on-load tap-changing gear.

The voltage drop in the inter-connector may then be supplied by adjusting the
secondary emfs of the inter-connector transformers, and the bus-bar voltages may
be maintained constant. This method is commonly used where main transformers
are, in any case/ necessary.
A voltage boost in the appropriate direction may be injected into the interconnector. This can be done either by an induction regulator or by a series
boosting-transformer, The series boosting transformer is now of less impoftance
due to the modern practice of incorporating on-load tap-changing gear in main
transformers, This, in effect, pedorms the same function as the series boostingtransformer,
r05
The secondary terminal voltages of the inter-connector transformers may be held

constant. The voltage drop in the inter-connector may be accommodated by
adjusting the relative phase of the voltages at the sending and receiving ends of
the inter-connector by means of a synchronous phase modifier. Synchronous
phase modifiers are only used on transmission links of some hundreds of kilometres
in length.
A further use of voltage regulating equipment is to control the division of
power
between two or more feeders or transmission lines operating in parallel. The voltage
regulation for a typical load bus-bar wit a lagging power factor is shown in Figure 4.2,
The exact voltage drop is given by the equation:
V = Vn.coS6+Vx'Sin6
V = I.R.cos6+LX,sin6
Or:
I = load current in A
Where:
X=
6=
resistance and reactive supply impedances in Q

load angle of the current with respect to the supply
voltage
cos 6 = power factor of the supply
R and
Vp.cos 6 is the resistive voltage drop that is in phase with the load current. Vx.sin 6 is
the reactive voltage drop that is 90" out of phase with the load current. If the power
factor is leading, the reactive voltage drop is negative and in the opposite direction.
The ratio of the reactive voltage drop to the resistive voltage drop is larger than one
until a power factor of 0,98 is reached. In this case the ratio will be one. The
magnitude of the resistive voltage drop is larger than that of the reactive voltage drop
when the power factor is larger than 0.98. That means that, the lower the power
factor, the worse the voltage regulation.
Capacitor banks, synchronous machines, shunt reactors and tap-changing transformers
are typical voltage control devices, Voltage control is used to make the magnitude of
the bus-bar voltage equal or larger than the magnitude of the supply voltage. As a
result of the load current that is always flowing, there must be a voltage drop. The
magnitudes of the bus-bar and supply voltages can be equal as long as a phase shift
between the voltages is allowed. Normal voltage control where reactive power devices
are used is the same as improving the power factor to 0.98 or better, which shows that
voltage and power factor control are similar for constant supply voltages.
r06
LR.cos
Regulation
I.X.sin
Bus-bar voltage
I (lagging power factor)
Figure 4.2: Voltage regulation
In the absence of voltage regulating equipment, their respective impedances determine

the division of the load between two lines. This division of the load may be modified by
the introduction of a voltage boost in one line. The control of the power division
between lines in parallel by voltage boosting has the important advantage that both
lines may be utilised to maximum capacity. When lines are operated in parallel, one
line may become fully loaded before the other line has taken up its full load because of
disproportionate impedances. A voltage boost of the appropriate magnitude and
direction in such under-loaded lines may allow them to take up their full load.
4.2
REASONS FOR INTER.CONNECTIONS

large. Not only is the initial cost per kVA of
power stations of very large capacity lower than that of smaller power stations, but
their efficiencies are substantially higher. Hence, regardless of geographical position, it
is more economical to use these efficient power stations to full capacity twenty-four
hours a day and transmit energy considerable distances, than to use more and less
efficient local power stations. Therefore, the main base load met by these large power
stations, must be inter-connected so that they feed into the general system and not
into a particular load.
Generating sets are becoming increasingly
In order to meet
sudden changes in load, a cetain amount of generating capacity

spinning reserve is required. This consists of generators running at normal
speed and ready to supply power instantly. If the machines are stationary, a
reasonable time is required to run up to speed, which can approach approximately one
hour. This is especially so for steam turbo-alternators. It is more economical to have
ceftain power stations only serving this function, than to have each power station
known as
carrying its own spinning reserve. The electricity supplies over the entire country are
synchronised and a common frequency exists.
ro7
In an
inter-connected network consisting essentially of loops, continuity

maintained, since substations can be fed from either direction.
4.3
of supply is
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION REGULATOR

In construction the three-phase induction regulator resembles a three-phase induction
motor with a wound rotor. In the induction regulator, the rotor is locked, usually by
means of a worm gear, to prevent its revolving under the action of the electromagnetic
force operating on it. The position of the rotor winding relative to the stator winding
varied by means of the worm gear.
is
If the
stator winding is connected to a constant-voltage, constant-frequency supply, a

rotating magnetic field is set up. This magnetic field will induce an emf in each phase
of the rotor winding. The magnitude of the induced rotor emf per phase is independent
of the rotor position. The reason is that the emf depends only on the speed of the
rotating field and the strength of the flux, neither of which vary with rotor position.
However, variation of the position of the rotor will affect the phase of the induced rotor
emf with respect to the phase'of the applied stator voltage. Figure 4.3 shows the
connection diagram of the star-connected stator winding of a three-phase induction
regulator. Each of the rotor phase windings is in series with one line of an interconnector.
,rrrr{
l',-*"nnector
Rotor phase winding
Figure 4.3: Connection diagram of the star-connected stator winding of a

three-phase induction regulator
In
Figure 4.4, the phasors OA, OB and OC represent the input values of the line-toneutral voltages of this inter-connector. The circles drawn at A, B and C of these
phasors, represent the loci of the rotor phase emfs as the rotor position is varied with
respect to the stator.
108
Figure 4.4
The phasors Aa, Bb and Cc in Figure 4.4 represent the voltage boosts introduced by
the induction regulator when the rotor position is such as to cause these voltage boosts
to lead on their respective line-to-neutral voltages by 90o, The phasors OA, OB and
OC represent the resultant voltages V. , Vo and V.. It will be seen that the induction
regulator has altered the phase of the voltages as well as introducing a voltage boost.
To eliminate this phase displacement, a double poly-phase induction regulator is
employed. Two rotors are assembled on a common shaft in the regulator, The
connection diagram for this regulator is shown in Figure 4.5. The rotor windings of
each regulator are connected in series with the inter-connector, The stator windings
are star-connected but the phase sequence of one regulator stator is reversed with
respect to the other.
Figure 4.5: Connection diagram for a double poly-phase induction regulator
The reversal of phase sequence to the stator of one regulator has the effect of
eliminating any phase displacement in the resultant voltage boost in the interconnector,
109
Thus, when the shaft of the double regulator is displaced, both rotors move by the
same angular amount. However, if the emf induced in one rotor leads its former value,
then the emf induced in the other rotor lags by the same amount, The reason for this
is that the rotating fields in the regulators rotate in opposite directions. It is often
convenient to reverse the functions of the stator and the rotor windings in induction
regulators used for boosting. The rotor then carries the primary winding. This has the
advantage of requiring only three connections to the rotor instead of six, and the interconnector current flows in the stator instead of the rotor,
4.4
TAP.CHANGI NG TRANSFORM ER
Figure 4.6 shows a transformer having variable tappings in the secondary windinb, nt
the position of the tap is varied, the effective number of secondary turns is varied.
Hence, the emf and output voltage of the secondary winding can be altered. In supply
networks, however, tap changing has normally to be peformed on load. That is,
without causing an interruption to supply. The arrangement shown in Figure 4.6 is
unsuitable for this purpose.
Figure 4.6: Transformer with variable tappings in the secondary winding
If the tapping position is to be altered from position a to position b and the contact
with position a is broken before contact with position b is made, an open circuit results.
If, on the other hand, contact with position b is made before contact with position a is
broken, the coils connected between these two tapping points are short-circuited. The
coils will then carry damagingly heavy currents. In both cases, switching would be
accompanied by excessive arcing. The diagram in Figure 4.7 shows one type of an onload tap-changing transformer. With switch e closed, all the secondary turns are in
circuit. If the reactor short-circuiting switch is also closed, half the total current flows
through each half of the reactor. Since the current flow in each half of the reactor is in
opposition, no resultant flux is set up in the reactor and there is no inductive voltage
drop in the reactor. If it is now required to alter the tapping point to position d, the
reactor short-circuiting switch is opened, The load current now flows through one-half
of the reactor coil only so that a voltage drop occurs in the reactor, Switch d is now
closed, so that the coils between tapping point d and tapping point e are now
connected through the whole reactor winding, A circulating current will flow through
this local circuit. The value of this current is be limited by the reactor, Switch e is now
opened and the reactor short-circuiting switch is closed, thus completing the operation.
110
Reactor
Mid-point tap
Short-circuiting switch
Figure 4.7: On-load tap-changing
transformer
The tapping coils are placed physically in the centre of the transformer limb to avoid
unbalanced axial forces acting on the coils. These forces would arise if the coils were
placed at either end of the limb. Electrically, the tapped coils are at one end of the
winding, The practice is to connect them at the earth potential end.
4.5
SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER

Variation in the excitation of a synchronous motor alters the power factor at which the
motor works. As the excitation of the motor is increased, the power factor passes from
a lagging, through unity, to a leading power factor. This characteristic of the
synchronous motor is used to correct the power factor of loads taking a lagging
current, When it is used in this way, the motor always acts with a leading power factor
and is often referred to as a synchronous capacitor. When the synchronous motor
is used as a means of controlling the voltage of a transmission line, the name
synchronous phase modifier is usually preferred. The reason being that, in this
application, the machine may be adjusted to take either leading or lagging current.
The motor is connected in parallel with the load at the receiving end of the line. The
action of the synchronous phase modifier in controlling the voltage of a transmission
line is best understood by reference to the phasor diagram shown in Figure 4.8. For
simplicity, the phasor diagram shown is that of
a short line where the effects of
capacitance are neglected.
It
should be understood, however, that this method of control is mostly applied to long
lines where, with other methods of control, the voltage drop along the line would be
excessive.
111
]H
Figure 4.8
In Figure 4.8, OA represents the receiving-end voltage V',. OE represents the receivingend current, I,, lagging on the receiving-end voltage by phase angle $,1. OF and OG
represent the active and reactive componeflts (I3.s;u" and l,..u.s;u.) of the current,
respectively. AB represents the voltage drop I*7 caused by the active component of
current that leads V, by the phase angle of the tine impedan.u,
*fon-'i+l'lZ
L l.R/l
is the
line impedance. BC represents the voltage drop IB,Z caused by the reactive component
of current. BC is lagging I*7 by 90o since I, is lagging Iu by 90o when the load power
factor is lagging. In an unregulated line the sending-end voltage V,1, is the phasor sum
of Y,,Iu.Z and I,.2. If the sending-end and receiving-end voltages are now to be held
constant at the same value, then, line OD, representing the new value of the sendingend voltage V52, Irust be at some point along the arc AD, whose centre is O and radius
is OD. If the same power is to be sent along the line as previously, the voltage drop
iu.Z will remain the same. The reason is that the active component of current must
remains the same,
However, if the excitation of a synchronours phase modifier, connected to the receiving
end, is adjusted so that it takes a leading current - the current will lead by almost 90o
since the modifier works on no-load - then as this leading current is increased, the
lagging reactive current drawn along the line, will be reduced and the voltage drop I,.Z
tvill be reduced, The extremity of the phasor representing the sending-end voltage will
move along the line CB towards B. When the leading reactive current taken by the
modifier is equal to the lagging reactive current of the load, there will be no reactive
r,'-ent drawn along the line. There will also be no voltage drop
Hence, the
:,:'enity of the phasor representing the sending-end voltage will be at B.
I,.2.
If the leading current taken by the modifier is further increased, the overall power
factor of the load and the modifier together becomes leading and the extremity of the
vector representing the sending-end voltage lies along the line BD between B and D.
Thus, if the leading current taken by the modifier is made sufFiciently high, the phasor
of the sending-end voltage takes up the position OD.
'The synchronous phase modifier may therefore be used to control the voltage drop of a
rtransmission line. If the sending-end voltage is maintained constant, then the modifier
will be over-excited to take a leading current at the usual condition (on full-load at a
lagging power factor). If the line has been unregulated, the receiving-end voltage will
increase compared with its value. On no-load, on the other hand, the modifier would
be under-excited and would take a lagging current in order to offset the voltage rise
that occurs at the receiving en of a long unregulated line when the load is removed.
The power that may be sent along a transmission line is limited by either the power
loss in the line reaching its permissible maximum value, or by the voltage drop in the
line reaching the maximum value which can be conveniently dealt with. In long
transmission lines it is the voltage drop which limits the power that-can be sent. Thus,
if synchronous phase modifiers are used to regulate the voltage, the line can deal with
more power, Since voltage drop in the line and associated plant is not the first
consideration when synchronous phase modifiers are used to control the voltage,
current limiting reactors may be incorporated in the system to reduce the maximum
shott-circuit current should a fault occur, The principal disadvantage apart from cost of
using synchronous phase modifiers is the possibility of their breaking from synchronism
and causing an interruption to the supply.
4.6
VALUE OF THE SENDING.END VOLTAGE
In constant-voltage
transmission systems using synchronous phase modifiers, the

sending-end and receiving-end voltages are held constant, However, they do not
necessarily have to be equal. There is an advantage in having the sending-end voltage
higher than the receiving-end voltage, particularly
in short lines.
Under such
conditions, a smaller synchronous phase modifier capacity will satisfactorily regulate the
voltage. For example, referring to Figure 4.8, if the sending-end voltage had
been
higher than the receiving-end voltage, the reactive voltage drop CD, due to the reactive
current of the synchronous phase modifier, would have been smaller and a smaller
capacity for the synchronous phase modifier would have been required, On longer
lines, the capacitive effect tends to cause a voltage rise on light loads and no load,
Therefore, the synchronous phase modifier has to work with a lagging power factor in
order to hold the voltage constant. Thus, the longer the line, the less are the
advantages of having the sending-end voltage higher than the receiving-end voltage.
113
4.7
AUTOMATIC LOAD DISPATCHING
In some systems a
computer monitors the outputs and inter-connected loadings
continuously and automatically control the output of the power station and of each
plant within the power station. This compares the net transfer of power with the
scheduled transfer, Any difference between the scheduled and the actual power
transfer is called system requirement, which may be negative or positive. The function
of the computer is to determine the desired generation for each power station and to
send a signal to the power station. This signal will cause each station to work at the
desired outfiut. The difference between the actual and required output of a power
each of the power stations is
station is called the power station requirement.
delivered the required output for economical loading and the net power transfer over
the inter-connector is the scheduled value, both the system requirement and the sum
of the station requirement will be zero. When an increase of load on the system
occurs, the additional power will flow into the system through the inter-connector.
If
4.8
POWER TRANSFER
to another if there is a difference in voltage
points.
potential
The
difference causes active and reactive power
between those two
points.
It can happen that P flows from a and that Q flows
to flow between the two
from b. However, it can also happens that P is transferred from a while Q is
transferred to a. The potential difference between two points can be as a result of a
magnitude difference, as shown in Figure 4.9. It can also be as a result of a phase
Power can basically flow from one point
difference, as shown in Figure 4.10.

Vau
V5
v"
Figure 4.9: Difference in magnitudes of two voltages

The voltage V3s will cause a current flow between points a and b.
Figure 4.1O: Phase difference between voltages
t--
The angle 6 is known as the load angle, Power will flow from the leading to the
lagging voltage.
Some standard formulas can be derived to calculate the power flow between two
points. It must be kept in mind that these standard formulas are actually based on the
principle of complex power. The positive and negative signs in Figure 4.11 show the
polarities during the positive cycle.
Figure 4.11
)
Machine A is the leading machine and machine B is the lagging machine. Consider the
"flow" of active power and reactive power of machine A in Figure 4.II. If the values of
the active power and reactive power are positive, it means that the direction of the
current flow is correct and that this machine will transfer active power and reactive
power. If these values were negative, it means that the direction of the current flow
will be in the opposite direction and that this machine will actually receive active power
and reactive power. The opposite will obviously happen to machine B in Figure 4,11.
These statements can be summarised as follows:
Leading machine:-
+ r transfer - : receiving
Laggingmachine:-
: receiving
:transfer
This concept can be better understood by considering two synchronous machines

connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 4,12,
ft,
E,t
Figure 4.12: Two synchronous machines connected in parallel
The impedance
can be the synchronous impedance of the machines or the
impedance of a transmission line. The current must be known to determine the power
and the direction of the current must also be considered.
115
If current Iu5 is considered, the voltage drop Vu5 is used. If current I6u is considered,
the voltage drop V5u is used, Consider the phasor diagrams in Figures 4.L3 and 4.14.
E6
Figure 4.13: Phasor diagram using the voltage drop Vu6

According to Kirchhoff's voltage law:
Vuo-Eu+E5 =
Vao
Eu-Eu
(Eu
,7
=^/\
./\
>
En)
\"
E5
Figure 4.14: Phasor diagram using the voltage drop V6u

According to Kirchhoff's voltage law:
V56*E6-Et =
Vbu
0
(Eu
Eu-Eu
>
Eu)
iis
the layout of an inter-connection in Figure 4.15.

the subscript
represenUng the leading voltage and the subscript representing the lagging voltage.
To calculate the power transfer between machines A and B, the current will flow from i
to
Thus:
Consider
j.
Vrj = Iij'Z
Vni = Vi1pt)-V:fonl
116
Ejl0
E16
Si=Pn*iQu
Sl=Pu+iQu
SIfrouO
Pa(load)
Sltrouo
iQaooaa)
Pn(toao)
iQn(rouo)
Figure 4.15: Two power Stations joined by an inter-connector

angle B.
will lag the voltage V; by an angte p ana ) will lag the voltage V; by an
as the load angle'
The angle between the voltages V; and V; is S' This angle is known
Figure 4.t6 shows a phasor diagram of these conditions'
Figure 4.16: Phasor diagram for the voltages and currents in the
inter-connected system shown in Figure 4'15
The real power at i will be:
Pi
Where:
= Vi.Iii.coS 0
$ : angle between
Vland
I;1
Lt7
But
I1i
consists of the two components I; ( * ) anA I,
1) ). fnus:
P; = V1.Ii;.cos $
= Vi(Ii - I1)cos S
= Villi cos B - I; cos (B + 5)l
.
Also:
=
Q;
u'[]*"F - ]*"G.0)]
= V;,I11,sin $
= Vi(Ii - I;)sin
= Vi[Ii sin p - I; sin (B + 6)]
Q
- u,[]." n F - ]."i" (o +o)]

At
the following standard equations are obtained:
Pi =
=
And:
V'[I, cos (B
- 6) -
Ii cos p)]
n[+.*"(p-6) -
].*"ul
Qi = Vi[Ii sin (B - 6) - I; sin B)]
= u[].",n(B-6)
].''"u]
From Figure 4.15 it can be seen that:
SI=
Sjrro.o+
SI
Si=Silr,ouo-si
It
is impodant to remember that these four formulas are derived under the following
assumptions:
.
.
118
Vi is leading V;,
The current flows from i to
i, namely I;,.
phase values are used in the standard formulae, the complex power per phase is
obtained. If line values are used, the total complex power is obtained.
If
Example 4.1
Two power stations, A and B, work at BB kV and deliver power to their respective
consumers as follows:
Power station A: 720 MVA at a power factor of 0'819 lagging
Power station B: 640 MVA at a power factor of 0'766 lagging
An inter-connector with an impedance of (1.25 + j5.69) ohms per line is connected

between power station A and power station B. The voltage at power station A is
advanced with an angle of Bo with respect to the voltage at power station p.
4.IJ
Use the complex power method
4.LZ
Calculate the final loadings on the two power stations'
to calculate the active and
reactive power
received and transferred.
'z
4.L.t
t..
V'(on)
vitonl
BBZB'_
(5(t.zs
=
BB
+ j5.6e)
L,2L7ZL6.39o kA
Vi = BBz0' kv
Vi = BBzB" kV
(1.25 + js.6e)
Slrroro = 720135'02" MVA
Siltro.O
= 640t40" MYA
Figure 4.17: Line diagram for Example 4.1

I
119
i. o,i
sI-
J5.v', r;
= ( JE Xsazs ")(L.2r7 t-t6.39o)
L85.4962-8.390 MVA
transfers 183.511 MW and receives 27.066 MVA'r
s;
J5.v,.Ii
o)(r.2r7 t-L6.39o)
= ( J5 Xsezo
ta5.4962-16.390 MVA
Breceives L77.958 MW and transfers 52.342 MVA'r
4.1.2
Ja
sjrrouor
sl
= 720t35.02o
L85.4962-8.390
864'.208z.26.540 MVA
Sil=
Slrro.or
640
t400
Si
185.496 t-16.390
559.088256.O40 MVA
Example 4.2
Two power stations, A and B, supply individual loads of respectively 465 MVA at a
power factor of 0,8064 lagging and 395 MVA at a power factor of 0.715 lagging, The
two power stations are in phase at 96 kV. Power stations A and B are linked by an
inter-connector with an impedance of (1.63 + j6.72) ohms per line, The phase of the
inter-connector at power station A is advanced by means of a phase regulator, in order
to increase the real power load of the power station to"6qg"UW,
4.2.I
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
r20
Calculate
Calculate
Calculate
Calculate
the advance angle at power station A.

the inter-connector current.
the final loads of the power stations.
the transmission line power loss.
V = 9620"kV
Vi = 9626 kV
Pu
= 600 MW
(1.63 + j6.74
slrro"o
= 465t36.25'
Sitro"o
MVA
= 395t44'36'
MVA

4.2.L
c*
Ja(loa0
- 465236.250
= (37s + j27s) MVA
o=
Pa
600
Pa(toad)
- 375
225 MW
\t.2
Pi =
225 =
4.2.2
+6)]
*lcosp-cos(p
L
g
6,915
5-
9.80
V,j=
V;1p1,y
fcos
' 76.370
cos
(76.37" + a)]
V1pr.;
9629,8
-T---E9620"
9.469294.90 kV
Iu=
V:
z
9.469294.9"
L8 + jdn
1.369218.530 kA
tzL
4.2.3
"
Qi= Str,nB-sin(B+s)l
z'
= 9g
fsin 76.370 - sin (76.370 + 9,Bo)]
6.915 '
= -34.557
Pr=
.L
tt.2
*lcos
MVAr
(p
6)
cos B]
= g*
[cos (76.37o - 9.Bo) - cos 76.370]
6.915 '
=
Qi.L=
215.876 MW
tt.2
*[sin(B-S)-sinB]
= 9g
[sin (76.37o - 9.Bo) - sin 76.370]
6.915 '
= -72.357
s]=
MVAr
S]rro.or* SI
= 465t36.25o + (225 - j34.557)

=
^*
S;
4.2.4
PU
LL
Jb(loa0 -
^*
Jj
395244.360
354.821279.190 MVA
(2L5.876
= 3.Ii .R
= (3X1.36e)11,63)
=
r22
646.366221.8350 MVA
9.165 MW
- j72.357)
Example 4.3
Two three-phase generating power stations, A and B, are linked together through a
4B-kV inter-connector. Power station B supplies a load to its consumers of 375 MVA at
a power factor of 0.875 lagging. The impedance of the inter-connector is
(1.86 + j8.42) ohms per phase. The load on the generators at power station A is 1BB
MVA at a power factor of 0.86 lagging. The local load taken by consumers of power
station A is 131i5 MW.
"Use standard formulae and calculate the phase difference between the voltages
of power station A and power station B.
4.3.2 Calculate the active power received by power station B.
4.3.3 Calculate the power factor of power station B.
4.3.1
4.3.4
Calculate
station A.
the power factor of the load supplied to the consumers of power
Vi = 4BZ5 kV
SI =
lggz:0.68'
V:
= 4820" kv
MVA
(1.86 + j8.42)
Pa(road)
= 131.5
MW
4.3.t
t,=
1BBZ3O,6BO
(151.586 + j9s.926) MVA

Pi = Pa -
Pa(load)
161.686
131.5
30.168 MW
r23
\/.2
Pi =
30.168 =
$=
D.rJ -
4.3.2
)tcosB-cos(B+s)l
g*
lcos77.54o
8.623'
cos
(77.s4o
a)l
6.560
tt2
t.or
g*
8.623
(P
5)
cos Bl
'lcos (77.54o-
6.s6")
cos77.54of
= 29.429 MW
lt.2
I trin (B - s) - sin Bl
gf gin (77.54o - 6,s6o) - sin 77.5401
-8.294
e;=
4.3.3
8.623'
Silrrouo
Jb-
MVAr
si
= 375 t28.96
=
COS
(29.429
- j8.294)
35392L232.440 MVA
$5 = cos 32.440
0.844lagging
tt.2
4.3.4
Qr =
I ttin B - sin (B + 5)l

g* lsin77.54o - sin (77.s4 + 6,s6")l
8.523'
- 4.878 MVAr
c* - sltrorot
Ja
188230.68' = Slrro.o
cJa(load)
724
sl
+ (30.168 - j4.B7B)
- 465.705237.470 MVA
COS $21636;
COS
37.470
= 0.794lagging
Example 4.4
Two power stations, A and B, are in phase at 132 kV. These power stations supply 840
MVA at a power factor of 0.791 lagging. An inter-connector with an impedance of
By means of a phase
12.61860 ohms per phase, links station A with station
regulator at B, the phase of the inter-connector at B is advanced so that station A
receives 221.3 MW from station B.
B.
4.4.L
4.4.2
Use standard formulae and calculate the angle of advance at power station B.
Calculate the final loading on each power station when the load is divided
equally between the two stations.
4.4.L
Pi=
227.3 =
4.4.2
v?
[cor (P
ryLfcos
L2.6
5)
cos B]
(86"
b)
5-
9.2850
Qi =
$tr'no-sin(B+s)l
Wlsin
12.6
86.
cos 86.]
sin (86. + 9.285.)l
2.51 MVAr
D.rl-
ti'B
Wfcos
12.6
cos (B + s)l
86"
cos (86. + 9.285.)]
223.838 MW
Q=
v,2
trin (P - s)
ryLfsin
12.6
=
(86"
sin Bl
9.28s")
sin 86"]
33.638 MVAr
r25
Ja
c-,.
"a(load)
q-
-(22r.3 - j33.638)
3tt.o46269.120 MVA
= 420t37.72o
Sil=
slrrouo
sl
420237.72o + (223.838 + j2.51)

=
6L3.6r9t25.010 MVA
Example 4.5
Two power stations, A and B, work at I3ZltB" kV and L32lI2" kV respectively. The
two power stations are connected via an inter-connector with an impedance of
7.5275" o/line, The power stations supply their separate consumers as follow:
Power station
Power station
4.5.7
4.5.2
4.5.3
A: 750 MVA at a power factor of 0.6691 lagging

B: 344.7 MW at a power factor of 0,766 lagging
Use the complex power method and calculate the total active and reactive
power received or send at each bus-bar.
Calculate the final power factor at each power station.
Calculate the operating angle of power station B if the phase regulator at
power station B is advanced to reduce the loading on power station A to
590 MW.
vij
4.5.1
=
=
V4p6y
Vilpny
r32lIB"
J:
t32zr2
J:
7.9772LO5" kV
VU
7.977
Z!05"
I,:.7
(rij)Q.5275")
Iij
1.0635230'kA
Sl=
JgVIi
(Ji Gzz ztB " X 1.06362-30' )
243.L722-12" MVA
126
''.
And:
Pi = 237.858 MW
Qi =
- 50.558 MVAr
si = Js v, ri
(i
ztz" )(L.0636 t-30'

= 243.!721-18'MVA
Gsz
D.=
.J
23r.27 MW
And:
4.5.2
Qi = -75.L44 MVAr
sl=
Siroro
Sl
750t48" + 243.L72t-12"
896.667234.42" MVA
5b=
=
=
^*
Su(toao
^*
5j
t4o" z43.L7z t rB,

0.76 38L.65L272.71' MVA
344'7
cos 34.42"
cos 0"
O.7855lagging
cos 0b = cos 72.77"
O.2972lagging
4.5.3
Pi
Pa
= 690
=
Dll
Pa(toad)
501,848
188.152 MW
tt2
t.or P l-r.-.r21
cos (P
+ s)l
t"? |lcos zs'- cos (75" + s)l

l7.s I'
188.152 = I
f= 4.76'
r27
Power station B should be operating at:
rB'-4.76" = L3.24'
Example 4.6
Two power stations A and B are synchronised at BB kV, Power station A delivers
424 MVA to its consumers at a power factor of 0.7L93 lagging. The final loading on
power stati6n B is 545139" MVA, The two power stations are inter-connected by a
transmission line with a resistance of 2.4 o and an inductive reactance of 7.6 o. The
excitation voltage of the generator at power station A is increased with 5.6820/o and the
input power to the generator is changed as such that the load anqle
- is 72.5oh of the
phase'impedance
angle.
4.6.r
Use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on power station A.
4.6.2
Calculate theggpg***.rumco._.El.l"gXp,,Syr1gl that can be delivered to the congume15

at power station B.
Calculate the total reactive power absorbed by the transmission line.
4.6.3
4.6.1
--'-
1-
2.4 + j7.6
z--
= 7.97272,47" A
$=
!2.5o/o x 72.47"
9.06'
D.lt
v'[!,cosp-Scos(B+5)]
''z
z
tt
[[
=
#).
os(72.47')-
(72.47'+ e,06")]
[#) *'
175.52 MW
Qi = vif
V.
7f
.sin P
V.
-;
sin (B + s)]
* )r,n o2.47"-e.06")
')
\7.e7)
e3
= g3lI )rinrzz.47.\-i
L\7.e7)
128
19.145 MVA'r
sjrrouo
si
= 424t44o +(175.62 + j19.146)
573.926.133.130 MVA
4.6.2
R=
vit
rr
,.o,
(B
[(#).
5)
-)
cos ot
[#}."
stz.+t
in(72.47"- e.06') -
[#),''"
rr.o,
os(72.47'- e.06")
"'t)
165.957 MW
q=
vit
tt
5b
545t39"
5n(toaO
4.6.3
eu
\/..sin (B - s) v sin
- ;f
f
[(#)'
01
tf
8.277 MVA'r
silrro.o
Silrrouo
sl
(166.957
i}.z77)
678.762229.550 MVA
= Qi-Q
= 79.146 + 8.277
= 27.423 MVA'r
Example 4.7
The individual loads on two power stations A and B are:
Power station A: 660 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0,6293
Power station B: 325 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.809
The two power stations are in phase at BB kV and is inter-connected by means of a

transmission line with an impedance of (2 + j10) O/phase. A tap-changing transformer
is adjusted at power station B to send 38.2 MVAr from power station B to improve the
power factor at power station A. The loads to the consumers remain the same.
t29
4.7.L
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
Usg standard formulae and calculate the percentage tap changing of the tapchanging transformer at power station B.
Calculate the final loadings on both power stations.
Calculate the power factor at both power stations.
Calculate the percentage power factor improvement on the load of power
station B,
4.7.r
Qi
= vi[].rin P -+sin
(B + s)l
g$i- vj)
= !.sin
7
38.2=
f V
tro'rgs J(tin
7B'6e'XVi
- BB)
= 0.096Vi(Vi- BB)
= 0.096 vi2 - B.462vi
0=
Vi
0.096 v,2
B.462Vi- 38.2
-ut.6t-+ac
2a
8.462!@
(zxo.oe6)
8.462+9.28
0.t92
= 92.45 kV
o/o
taP =
=
-vi
vj
92,45
BB
BB
5.O57o/o
4.7.2
\/.
Dlt-
*.cos
B(Vi- Vi)
L
=
i'?'.9lf*s
\10,198 r'
7.912 MW
130
78.6e")(e2,4s
- BB)
V.
= j.cos F(Vi- Vi)
Pj.L
/ ss
-- \.l(cos 78.69'X92.45 - BB)
= I( 10.1s8
/'
= 7.531 MW
V.
q.L= j.sin F(V,- Vi)
[-
37.654 MVA'r
=t9==
li0.1eB
]tr'n
l'
78.6e")(e2.4s
- BB)
Sl=Slrro.o-Sl
= 66At5f - (7.531 + j37.654)
sil=
626,2522.49.37" MVA
Sirro.o+ sl
= 325136
=
4.7.3
4.7.4
+ (7.9t2 + j38,2)
354.827140.24" MVA
cos $u
= cos 49.37"
= O,6512lagging
cos $5
= cos 40'24'
= 0.7633lagging
-=
Acosgo
0'809:9'1633
0.7633
5.987o/o
131
EXERCISE 4
1.
Two power stations, A and B, work at BB kV and deliver power to their separate consumers
as follow:
Power station A: 540 MVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging
Power station B: 480 MVA at a power factor of 0.8387 lagging
An inter-connector with an impedance of Z = 7.25177" ohms per line joins power station A
with power station B, The voltage at A is advanced with an angle of 9.3o with respect to
the voltage of B.
Use the complex power method and calculate the active power and reactive power
1.1
received and transferred.

1.v Write down the final distribution of active and reactive power between the
stations.
1.3 Calculate the final power factor at the generators of each power station.
2.
two power
Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at 132 kV, supply 650 MVA at a power
factor of 0.9063 lagging. An inter-connector with an impedance of (1.45 + j8,35) ohms
per line, links station A with station B. By means of a phase regulator at B, the phase of
the inter-connector at B is advanced in order that station A receives 242 MW from station
B. Use standard formulae to solve the following questions.
2.1 Calculate the angle of advance at power station B.

2.2 Calculate the final loading on each power station when the load is divided equally between
the two stations.
2.3 Calculate the active power loss in the inter-connector.
3,
Two power stations, A and B, work at 66 kV and deliver power to their separate consumers
as follow:
Power station B: 420 MVA at a power factor of 0,866 lagging
Power stations A and B are joined with an inter-connector with an impedance of

8.05178.3' o/line, The voltage at power station A is advanced with an angle of 9.60 with
respect to the voltage of power station B.
3.1
Use the complex power method and calculate the power and reactive power received and
transferred through the inter-connector.

3.2 Calculate the final loading on each of the two stations.
3.3 Calculate the power factor of the inter-connector.
3.4 Calculate the active power loss in the inter-connector.
r3z
4. Two power stations,
A and B, which are in phase at BB kV, supply respective loads of

452.25 MVA at an inductive power factor of 0.7071 and 545.25 MVA at a lagging power
factor of 0,88295. An inter-connector with an impedance of 2.45274" ohms per line, links
station A with station B. By means of a phase regulator at A, the phase angle of the
voltage at A is advanced in order to increase the loading of station A to 715 MW.
4,1 Use standard formulae and calculate the angle of advance at power station A.
4.2 Calculate the transmission line power loss.
5.
Two power stations, A and B, are linked by means of an inter-connector and transformers
having a combined impedance of (2.43L + jI3.7B7) ohms per line. The station voltages are
equal at 132 kV. Individual loads on stations A and B are 125 MVA at a lagging power
factor of 0.743I and 145 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0,8387 respectively. A
synchronous phase modifier is used to advanced the phase angle at A in order to tranfer
75 MW from A to B.
5.1 Use standard formulae and calculate the angle of advance at A.

5.2 Calculate the final loading on stations A and B.
6,
Two three-phase power stations, A and B, are connected by a 66-kV inter-connector with
an impedance of (1.96 + j9.57) ohms per phase. The total load on the generators at A is
5B.B MW ht a lagging power factor of 0.8. The local load connected directly to the bus-bar
of A is 39.3 MW at a lagging power factor of 0.707L. Power station B delivers 42,8 MVA at
a power factor of 0.6 lagging to its consumers.
6.i Use standard formulae and calculate the phase difference between the voltages of stations
A and B,
6,2
6.3
7.
Calculate the load, in MW, received by station B from station A.

Calculate the power factor of station B.
Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at BB kV, supply 540 MVA at a power
factor of 0.8071 lagging and 450 MVA at a power factor of 0.71 lagging. An inter-connector
with an impedance of (1.351 + j10.398) ohms per phase, links station A with station B. By
means of a phase regulator at station B, the phase of the inter-connector at B is advanced,
This causes the loading of station B to increase by 215 MW.
7.1 Calculate the angle of advance at power station B.

7.2 Use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on the power stations,
7.3 Calculate the transmission line power loss.
133
B.
The voltage of two power stations, A and B, is in phase at 132 kV. Power station A supply
loads with a rating of 720 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.673. Power station B supplies
loads with a rating of 650 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.798. The two power stations
are now connected through an inter-connector with an impedance of (1.288 + j12.455)
ohms per phase. The phase of the voltage at power station A is now changed so that the
total active power supplied by this power station increases to 750 MW.
8,1
Use standard formulae and calculate the change in phase angle of the voltage
station A.
8,2 Calculate the pbwer loss in the inter-connector.
8.3 Calculate the current flow through the inter-connector.
8.4 Calculate the total complex power supplied by each power station,
9.
at power
Two power stations, A and B, operate at 72 kY and deliver power to their respective
consumers as follows:
Power station B: 800 MVA at a power factor of 0.7 lagging
These two- power stations are joined with an inter-connector with an impedance of
(0.936 + j8.956) o/line. The voltage of power station A is advanced with an angle of 72o
lvith respect to the voltage of power station B.
-4,1 Use the complex power method and calculate the power and reactive power received and
tra nsferred th rough the inter-connector,
9.2 Calculate the power and reactive power absorbed by the inter-connector.
9.3 Calculate the final loading on each of the two power stations.
10. Two power stations, A and B, deliver power to their respective consumers of 408 MVA at a
power factor of 0.22495 lagging and 376 MVA at a power factor of 0.6018 lagging. A
current of 7045216.625" A flows through an inter-connector between the two power
stations, while a voltage of 6425293.625" V is measured across the inter-connector. The
voltage at power station A is advanced to deliver power through the inter-connector to

power station B. The power on the generators at power station A is given as 448 MVA at a
power factor of 0.559 lagging.
10.1Calculate the impedance of the inter-connector,
10.2 Use the complex power method and calculate the angle of advance at power station A.
10.3 Calculate the final loading on power station B.
134
Two power stations, A and B, supply loads of 184 MVA at a power factor of O.7O7I lagging
ffi and
196 MVA at a power factor of 0.82 lagging respectively. The two power stations work
in phase at 66 kV. An inter-connector with an impedance of 3.9l\2o ohms per phase, link
the two power stations. The voltage at power station B is increasedtoT4 kV in order that
power station A receives 175 MW from power station B,
11.1Use the complex power method and calculate the final loading on each power station.
11.2 Use standard formulae and calculate the active and reactive power send by power
station B.
12. Two power stations, A and B, supply a load of 378 MVA at a power factor of 0.766 lagging.
The two power stations work in phase at 66 kV. An inter-connector with an impedance of
3.9z&2o ohms per phase, links the two power stations, The voltage at power station B is
increased to 69 kV to send 175 MW to power station A.
12.1Use the complex power method and calculate the final loading on each power station if the
load is divided equally between the two power stations,
12,2 Use standard formulae and.calculate the active power loss in the inter-connector.
13. Two powerstations, A and B, are in phase and supply the following loads:
Power station B : 565 MVA at a power factor of 0.7071lagging
Power station A : 365 MVA at a power factor of 0.804 lagging
An inter-connector with an impedance of (0.61 + j6.97) ohms per line, links power
station A with power station B. By means of a phase regulator at power station A, the
phase of the inter-connector at this station is advanced by 29.2L'to increase its loading to
1070 MVA at a power factor of 0.788 lagging.
13.l Calculate the voltage on the power stations.

13.2 Use the complex power method to calculate the transmission line loss.
13.3 Use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on power station B.
14. Two power stations A and B, are synchronised at 132 KV. The loading on the generators
of power station A is 820 MVA at a power factor of 0,809 lagging. Power station B delivers
640 MVA at a power factor of 0.7547 lagging to its consumers. The two power stations are
resistance of 1.35 e and an inductive

The excitation voltage of the generator at power station B is
increased with 3.03olo and the input power to the generators at power station B is changed
as such that the load angle at power station B is 10.9olo of the transmission line impedance
inter-connected by
reactance of 6.35
a transmission line with a
A.
angle.
14.1use standard formulae and calculate the final loading on power station B.
14'2 Calculate the maximum complex power that can be delivered to the consumers
station A.
14.3 calculate the total reactive power absorbed by the transmission line,
at power
135
15. Two power stations A and B, which are in phase
at 132 kV, are inter-connected by means

of a 72 km aluminium transmission line with an effective conductor diameter of 25 mm.
Power station A delivers 450 MVA to its consumers at a power factor of 0.7193 lagging.
Power station B delivers 245 MW to its consumers at a power factor of 0.809 lagging. The
voltage at power station B is delayed by 6' with respect to the voltage at power station A.
The resistance yalue of the line is 25olo of the reactance value of the line. The resistivity of
the aluminium is 0.0285 pO.m, Use standard formulae:

15.2 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement of the load on
power station A.
Use the complex power method:

15.4 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement of the load on
16. Two power stations A and B work at

separate customers as follow:
power station A.
8826' kV and 66275" kV respectively to supply their
Power station A: 480 MVA at a power factor of O.7O77lagging

Power station B: 720 MVA at a power factor of 0,766 lagging
The two power stations are joined by an inter-connector with an impedance of

(3.32 + j8.46) A/phase. Use standard formulae:
16,1Calculate the total active and reactive power delivered or received at each bus bar.
16.2 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector,
16.3 Calculate the final active and reactive power loadings on each power station.
16.4If the phase-regulator at power station A is adjusted such to reduce the loading at power
station A by 75 MW, calculate the operating angle of power station A.
r-1'!
17, Two power stations supply loads to their separate consumers as follow:
Power station B: 360 MVA at a power factor of 0.777L lagging
The two.power stations are in phase at 96 kV and is inter-connected with a transmission

line with an impedance of (1.58 + j7.434) ohms per phase. A tap-changing transformer is
used to at power station B to send 42MYA'r from B to improve the power factor at power
station A, while the loads of the consumers stay the same. Use standard formulae:
17.1
17,2
17.3
17.4
Calcutate the percentage tap changing of the transformer at power station B.
Calculate the final loading on both power stations.

Calculate the final power factor of both power stations,
Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector,
17.5The percentage power factor improvement of power station A,
18, Two power stations supply loads to their separate consumers as follow:
Power station B: 275 MW at a power factor of 0.809 lagging
The two power stations are inter-connected with an overhead aluminium transmission line
of 84.4 km with an effective diameter of 32 mm. The two power stations are in phase at
BB kV. The voltage at power station B is delayed by 5% with respect to the voltage at
power station A. The value of the resistance of the transmission line is 25olo of its inductive
reactance value. The resistivity of aluminium is 0.0284 pQ.m.
18.1Use the complex power method and calculate the final loading on power station B.
18.2 Use standard formulae and calculate the percentage power factor change of the loading on
power station A.
18.3 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector.
19. Two three-phase power stations A and B, are in phase at a voltage of BB kV. The two
power stations are linked by a transmission line with an impedance of B.IZB2'O/line. The
power stations supply power to two separate systems as follow:
Power station
Power station
A: 480 MVA at a lagging

B: 790 MVA at a lagging
power factor of 0.682

power factor of 0.8093
A synchronous phase modifier is used at power station A to increase the active power on
this power station to 42A MW while the demands from the consumers stay the same,
19.1Use standard formulae and calculate the value of the load angle at power station A.
19'2 Use the complex power method and calculate the final loadings on the two power stations.
r37
20, Two three-phase power stations A and B, are in phase and supply power to two separate
systems at 132 kV. The loads are:
Power station
Power station
A:
B:
720 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.7193

325 MVA at a lagging power factor of 0.809
The voltage at power station A is delayed to transfer active power to the power station by
means of an inter-connector with an impedance of L2lB2' filline. The power loss in the
inter-connectoris 3.9 MW. Use standard formulae:
20.1Calculate the delayed load angle at power station A.
20.2 Calculate the final loading on both power stations.
20.3 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement at power station B.
21. Two power stations A and B work at BBZ5' kV and

separate customers as follow:
BBzl2
kV respectively to supply their
Power station A: 550 MVA at a power factor of 0.7793lagging

Power station B: 640 MVA at a power factor of 0.7771lagging
The two power stations are joined by an inter-connector with an impedance of

8.75177" ohms per phase. Use standard formulae:
21.1Calculate the totalactive and reactive power delivered or received at each bus bar.
21.2 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector.
21.3 Calculate the final active and reactive power loadings on each power station.
2L.4If the phase-regulator at power station B is adjusted such to reduce the loading at power
station B by 45 MW, calculate the operating angle of power station B.
22. Two power stations, A and B, which are in phase at 132 kV, supply 720 MVA at a power
factor of 0.707t lagging. A transmission line with an impedance of BAZB2" o/phase link
the two power stations. By means of a phase regulator at power station B, the phase of
the inter-connector at power station B is advanced such that power station A receives
124 MW from power station
The loads to the consumers remain the same. Use
B.
standard formulae:
22.1Calculate the load angle at power station B.
Z2.2Calculate the final active and reactive power on each power station when
divided equally between the two power stations.
22,3 Calculate the active and reactive power loss in the inter-connector.
22.4 Calculate the percentage power factor improvement of power station B.
138
the load
is
CHAPTER FIVE
POWER ECONOMICS
5.1
INTRODUCTION
The objectin the design and operation of a power station is to generate electric energy
safely, efficiently and economically. The economical success of any electricity company
depends on the economic viability and reliability of the supply. The supply and demand
of electrical energy is very different from any other product produced to be sold to
consumers. Electrical energy has to be supplied on the time that it is demanded by
consumers. There is no simple storage system that can be used to supply additional
energy during peak time demands. This is a unique situation end necessitates the
production of sufficient electrical energy to meet the demand of consumers at any time.
This means that accurate forecasting of load requirements at various given times must
be maintained in order to recommend the necessary power output for a certain time of
the day, week, month or year.
5.2
MAXIMUM DEMAND
The maximum demand to be made on a power station determines the size and cost of
the installation. If the maximum demand is high compared to the average load i,e. the
load factor (power factor) is low, the cost per kW-h will be high. The maximum
demand on a power station can be reduced by the encouragement to diversify the load
or by the encouragement of power factor correction.
5.2.1
ENCOURAGEMENT TO DIVERSIFY THE LOAD

The maximum demands of various consumers are not likely to occur all at the same
time. This means the maximum demand on the power station is always much less than
the sum of the maximum demands of the various consumers. The diversity factor is
therefore:
le=
sum of the maximum demands of variousconsumers

max imum demand on the powersbation
This ratio is always higher than one and should be as high as possible. This factor can
be increased by offering tariff incentives to consumers using energy during off-peak
times.
139
5.2.2
ENCOURAGEMENT OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The full-load output of a generator is determined by the voltage at which it is designed
to generate and the current that can be carried by the stator windings without
overheating. A generator that is capable of generating 100 MW will have a full-load
output of 100 MW at unity power factor, The full-load output will decrease to B0 Mw
with a power factor of 0.8 and 60 MW with a power factor of 0.6. This is also
applicable on other equipment such as feeders, transformers and switchgear. If the
overall power factor of the system is therefore 0.8, the amount of plant required is 1.25
times more'than necessary had the overall power factor been unity. To encourage
consumers to improve a lagging power factor by fitting static capacitors or synchronous
condensers, industrial tariffs include a maximum demand charge as well as a kW-h
charge. The maximum demand charge is usually based on the highest kVA-h supplied
during any thity consecutive minutes in the month of the account.
5.2.3
LOAD AND FORM FACTORS
A power station should ideally supply power at full load, but for
technical and
economical reasons this is not achieved. The load is therefore not constant for the
whole year. A measure of the effective use of a power station over an arbitrary period
of time is required and this is called the load factor. It can be defined in terms of
power as:
k,=
This often means the
average active power o utput (W)

max imum active poweroutput(W)
average active power o utput (W)

installed capacity of the station (W)
'
It can also be defined in
terms of energy:
ko=
anualoutputin kW- h
max imum possible anauloutputin kW- h
anual energy converted

(in
stalled kW capacity )(n umber of ho
u rs
in one year)
The rms and average values of the annual load curue can be found in the usual way
and should not be confused with the sinusoidal waveform of the load current. The
form factor can be found by the equation:
kf=
,l+ru"
rms value of the anual load curve

average value of the anual load curve
When using Kelvin's Law to find the most economical c.s.a. (cross-sectional area) of a
transmission line, the rms value of the annual load curve is used. This can be found by
multiplying the maximum value of the load current per annum by the load and form
factors, since:
,Imax^ Irr.
Iu*rug.
Iat'erage
s.2.4
LOSS FACTOR
Ima*
IrmS
The loss factor for a transmission system consists of the following ratio:
Loss factor =
average power losses per annum

maximum powerlosses per annum
The loss factor differs from the load factor as the copper losses vary as the square of
the load current. There are, however, losses that are independent of the load current.
This can be dielectric losses in cables or iron losses in transformers. These losses
increase the value of the overall loss factor when combined with the copper losses.
Since the loss factor differs from the load factor, the cost of transmitting each kW-h
varies with load in a different way from the cost of generating each kW-h.
5.3
MOST ECONOMICAL CROSS.SECTIONAL AREA OF

TOR OR TRANSMISSION LINE
A CONDUC.
The c.s,a. of a distributor is generally determined by the maximum voltage drop that
can be tolerated. In the case of feeders and transmission lines, the initial cost and the
cost of energy loss are more important, The larger the c.s.a., the higher the initial cost
but the lower the energy loss, The initial cost on a complete transmission line
comprises:
The cost of the conductor itself and is directly proportional to the c.s.a, of the
conductor.
The cost of towers, insulators and erection of the overhead lines, or in the case of
underground cables, the cost of insulation, laying and jointing of the conductors.
These costs depend to some extend on the conductor c,s.a. but are considered
constant when deriving Kelvin's Law.
L47
5.4
KELVIN'S LAW
the most economical c.s.a. of a conductor is that which
makes the annual cost of the energy losses equal to the annual interest and
depreciation charges on the initial cost of the conductor material only.
Kelvin's Law states that
C=Cr*Cz
c:
Where:
total annual cost of operating the transmission line
Cr= total annual interest and depreciation charges

Cz= annual cost of energy losses
Cr=P.A+Q
P
Where:
=
Q=
constant that depends on the cost per unit volume of the
conductor material used

the conductor in cm2
constant that depends on the cost of the towers, insulators
and erection
rTrost economical c.s.a. of
Both the constants P and Q also depend on the interest rate and depreciation charges,
Ignoring leakage resistance, dielectric losses and corona, the annual cost of energy loss
is directly proportional to 12.R.t. I is the load current, R the conductor resistance and t
the time that the current is flowing. Since R is directly proporiional to A:
Where:
Thus:
C=P.A+ o+5
.A
For C
to be a minimum,
PAnd:
L42
constant depending on the cost of energy
dc
= 0. Hence:
dA
{A2 = o
P.A=
!
A
5.4.1 LIMITATIONS
TO THE APPLICATION OF KELVIN'S LAW
Kelvin's Law is derived on the assumption that the cost of towers, insulators and
erection are independent of conductor c.s.a. In practice, the cost of these items
increases with conductor c.s.a.
In the case of very high voltage, steel-cored aluminium overhead lines, the cost of
the conductor material is not a major paft of the initial cost.
In deriving Kelvin's Law, only the copper losses are considered.

voltages, corona losses may be comparable with the copper losses.
.
o
.
At the higher
When applying the law to underground cables, the c.s.a. obtained may be too small
because dielectric losses are ignored and heat dissipation is more difficult.
The correct value of the load current is difficult to estimate in advance.
The c.s,a, obtained using the law is based on financial considerations and must be
checked for current densityT voltage drop, corona and mechanical strength.
In general, Kelvin's Law is most useful up to 33-kV lines, However, the concept of
economic current density is sometimes worth considering for higher voltages, The
curve of total cost against conductor c.s.a. is usually very flat near the minimum point,
as shown in Figure 5.1. Therefore, an error of the order of 20olo either way does not
usually make much difference to total annual operating costs. For an impoftant line, at
least two standard conductor sizes on either side of the most economical c.s.a. can be
used
to
calculate the total annual costs
for each, including towers, insulators
and
erection.
r43
Total cost (C)

(a
F
a
o
(J
J
Cost cr c.s.a. (P.A)
zz.
Constant cost (Q)
CON DUCTOR
CROSS-SECNONAL AREA
Figure 5.1: Variation of annual costs with conductor c.s,a
5,4.2 TRANSMISSION
VOLTAGE
of conductor material required is

reduced. However, the cost of transformers, switchgear, and other equipment
As the transmission voltage is raised, the amount
increases with voltage so that there is an optimum voltage of transmission. The most
economical transmission voltage increases with the length of the line and the size of
the load, The only satisfactory method of arriving at the most economical voltage is to
take at least two probable standard voltages and to calculate the total annual costs for
each. The generation voltage, the length of the line and the size of the load are first
decided upon. The costs of transformers at both ends, switchgear/ over-voltage surge
diveders, insulators and towers are then considered for each voltage. The most
economical conductor c.s.a. is calculated for each voltage using Kelvin's law and hence
the annual costs of the conductor material and the energy losses are found.
t44
5.4.3
GENERATING COSTS
The annual cost of running a steam power station may be divided into the following:
.
.
Fixed costs that is independent of the maximum power and annual energy outputs
and is pat of the cost of the central administrative organization and the capital cost
of the station site.
to the maximum possible power output but is

of the annual energy output and consist of the salaries of charge
Costs which is directly proportional
independent
engineers and maintenance staff and the cost of buildings, plant and spares.
Costs which is directly proportional to the annual energy output and is mainly that
of fuel and water.
Since the first two costs are independent of the number of kW-h generated per annum/
these costs are called the standing charges and the last cost is called the running
charge. It is difficult to separate these charges precisely. For example, the cost of
maintenance does paftly depend on the kW-h generated per annum. The greater the
load factor, the lower is the cost of each kW-h because the standing charges will be
distributed over more units. In the case of a hydro-electric station, the capital costs are
very high and the running costs are very low. In order to keep down the cost per
kw-h, it is therefore even more important to maintain a high load factor than it is for a
steam station.
5.5
MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR

Static capacitors and synchronous condensers also have an annual cost charge.
Therefore, as the cost of the maximum demand charge is reduced, the annual cost of
the capacitors or condensers is increased.
sin 0 =
Where:
e:
C:
A=
C
A
most economical angle

annual cost on capacitors or condensers
maximum demand charge per kVA
145
5.6
TARIFFS
Tariffs may be divided into the following groupsl
.
.
.
Agricultural
Combined premises
Commercial
Domestic premises
Industrial
Off-peak
Tariffs are also designed for special circumstances:
1,
It applies to the electrical energy
2.
It applies to electrical energy supplied to any premises during ceftain times of the
day and night. It consists of a kW-h charge lower than (1) plus a fixed quarterly
used for domestic purposes in a private residence.

usually consists of a kW-h charge and plus a fixed quarterly charge based on the
number of rooms or floor area.
It
charge.
3.
It applies to electrical energy used for trade, business or professional purposes as

well as for domestic purposes. It does not apply to premises in which items are
manufactured or grown to be sold. It consists of a kW-h charge similar than the
tariff in (1) plus a higher fixed quafterly charge.
It
5,
it
nt applies to electrical energy supplied to industrial premises and is a monthly
applies to electrical energy supplied to premises used solely for commercial

purposes/ but not to premises in which items are manufactured or grown to be
sold, The tariff is similar to that in (1) except that there is an additional fixed
quarterly charge based on the maximum kVA required.
applies to electrical energy supplied to a farm, market garden or agricultural
holding. The tariff is similar to that in (4).
Te:c'r-n um dema nd ta riff
145
Example 5.1
A 120-MW power station delivers 120 MW for three hours and 60 MW for nine hours
and is shut off for the rest of the day. The station is shut down for maintenance for
45 days of each year. Calculate the annual load factor of the power station,
Load
factor =
anualoutputin kW- h
max imum possible anauloutputin kW- h
(120 x 103X3X36s
4s) + (60 x 103X9X36s
4s)
(120x103X365"24)
O.274
Example 5.2
33-kV, transmission line transmits
a three-phase,
balanced load
that
varies
throughout the year as follows:

2.4 MVA for 1600 hours
1.8 MVA for 1800 hours
No load for the remainder of the year
Electrical energy costs 68.4 c/kW-h and the total interest and depreciation charges is
I2o/o. The copper conductor has a cross-sectional area of 12 mmz and costs R34.50
per kilogram. The copper has a density of 8860 kg/m3 and the resistance of one
kilometre of single conductor is 0.I77 filkm.
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
Calculate
Calculate
Calculate
Calculate
5.2.L
Consider one kilometre of single conductor:
2.4
the
the
the
the
MVA:
most economical conductor c.s.a.
diameter of this conductor.

maximum current density.
load and form factors.
Ir
-S
J:.v'
xl}6
(6xgs x 103)
2.4
41.989 A
L47
Energy loss = 12.R.t
( o.vt 10-3 )
"
(41.e8e)'zI A
Jtroool
499,303
kw_h
Ir=
1.8 MVA:
Js.v,
1.8 x 106
31.492 A
Energy loss = 12.R.t
=
315.97
=
_
it=Tt
*)fo.utol
-557.647
A
o.LA
m=:-10b
=
=
(BB6oX1o3 x 1O2XA)
106
88G(A) k9
Annual charges on the initial cost of the copper
= (34.s0x0,12XBB6XA)
= R36680.4(A)
Using Kelvin's Law:
(3668.04XA) =
A_
F\-
I4B
Jtrsool
kw-h
A
Annuat cost of enersy toss
o.vl,,1o-3 )
(31.4e2)'zI
557.647
A
O.3899 cm2
.
/-\-
5.2.2
TE.d2
4
n'dz
= 4
d = 0.7O5 cm
0.3899
r-t
5.2.3
= 4r.989
0.3899
107.692
=
5.2.4
Alcm2
Average value of the load per annum

(a1.989X1600) + (31.a92X1800)
(36sX24)
= t4.L4
Rms value of the load per annum
(36sxr4)
= 22.9305 A
k,=
L4.14
41-989
0.33675
,
'
22.9305
74.74
L.622
Example 5.3
1.5-MVA transformer supplies a rural area and is fed by a 33-kV, three-phase
overhead transmission line. The load and form factors are 0.58 and 1.11 respectively.
The hard drawn copper conductors cost R38750,00/m3, The cross-sectional area of the
conductors is 12 mm2 and has a resistance of 0,181 c/km, The interest and
depreciation charges form 11olo and the cost of electrical energy is 72.4clkW-h. Use
Kelvin's Law and determine the most economical c.s.a. of the conductor.
149
Consider one kilometre of single conductor:
-S
Js.v.
1.5 x 106
(J5Xsr x 103)
26,243 A
= (26.243)(0.s8X1,11)
= 16.743 A
Annual energy loss
I2.R.t
(o.tat
= (16.743)2[
= 444,477
.A
Annuat cost of energy toss
* 1o-3
)
)rzos>rz+l
kw-h
= (* .o'\(0.724)
\A)
3211801
_
-^_
A
Annual charges on the initial cost of the copper

(103 x 192 xA)
(3a7so)
10b
= 425.25(A)
(426.2sXA)
321.801
A
150
0.868 cm2
(0.11)
Example 5.4
A certain load varies as follows for 275 days per annum:
300 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging for eight hours per day
75 kVA at unity power factor for eight hours per day
For the remaining time of the year the load varies as follows:
.
o
r
No load for eight hours per day
5.4.L
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.1
Calculate the annual load and form factors.

Calculate the efficiency at full load and a power factor of 0.809 lagging, the two
all-day efficiencies and the all-year efficiency for each of the following 300-kVA
transformers:
Transformer
Initial cost
Iron loss
Full-load copper loss
R24000
1.4 kW
5.6 kW
R22000
2.5 kW
4.2 kW
Calculate the total annual running cost of each transformer. The cost of
electrical energy is 75c/kW-h and the annual interest and depreciation charges
are L2o/o.
Calculate the annual lost factor for each transformer.
Average value of the load per annum

(300 X27s XB) + (120 ) (27s XB) + (7sX27s XB) + (e0 Xe0XB) + (2sXeoXB)
(36sX24)
133.767 kVA
(:oo)2(zzoo ) + (rzo)2 (zzoo) + (zs)2 (zzoo) + (go)2 (zzo) + (zs)2 (zzo)

(36sX24)
= 168,3715
kVA
151
r33.767
kl=
300
o.446
168.3715
k/=
133.767
1.259
5.4.2
Transformer A:
Full-load efficiency =
1-
(300X0.809) + 7
= o.9727
Transformer B:
Ful-toaderriciency
- 1=
Cm119*#r+e,
O.9731
For each of 275 days per annum:

Transformer A
Iron loss
Copper loss at 300 kVA
Toial daily copper loss
Total daily losses
Daily output
r52
(1.4)(24) = 33.6 kW-h
(2.s)(24) = 60 kw-h
(s.6XB) = 44.8 kW-h
(4.2X8) = 33.6 kw-h
/ rzo \2
t-l
\300/
Transformer
(s.6XB) = 7.168 kW-h
( ts\2
(s'6XB)
t-l
\300 /
= 2'B kw-h
(4.2X8) = 5.376 kW-h

flq)'
\300 /
(#)' (4.2X8) =
2.1 kw-h
54.768 kw-h
41.076 kw-h
88.368 kw-h
101.076 kw-h
(300x0.B0exB) + (120x0.866x8) + (7sx8)

3372.96 kw-h
Transformer A:
BB,368
1-
All-day efficienry
3372.96 + 88.368
o.9745
Transformer
"
B:
All-day efficiencY
101.076
O.9709
3372.96 + 101.076
For each of 90 days Per annum:

Transformer
Transformer A
(2.s)(24) = 60 kw-h
(t.4)(24) = 33.6 kW-h
Iron loss
/so)2 (s.6xs) 4.032 kW-h

=
l-l
\300 /
(zs\2
t-l
\300/
(s.6XB) = 0.311kW-h
/so)2 (4.2X8)
l-l
\3ooi
[#)'
= 3.024 kW-h
(4.2X8) = 0.233 kW-h
4.343 kw-h
3.257 kw-h
37.943 kw-h
63.257 kw-h
Total daily copper loss
Total daily losses
(eoxo.Bosx8) + (2sxo,B66XB)
755.68 kw-h
Daily outPut
Transformer A:
1-
All-day efficiency
37.9+3
755.68 +37.913
o.9522
Transformer
B:
All-daY efficiencY =
1-
63.257
755.68 +63.257
o.9228
153
Transformer
Transformer A
(BB.36BX27s) + (37.s43X90)
= 27776.07 kW-h
Total annual losses
(101.076X27s) + (63.2s7)(90)
(3372.96)(27s) + (7ss.68xe0)
Annual output
33a89.03 kW-h
ee5575.2 kW-h
27716.07
33489.03
1
All-year elficiency
995575 .2 + 27716.07
995575 .2 + 33489.03
O.9729
0.9675
5.4.3
Transformer
Transformer A
Annual cost of losses
Annual interest
(27716.07)(0.75)
(24000x0.12)
and
depreciation charges
20787.05
Total annual cost
5.4.4
R20787.05
R2BB0
+ 2880
(33489.03X0.75)
(22000x0.12)
25116.77
R23667.05
R25116.77
R2640
+ 2640
R27756.77
Transformer A:
Average copper loss per annum
(s.6x27sx8) +
(#f
(s.6x27sx8) +
(#f
(s.6x27r(s) +
(36sX24)
1.764 kW
Average iron loss per annum
(1.4X36sX24)
(36sX24)
1.4 kW
Overall loss factor =
L.7& +1.4
1.4 + 5.6
= o.452
154
(*%f
(s.6xe0x8) +
(#f
(s.6xe0x8)
Transformer
B:
Average copper loss per annum
(4.2x27sxs) + (*3r(4.2x27sx8) + (#r(4.2X27r(8) +
er(4.2xeox8)
(#r(4.2xe0x8)
(36t(24)
1.323 kW
Average iron loss
o"' unl1r.sx36sxz4)
(36sX24)
= 2.5 kW
overall loss factor
r'323 +2'5
O.571
2.5 + 4.2
Example 5.5
An industrial consumer has a constant load of 2.25 MW at a power factor of 0.809

lagging for eight hours per day for 23 days in a month of 30 days. For the remaining
time there is a constant load of 150 kW at unity power factor,
5.5.1
Use the following tariff and calculate the monthly cost:
Unit (kw-h) charge per month:

The first 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month
The next 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month
Additional kW-h supplied
75clkW-h
65c/kW-h
55c/kW-h
Maximum demand charge per month:

The first 300 kVA of maximum demand in the month
The next 450 kVA of maximum demand in the month
Additional kVA of maximum demand
5'5'2
R12.90/kVA
R11.90/kVA
R10.00/kvA
R9.00/kvA
The consumer now improves the power factor of the main load to 0.9455
lagging using loss-free static capacitors with a cost of R1200.00 per month,
Calculate the monthly saving due to this action.
155
5.5.1
For maximum demand:
= S,cos 0
= (SX0.809)
S = 2781.211
P
2250
kVA
Maximum demand charge
=
o
(300X12,90) + (4s0X11,90) + (7s0X10) + (I271.211X9.00)
R28155.9O
kW-h used in one month
(22s0)(23X8) + (1s0)[(23X16) + (7X24)]
= 4944OO kw-h
First amount of kW-h
= (200)(2781.211)
= 556242.2 kw-h
Which is more than the actual amount of 494400 kW-h used.

kW-h charge
Total monthly cost
5,5.2
= (4g44OO)(0.75)
= R370800.OO
= R28165.90 + R370800.00
= R398955.90
For maximum demand:
= S.cos 0
= (SX0,9455)
S = 2379.693 kVA
P
2250
Maximum demand charge
(300X12.e0) + (4s0X11.90) + (7s0)(10) + (879.693X9.00)
= R24642.24
kW-h used in one month
(22s0)(23X8) + (1s0)l(23x16) + (7)(24)l
(200X2379.693)
= 4944OO kw-h
First amount of kW-h
= 475938.6 kw-h
kw-h charge
156
= (4s7938.6X0.75)
= R358953.86
+ (494400
475938.6X0.65)
Total cost = R24642.24 + R368953.86 + R1200
R394795.10
Monthly saving
R398965.90
R4169.80
R394796.10
Example 5.6
A sub-statioh transformer supplies 480 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.6428.
5.6.1
5.6.2
Calculate the kVA'r rating of loss-free static capacitors required for constant kW
correction to 0,9455 lagging ,
Calculate the kVA'r rating of a synchronous motor required for constant kVA
correction to 0.9455 lagging.
/l
Figure 5.2
5.5.1
cos-1 0.6428
cos-l 0.9455
= l9o
5oo
P(tan $1 - tan g2)

= 480(tan 50" - tan 19o)
Qc=
= 406.7645 kVA',r
5.6.2
Before correction:
D-
(cg
in Figure 5,2)
(ac
in Figure 5,2)
S.cos $
480 = (sx0.6428)
S-
746.733kVA
L57
P_
After correction:
S,cos $
= (746.733)(0.94ss)
706.036 kW
Pin = 706,036
(ad in Figure 5,2)
480
226.036 kW
(na in Figure 5.2)
Before correction:
Stagging
= (7a6.733Xsin 0r)
= (746.733)(sin 50o)
= 572.031 kVA
(bg in Figure 5.2)
After correction:
c.
Jlaggrng -
(746.733)(cos {2)
= (746.733)(sin 19o)
Sleading =
cJtn
243.1125 kVA
(G
572.03r - 243.tt25
328.9185 kVA
(ef in Figure 5.2)
in Figure 5.2)
P_JQ
= 226.036
j32B.91Bs
399.099z-55.50 kVA
(ce
in Figure 5.2)
Example 5.7
A load with a maximum demand of 750 kVA at a power factor of 0.707I lagging is to
be improved to the most economical power factor. The annual tariff is R35.09 per kVA
and the annual interest and depreciation charges is 12% total. The initial cost of the
loss-free static capacitors is R100.00 per kVA'r.
5,7.7
5.7.2
5.7.3
5.7.4
5.7.r
158
Calculate the most economical power factor,

Calculate the kVA'r rating of the capacitors required.
Calculate the annual net saving.
Calculate the time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors.
c-
(100x0.12)
= R12.00
sin e
A
LZ
35,09
0.342
200
0.9397lagging
cos e
5.7.2
S.cos 0r
(7s0x0.707)
530.25 kW
0t=
cost o,7o7
450
P(tan 0r - tan $2)
(530.25Xtan 45" - tan 20o)
= 337.255 kVA',r
Qc=
5.7.3
Before
After
correction: S =
correction:
P
s30.2s
S
Reduction:
Annual tariff saving
750 kVA
= S,cos 0
= (sx0.9397)
= 564.275 kVA
=
750-564.276
185.724 kVA
= (L85.724X35.09)
= R5517.06
Cost of capacitors
(100x0.12x337.2ss)
R4047.06
Annual net saving
R6517.06
- 4047.06
R2470.00
5.7.4
Time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors

(337,255X35,09)
2470
= 4.79lyears
159
EXERCISE 5
1,
A load has a maximum demand of 770 kVA at a power factor 0,7 lagging. The power
factor is improved by connecting a 407 kVA'r static capacitor in parallel with the load,
The capacitor losses are 5.5 W/kVA'r, This capacitor is permanently connected to the
supply, Electrical energy costs 83,3 c/kW-h. The annual tariff is R105.00 per kVA
maximum demand and the annual interest and depreciation costs are R5555.00.
1.1
Calculate the'kVA maximum demand after power factor correction.

Calculate the annual net saving,
r.2
2.
A load of 120 kVA has a power factor of 0.7 lagging. An additional motor load of 24 kW
that includes the losses, is added to the existing load. The new load can either be:
2.t
An induction motor fitted with loss-free capacitors to improve the power factor from
2.2
0.809 to 0.95 lagging, The motor costs R2000.00 and the capcitors cost R50.00/kVA.
A synchronous in duction motor, costing R100.00/kVA, that can be excited so that the
overall total kVA-load remains the same as before the extension of the load.
The tariff is R40,00 per kVA maximum demand plus 62.4clkW-h. The annual interest
and depreciation charge is 10% for Question 2.L and I2o/o for Question 2.2. The load
remains constant for 150 days and zero for the remainder of the year.
3.
3.1
3.2
A balanced, three-phase load of 180 kW at a power factor of 0.707 lagging is supplied at

440 V for 100 days per year. The load is connected to the suppy through a tree-core
cable with a resistance of 0.06 O/core.
Calculate the power factor at the supply.
Calculate
the annual cost if the tariff is R40.00 per kVA maximum demand
and
62.8 c/kW-h.
Static capacitors are now connected to to the load end to improve this power factor to
0.9455 lagging. The annual interest and depreciation cost is l2o/o.
3.3 Calculate the new annual cost.

3.4 Calculate the time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors,
4. A 900-kVA transformer is fed by an 33-kV, three-phase overhead transmission
line. The
load and form factors are 0.63 and 1.21 respectively. The hard drawn copper conductors
cost R36500.00/m3. The cross-sectional area of the conductors is 1 cmz and has a
resistance of 777 mfi/km. The interest and depreciation charges form 110/o and the cost
of electrical energy is R0.69/kW-h. Use Kelvin's Law and determine the most economical
c,s.a. of the conductor,
160
A cetain load varies as follows for 248
dTER
270 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagg

96 kVA at a power factor of o.7O7L tagglT
60 kVA at a power factor of 0.9455 lagg
For the remaining time of the year the
SIX
SYSTEMS
l<
72 kVA at a power factor of 0.809 laggir

20 kvA at a power factor of a'707r laggrctrical power systems are almost always required
No load for eight hours per
I kvA. In the process of computation, it is more
day
5.1
5.2
carcurate the annuar road and,ro* r..,:X;:T?:ffi:?:::rTr-,il"[

Calculate the efficiency at full-.load and 6 as the ratio of the quantity to its base value
efficiencies and the all-year efficiency foi percent is 100 times the value in per unit. The
l"J]il:J"fi""';"?:
are usually specified by the designers and

unit.
Iron loss
1.2 kW
2.5 kW
5.3
5.4
6.
the power system is heavily dependent on circuit

tems are three-phase, is a major complication.
rr is the large number of components. Typical
'ators and hundreds of transmission lines and
*"
:ffitilrul:
the tota I a n n ua I r u n n ns
d::"' ;x1i:TJ'j?'ffi::,*Tj?[f
is R0'72lkw-h and the annual interest
lrheir complicating effects have to be minimised as
Calculate the annual lost factor for each >f the powe,
system is the one line diagram. The
ca rcu ate
I
A 66-kv, transmission rine transmi"..iif,.,IfTtrJff*1"$"j1fi1"":r#t:.ff,i'J:il

the year as
per-unit system simplifies numerical analysis and
representations are very
4s00 kvA for 75
ffi5f:Jl:fi'ol.lx,j["r]"
3200 kVA for 90 days
900 kVA for the remainder of the year
follows:
days
The total interest and depreciation

R0.71lkw-h and, The copper conductor
Percentage system except that all quantities
R52,40/kg. rne coppli r.,ur-u a"niitv
- -' o-1S
orsinsre lonductor i, ize ;f,/k'.
are
ffiT88:ij"ii Jn"":ff.1,,?JIffi$"JrL:H
6.1
6.2
6.3
facile in the use of the system because of its

Calculate the most economical conducto/d
They also take advantage of its analytical
Calculatethediameterofthisconductor.'
'xpressed on a per unit
-base by the equation:
Calculate the load anO form ia;;.
le
6
163
5,
A ceftain load varies as follows for 248 days per annum:

96 kVA at a power factor of 0.707L lagging for eight hours per day
For the remaining time of the year the load varies as follows:
72kVA at a power factor of 0.809 lagging for eight hours per day
20 kVA at a power factor of 0.707I lagging for eight hours per day
No load for eight hours per day
5.1
5.2
Calculate the annual load and form factors,

Calculate the efficiency at full load and a power factor of 0.809 lagging, the two all-day
efficiencies and the all-year efficiency for each of the following 240-kVA transformers:
Initial cost
Transformer
Iron loss
1.2 kW
4.8
KW
R21 000
2.5 kW
3.6 kW
R1B 000
Full-load copper loss
5.3 Calculate the total annual running cost of each transformer. The cost of electrical energy
is R0.72/kW-h and the annual interest and depreciation charges are 10olo.
5.4 Calculate the annual lost factor for each transformer.
6. A 66-kV, transmission line transmits a three-phase, balanced load that varies throughout
the year as follows:
900 kVA for the remainder of the year
The total interest and depreciation charges is l0o/o and electrical energy costs
R0.7llkw-h and. The copper conductor has a cross-sectional area of 10 mm2 and costs
R52.40/kg. The copper has a density of 8.9 Mg/mt and the resistance of one kilometre
of single conductor is 178 ma/km,
6.1
6.2
6.3
Calculate the most economical conductor c.s.a.

Calculate the diameter of this conductor.
Calculate the load and form fadors.
161
7.
A sub-station transformer supplies 1.2 MW at a power factor of 0.707I lagging.
7.L
Calculate the kVA'r rating of loss-free static capacitors required for constant kW
correction to 0.9563 lagging ,
Calculate the kVA'r rating of a synchronous motor required for constant kVA correction to
0.9563 lagging.
7.2
B.
An industrial consumer has a constant load of 1800 kW at a power factor of 0,8 lagging
for eight hours per day for 25 days in a month of 30 days. For the remaining time there
is a constantload of 180 kW at a power factor 0.9 lagging.
8,1
Use the following tariff and calculate the monthly cost:
Unit (kW-h) charge per month:

The first 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month
The next 200 kw-h per kVA of maximum demand in the month
Additional kW-h supplied
69c/kW-h
6lc/kW-h
52clkW-h
Maximum demand charge per month:
The first 240 kVA of maximum demand in the month

Additional kVA of maximum demand
R13.20lkVA
R12.10/kVA
R10.80/kvA
R9.00/kvA
8.2
The consumer now improves the power factor of the main load to 0.96 lagging using
loss-free static capacitors with a cost of R1310.00 per month. Calculate the monthly
saving due to this action.
9,
A load with a maximum demand of 600 kVA at a power factor of 0.8 lagging is to be
improved to the most economical power factor. The annual tariff is R40,00 per kVA and
the annual interest and depreciation charges is 10olo total. The initial cost of the loss-free
static capacitors is R110,00 per kVA'r.
9.1 Calculate the most economical power factor.

9.2 Calculate the kVA'r rating of the capacitors required.
9.3 Calculate the annual net saving.
9.4 Calculate the time taken to save the initial cost of the capacitors,
152
CHAPTER SIX
PER.UNIT SYSTEMS
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Answers to problems pertaining to electrical power systems are almost always required
in terms of volts, amperes, ohms and kVA. In the process of computation, it is more
convenient to express voltage, current, impedance and power in terms of percent or
per unit, of a selected base or reference value of each of these quantities. The perunit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity to its base value
expressed as a decimal. The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in per unit. The
electrical characteristics of machines are usually specified by the designers and

manufacturers in terms of percent or per unit.
Any attempt to mathematically model the power system is heavily dependent on circuit
concepts. The fact that power systems are three-phase, is a major complication.
Another important complicating factor is the large number of components. Typical
systems can consist of tens of generators and hundreds of transmission lines and
transformers. Another factor to consider is that transformers distribute the system into
many different voltage sections. These methods of representation must therefore
particularly deal with these factors. Their complicating effects have to be minimised as
much as possible. The basic picture of the power system is the one line diagram, The'
diagram communicates the essential interconnection information with maximum
simplicity, The per-phase equivalent circuit takes advantage of the symmetry inherent
in balanced three-phase circuits, The per-unit system simplifies numerical analysis and
eliminates the paftitioning effect of transformers. All these representations are very
useful in displaying and formulating power system problems.
6.2
PER-UNTTQUANTTTTES
The per-unit system is similar to the percentage system except that all quantities are
expressed as decimal fractions instead of percentages. The base quantities then have
the value of unity (one per unit) instead of 100o/o. It is necessary for power system
engineers to become familiar with and facile in the use of the system because of its
wide industrial acceptance and use. They also take advantage of its analytical
simplifications. Any quantity can be expressed on a per unit base by the equation:
Per unit
value =
actualvalue
base value
163
The actual value is the actual value of the voltage, current, power or impedance as it
appears in the power system. The new base value is determined and is usually the
value that leads to confusion in the early stages of applying the per unit system,
To help prevent this confusion, it will help to remember the following rules;
The value of
Sno
is the same for the entire system concerned once it's been chosen.
The ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer selected, to the same
as the rbtio of the transformer voltage ratings.
The value of Vn5 is a chosen value, but will vary from one zone to another zone,
Once these rules are obeyed, all other base values are related to the power quantities
chosen as base values. This means that the usual electrical laws, as they are known,
still applies. Voltage, current, impedance and power are so related that the selection of
base values for any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. The
base impedance is that impedance which will have a voltage drop across it equal to the
base voltage when the current flowing in the impedance is equal to the base value of
the current. The base apparent power in single-phase systems is the product of the
base voltage and the base current. Base voltage and base apparent powers are the
quantities usually selected to specify the base.
The actual value is also a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc. In a power system, a
base power and voltage are selected at a specific point in the system, A transformer
has no effect on the base apparent power of the system, The reason for this being that
the apparent power into the transformer equals the apparent power out of the
transformer. On the other hand, voltage changes when it goes through a transformer,
so the value of V5ur. changes at every transformer in the system according to it turns
ratio. Because the base values change in passing through a transformer, the process
of referring quantities to a common voltage level is automatically taken care of during
per-unit conversion. The per-unit system has the distinct advantage that, with it, all
basic circuit relations apply.
Suauut
Spu.Snu
The per-unit system simplifies many of the problems of circuit analyses. In the
conventional form of calculation using volt and ampere, the solution of a system
involving power lines of several different voltage levels, requires that all impedances
that are to be added, to be transferred to a single voltage level. In the per unit system,
the different voltage levels entirely disappear and a power network involving
generators, transformers and lines (of different voltage levels) reduces to a system of
simple impedances. Further more, machines such as generators and transformers,
when described in the per unit system, have their characteristics specified by almost
the same number, regardless of the rating of the machines.
164
ADVANTAGES OF THE PER.UNIT SYSTEM

In many engineering situations it is useful to normalise dimensioned values. As said, it
is commonly done in power system analysis and the standard method used is the perunit system. Advantages include the following:
.
.
Device parameters tend to fall in a relative narrow range, making inaccurate values
prominently,
The method is defined so as to eliminate ideal transforme?s as circuit components.

Since the typical power system contains hundreds of transformers, this is an
inconsiderable saving.
.
.
to this advantage, the voltage throughout the power system is normally

to unity.
Related
close
Both the percent and per-unit methods of calculation are simpler than the use of
actual volts, amperes and ohms.
6.4
DISADVANTAGES OF THE PER.UNIT SYSTEM

The per-unit system also has some disadvantages. Disadvantages may include the
following:
.
.
The system modifies component equivalent circuits, making them somewhat more
abstract. Sometimes phase shifts that are clearly present in the un-scaled circuit,
vanish in the per-unit circuit.
Some equations that hold in the un-scaled case are modified when scaled into per
unit. Factors such as
6.5
J:
and 3 are removed or added by the method.
THE PER.UNIT SYSTEM

As discussed, the per-unit system is very handy to use in the analysing of large power
systems with different voltage levels. In the per unit system, the voltages, currents,
powers and impedances are not measured in there actual SI units as we know them i,e.
volts, amperes, VA or ohms. Instead, each electrical quantity is measured and

expressed as a decimal fraction of some base level. A given per-unit value for an
impedance is the ratio of the voltage drop across the impedance when it is carrying the
rated current of the section of the circuit in which it is connected, and the rated voltage
of that section of the circuit.
165
a
Lpu -
Zactua
l'Irated
,.
..,.., (i)
Vrated
As shown, a per-unit quantity is the ratio between the actual quantity and the chosen
base quantity. It therefore follows that:
uou=
ii)
Alsol
Ipu
= grnb
.,........ (iii)
And:
Zpu
= '+
Lnb
..........(iv)
It
is usual to take the rated values, i,e, the nameplate values, as the base values.
Ohm's law:
7
apu(nb) -
Vno
..,..,....(v)
L"
Substitute Equation (v) into Equation (iv):
a -Pu
It
Zacual'Ibase(rated;
(vi)
vbase(rateO
is known that:
rrbase(rated) - Sbaselrated;
vr._a.*
(vii)
Substitute Equation (vii) Equation (iv):
-"'
Lbase = l!t*
5brr"
(viii)
Substitute Equation (viii) into Equation (iv):
-7
'
-l)U
166
Zactual'Sbase
V#'"
(ix)
6.5.1
THREE-PHASE EQUTPMENT
Since three-phase systems are solved as a single line with a neutral return, the bases
for quantities in the impedance diagram are kVA per phase and volts from line to line.
Although a line voltage may be specified as a base, the voltage in the single-phase
circuit is still the voltage to neutral. The base voltage to neutral is the base voltage
from line to line divided bV JS . This is also the ratio between line to line and line to
neutral voltages of a balanced, three-phase system, As a result of this, if the system is
balanced, the per-unit value of a line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral voltage
base is equal to the per-unit value of the line to line voltage at the same point on the
line to line voltage base. Similarly, the three-phase kVA is three times the kVA per
phase and the base value of the three-phase kVA is three times the per-phase value of
the base kVA. The per-unit value of the three-phase kVA on the three-phase kVA base
is therefore identical to the per-unit value of the kVA per phase, on the kVA per phase
base. The impedance of three-phase equipment is always given as per-phase
quantities. From Equation (i):
a -pu
But:
Zactual/ph'Irated/ph
Vated/
,.........(x)
ph
Ipr' = IL
S
b.r"
.,........(xi)
-JE.v'
And:
Vph =
VL
..,....... (xii)
J3
Substitute Equations (xi) and (xii) into Equation (i):

Zactual'Sbase
7 - -Vfu**,
4PU
(xiii)
Substitute Equation (xiii) into Equation (v):

V'irtin"t
Lnb = -=-
5nn
t67
6.5.2
BASE SELECTTON FOR PER-UNrT QUANTTTTES

The selection of base values is made to reduce the work required by calculations as
much as possible, A base is first selected for some part of the circuit. The base
selected should be one that yields per-unit values of rated voltage and current
approximately equal to unity to simplify calculations. When the manufacturer gives in
percent or per unit the reactance and resistance of a component, the base is
understood to be the rated voltage and kVA of the component, A great advantage in
making per-unit calculations is realised by the proper selection of different bases for
circuits conhected to each other through transformers. To achieve the advantage in a
single-phase system, the voltage bases for the circuits connected through transformers
must have the same ratio as the turns-ratio of the transformer, With such a selection
of voltage bases and the same kVA base, the per-unit value of an impedance will be the
same when it is expressed on the base selected for its own side of the transformer, as
when it is referred to the other side of the transformer and expressed on the base of
that side of the transformer.
6.5.3 CHANGING BASE
VALUES
if
network calculations need to be done using per-unit values, all the per-unit values
must be caleulated using the same base values. The base units for any electrical
equipment are Sn5, Vn5 ond Zn5. Let:
gb = given base (base at which Zo, is given)

nb = new base (base at which the new Zp, has to
calculated)
From Equation (xiii):
Aactual
And:
7
Aactual -
Zpr1q51'Vfi
-------=-
5sn
Zpuln6y'V'fu
--------=5nn
Therefore:
Z prtgul
'V;b
Ssu =
168
Z pu(nul 'Vnzu
Snn
be
If Vn6 and
Snu
change, then:
Zpulnb)
If
Sn6
changes and
Vnu
apu(nb)
Vn6
changes and
a-
Sn6
r,,.r[*)[#),
stays the same (Vn5 = Vsu):
a_
If
',*'[+)
stays the same (Sn5 = Ssn):
epu(nb)
'rr,rr[*)
The equation for the new base impedance shows that the same equation is valid for
either single-phase or three-phase circuits. In the case of three-phase, line-to-line
voltage must be used with kVA per phase.
6.5.4 PER.UNIT
IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER
All impedances in any part of a system must be expressed on the same impedance.
base when calculations are done. Sometimes the per-unit impedance of a system
component is expressed on a base other than the one selected as base for the pad of
the system in which the component is located, It is therefore necessary to have some
means of convefting per-unit impedances from one base to another. Reference will
always be made to the high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) side of the
transformer.
Example 5.1
Consider a 24-kVA, 4801220 volt transformer with a leakage impedance of
(0 + j0.055) ohm referred to the low voltage winding of the transformer. Nameplate or
rated values are used as base values,
169
High voltage (HV) side
Vso
= 24 kVA
=480V
7sa
Ssn
Low voltage (LV) side

Sbur.
Vs35s
v&("nt)
= 24 kVA
= 220 V
a
abase --
Ssu
,'2
vgb(line)
---
^-
5sn
.t
(4Bo)2
=
=
24 xL03
= 9.6 C)
Znv
= (0.055)fgl'
0.055
f)
\220 )
= 0.262 O
7ru
Zlr, =
Q2O)2
24 xL03
2.O17 Q
7pu =
0.0s5
2.017
O.O273Z9O'pu
0.262
9.6
= O.O273190"
pu
This shows that the per-unit impedance of a transformer is the same when referred
from one winding to the other. If the per-unit values are used, the equivalent circuit of
the transformer can now be drawn as shown in Figure 6.23.
Zpu
Vou=1pu
= 0.0273190. pu
Vor=1Pu
Figure 5.1: Equivalent transformer circuit of Example 6.1
6.6
APPLICATION IN NETWORK CALCULATIONS

The selection of base values in a power system is used in network calculations.
t70
Example 6.2
Figure 6.2 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of the generator as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for
the system.
Generator Transformer
11 kV
r32lrl kv
60 MVA
40 MVA
X=20o/o
Transformer 2
Line
(0 + j2.9)
732166 kV
30 MVA
X = 7o/o
X=8Vo
Figure 6.2: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.2
Transformer 1:
Generator:
Sbur"
= 60 MVA
Sbur.
V565g
Vbur.
11 kV
= 60 MVA
= 132 kV
Transformer 2:
Sbu..
V62ss
= 60 MVA
= 66 kV
Refer all impedances to the common base values:

Generator:
Sn6
Sso
And:
Vn6
Vsn
Zpu(nb)
Transformer
And:
1:
= O'2ZSO Pu
Sn6
Ssn
V65
Vs5
Zpulnb)
,r".r[Fl
[5su
= (ooB)(#)
= O.L2Z9O
pu
L7T
Line:
Z tine,S nb
Zpu =
v&
(2.9X60 x 106 )
(t32 x t03)2
= O.OlZ9Oo pu
Transformer 2:
Snb
Sso
Andr
Vnb
Vsn
apu(nb)
trrar[Fl
1_
/
(o oD(#)
l)su
0.056290" pu
Zpulsen)
= 0'2190"
Zpufi1)
Vpu(sen)
Zpu(tine)
Pu
= 0.72190
= 0'01290"
PU
Zp,r(rz)
Pu
= 0'L4290'
= 1 Pu
Figure 5.3: Equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6.2

Example 6.3
Figure 6.4 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of Transformer 1 as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for
the system.
Generator
13.8 kV
60 MVA
X = 20c/c
Transformer
132/11 kV
40 MVA
X=
8olo
Transformer 2
(0 + j2.9)
t32/66 kV
30 MVA
X=
7o/o
Figure 5.4: SinEle-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.3
772
Transformer 1:
Generator:
Sbuse
= 40 MVA
Sbu..
V535s
Vbr."
11 kV
= 40 MVA
= 132 kV
Transformer 2:
Sbase
Vh5s
= 40 MVA
= 66 kV

Sn6
Ssu
Vn5
Vsn
apu(nb)
Generator:
And:
a_
''*'[+J[*)'
,",(#l#)'
O.2t,/9Oo pu
Transformer
1:
Snb = Ssn
And:
.a
Line:
Vnb = Vso
apu(nb) _ O,O8Z9O.
a_
apu(nb)
pu
Z line,Snu
v&
(2.9X40 x106)
(t32 x t03)2
O.OO67290'pu
Transformer 2:
Sn5
Seu
And:
Vng
Vsn
Zpulnb)
t-."[+J
(o
0.0933290. pu
oa[#)
173
Zpulsen)
= 0.21190"
Zpu(rine)
Pu
Zpu[t) = 0.08290" Pu
Vpulsen)
= 0'0067290'
Pu
Zpug2)
= 0'0933290"
Pu
PU
Figure 6.5: Equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6.3

Example 5.4
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in Figure
Sbur" = 150 MVA ahd Vsssg = I32 kV in the transmission lines.
11 kV
lOO MVA
1B%o
13.8 kV
150 MVA
X = 22o/o
t32l7t kv
1OO MVA
X=
9o/o
t3zltr
kv
150 MVA
X = 9o/o
22 kV
r32l22kV
250 MVA
X = 25o/o
250 MVA
X = 10%o
Figure 6.6: Line diagram of the network for Example 6.4
174
6.6.
Take
Generator
1:
Zpulnb) =
"*"[+)
(o
1s)[i#-)
= O.27Z9O'pu
6
Transformer
1:
Zpulnb) =
'rrar[+)
(oor)(i#)
0.135290" pu
Line
1;
Zpu =
Z ttn"'S nu
Vrt
(2.9X1s0 x
106
(132 x 103)2
0.02529O'pu
'
Generator
2:
Zpulnb)
(vno)'
= znurool[*
rc.22\fE!)'
' '[
11 ,l
= O.24629O pu
Transformer
Line
2:
2:
Zpu(nb)
= 0.0829O" pu
7p, =
Ztin"'Sno
vto
(4X1s0 x to6)
Trl, " lo1f
O.O34419O" pu
t75
Generator
3:
Zpulnb) =
"".,'[+)
=
(o2s)t#)
0.1529Oo pu
Transformer
3:
Zpplnb) =
t,,-r[+)
(0
1)[#)
0.O629O'pu
7_
Line 3:
Z tine.S nb
v&
(sx1s0 x t06)
lrgtlo'tr
O.O43I9O" pu
0.27190 pu 0.135t90" pu 0.025290" pu
0.346190" pu 0.08290' pu 0.0344/90' pu
t'ry
0,15290.
pu 0.06Z90. pu 0.043290. pu
Figure 6,7: Equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6.4

7_
z-pg(TH)
(0.
27
+ 0.
35 + 0.
02s)//(0. 346+0.
0B +
0.0344)I I Q.1 s +0.
06
+0.043)
= 0.11829O'pu
1pu
0.118290" pu
Figure 6.8: Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network of Example 6,4
176
Example 6.5
Figure 6,9 shows
a schematic
diagram of
radial transmission system. Use the
nameplate values of the transformer as base values and calculate the terminal voltage
on the generator if the load takes full load current at 0.9 pu volts.
kV
(o'48 + j2'B)
CI
600 kw
11 kV
11/3.3
1 MVA
cos 0
X=7o/o
lagging
MVA
X=18o/o
= 0.8
Figure 6.9: Line diagram of the network for Example 6.5
Pload =
J5.V1ou6.I6u6.cos $
600 x 103 = ( Jl
t-
L3L.2L6Z-36.87' A
rload
T-
rbase
Xt,s x lo3xlbidxo,B)
b.r.
J3,Vour.
1x106
(J3X3,3 x 103)
L74.955 A
T_
rpu
Itoad
I
b.."
131.216
L74.955
O.752-36.87'pu
Transformer:
Zpulnb)
= O'O7Z9O
Pu
177
Line:
Zpu
e
(0.48 + i12.8)(1 x
(3.3 x to3)2
106
= O.25Ll8O.27o pu
Vpulsen)
Vpu(toad)
Vpufi)
0.9 a0. + (0.7
Vpu(tine)
2-36.87')(0.07 t90.)+(0.7 5 1-36.87 ")(0.26t tBO.27 ")
1.08829.335'pu
Vterminal
Vpu1ggny,V535g
(L088t9.335"X11)
= tL.95819.335'kV
Example 6.6
Figure 6.10 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. Use a base of
120 MVA and calculate the terminal voltage of the generator in per unit and in kV if the
voltage on the load is to be maintained at 33 kV.
Transformer
Generator
11/66 kV
60 MVA
X = 9o/o
Transformer
Line
(1.86 + j12.8)
66/33 kV
75 MVA
X = I2o/o
60 MW
cos $ = Q.31
lagging
Figure 5.1O: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Example 6.6
Ptoad
60
106
Itoao
178
J3
.V6u6.I6u6,cos $
"6 X::
t295.96Z-35.9" A
x 1o3XIbadXo.B1)
rrbase - ---Sbu..
J3.Vbase
120 x 106
---------------------
(J3X33 x 10')
=
r tse
2099.455 A
Itoad
lb.r"
L295.962
- 35.9'
2099.456
O.6L7l-35.9o pu
Transformer
2:
(,sô
Zpulnb) = apu(sb)
|^
l)so
)
I
(0.12)f!q)
' '17s,/
O.L92Z9O'pu
Vpulno) = Zpulno)'Ipu
(o.r92 t9o)(0.6r7 /-35.9")

O.LL85Z54.1o pu
Line:
a-
Lpu -
Ztin"'Snb
v&
(1,86 + j12,8X120 x 106 )
(66x103)2
O356ZaL73'pu
Vpu(tine)
Zpultine).Ipu
(0.3s6 tBL.7 3')(0.677
t-3
5,
9")
O.2L97Z45.83o pu
179
Transformer
1:
Zp.,1nu1
trr,rr[+j
= (o.oe)fEq.)
' '[ 60
Vpu(nb)
0.1829O. pu
ZpulnU;'Ipu
= (0.18290')(0.617 t-35.9')
= O.tLtLZS4.l'pu
Since
the load is used as reference, the per-unit voltage across the load will
Lzj"
pu.
Vpulgen)
Vpt,(rz)
Vpufil)
Vpu(load)
LZj" + 0.LL85t54.1 + 0.2L97t45.83' + 0.1tIIz54.I

L.3332L4.94'pu
Vpu(line)
be
Vlterminat) = Vpgqsgn;'V535s
= (r.3332t4.94"X11)
= 14.653214.940 kV
Example 6.7
Consider the radial transmission system in Figure 6.11. Use the nameplate values of
Transformer 2 as base values and calculate the terminal voltage on the generator if the
load takes full load current at0.942 pu volts.
Generator
Transformer
kV (1.69 + j11.7) o
MVA
X=9o/o
66/33
24.5
kV
MVA
X=I2o/o
33/11
27.5
36 MW
cos g = Q,796
lagging
180
Ptoad
J3
,V1ou6'I6u6.cos $
= ( J3 )(11 x 103XIbadX0,7B6)
Iroad = 2403'9571-38'19' A
J6 x 106
+!ttt-
rbase=
J3.Vbase
=-
=
rrpu -
27.5 xL06
(J:Xtt
103 )
"
1443.376 A
Iload
r base
Z-38.L9"
= 2403.957
rqa376
=
Transformer
2:
Line:
Zpulnb)
7-ou
= O,!2l9O
=
=
=
Transformer
1:
Zpulnb)
I.6662-38.19o pu
Pu
Ztint:snu
v6
(1'69 + j1l,7X?.-5 x 106)
(33x103)2
O.2985281.78o pu
= ,rr,rr,[+)
(o.oe)
'
eE\
'\24.s )
= jo.lol
pu
The per-unit voltage across the load is given as 0.94210 pu.
181
Vpu(sen)
Vlgen)
Vpu(load)
0.94220" + (0.L2t90,)(t.666t-38. 19")

+ (0.2985 tB 1, 7B.X 1. 66 6 Z.-38. L9.)
+ (0. L}r t90")(L666 t-38. 19")
I.655222.455. pu
Vpu1gg6y.Vg65s
+Vpu6z) *Vpu(tine) *VpuG1)
(L.655t22,45S.X66)
o =
= 109.23222.455. kV
Example 6.8
Figure 6.12 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system working at
50 Hz. Use a base of 120 MVA and calculate the resistance and inductance of the line
when the load takes full-load current.
Generator
157.537
Transformer
z\0.97. kV
Transformer
Line
132/BB kV
BB/33 kV
144 MVA
X=
96 MVA
X=
10.8olo
B.4o/o
48 MW
cos $ = Q.991
lagging
Ptoad
48 x 106
Iroad
= J3 ,V1ou6.I1ou6.cos
= (J5)(33 x 103XIbadX0.B91)
= 942.5L71-27"
r-ud\e -
Sb.r.
J3.vor..
120 x 106
TB2
2099.455 A
-t
Ipu =
I toad
I
b.r"
942.517
Z-27"
2099.456
=
Transformer
1:
O.44891-27" pu
(s.o )
-- /
l)su
Zpulnb) = zpu(qb) I
o.LoBzsoofgq)
\r44 )
jo.o9 pu
Transformer
2:
Zpulnb) = 1e(sb)
(s''o )
[sqb
o.os4tsoofEql
\.e6i
j0.105 pu
757.537 2L0,97"
Vpu(sen)
r32
I.L9351LO.97" pu
\,vpg(gen) _
LL9351L0.97" =
\,v pu(line)
Vpu(tine)
Vpu(load)
7
+ Vpugr; + Vpu6zl *
Vpu(line)
Z0o + (0.09290"X0.4489 t-27 o)

+ (0. 105290)(0.4489 l-27o)
Vpu(rine)
- O.lg9LZ48.5o pu
=
Ipg.Zpultine)
= (0.4489 Z-27.)( Zpulrin.))

Zpu(rine) = O.4436275.5o Pu
0.I99I 248.5.
apu(rine)
0.4436275.5.
Ztin"
Ztin.'Snb
_
- _ril_
I lo6)
= (2,,,.'"X120
(BB x 103)2
28.625275.5" O
183
7.169
C)
L = 88.213
And:
mH
Example 6.9
Refer to the single line diagram of a radial transmission system in Figure 6.13. Use a
voltage-base of 273 kV and a kVA-base of 210 MVA and calculate the actual voltage on
the termindls of the generator. The impedance of the transmission line conductors is
(0.05 + j0,1s) o/km.
Generator Transformer 1
Transformer
Line
Transformer 3
Line 2
48 km
24slr32kv
132/BB kV
125 MVA
96 MVA
X = 9o/o
X = I2o/o
12 km
BB/11
kV
72MVA
X = 10o/o
36 MW
cos $ = Q.7gg
lagging
Pload =
36x106=
T-
J3
(
Vrouo Ilou6 CoS $1s66
J: Xrr x lo3XIbadXo.TBB)
2397.8552-38'A
rload
Tlbase -
Snu
J5.vno
210 x 106
(J3X11"103)
tto22,t4L5
Itoaa
T-
Ibur"
=
=
LM
?397.B5st-38"
17022.1415
O.2L75Z-38. p.u.
=7go*t*l
_
(o',)[#l#l
jO.1624 P.u.
[#),"',
Vgb =
147.086 kv
z-
(0.0s +j0.1sx48)
7.589527'.s'ss6'o
ZIine'Sno
Lnb
v;b
(7.s8ss z71.s6q')919
7no
"10
1r+Z.OaOxfO'1'
Transformer 2:
O.O7g7l7t'565" P.u'
= zgo'+t*l
-(ooe)[#l#-)'
= j0.1586
vsu
[F-J*r,
= 98.057
P.u.
kV
(0,0s +j0.1sX12)
= 1,897271.565"
185
\_(
Ztine,Snu
a_
Lnb
va
=
=
a_
Lnb
Transformet 3:
(1.897 z7
.565 ") (2IO xLO 6 )
(98.057xtO3)2
0.04t427L555" p.u.
z^".
""
snb
ryq)'
j
Ssb [%o
(o1)(#)[*b-)'
jo.2349 p.u.
Load:
vgb -
[tr),",
= t2.257 kV
Vo,
( tt
= t_t
Itz.zst )
o.8972o" p.u.
Vp.u.(rt)
Vp.u.(t-ine1)
Vp.u.gz)
Vp.u.(t-ine2)
Vp.u.63)
(0.217 5 z-38" )(0.1624 t90 " + 0.07 37 27 1.565' +

+ 0.0414t71.565" + 0.2349t90") + 0.89720"
0.998326.28' p.u.
Vgen = (0.9983/:6.28"X24s)
244.583525.28" kV
.i
186
0.
Vp.u.ltoad)
586290'
'.-(
EXERCISE 6
96 MVA and calculate the terminal voltage of the generator if the terminal voltage on the
load is to be maintained at 32 kV.
Generator Transformerl
66/88
Transformer 2
kv
(o'92 + i9'7s)
54 MVA
X = ILo/o
Load
BB/32 kv
48 MW
69 MVA
cos $
lagging
= L2o/o
Q'91
Figure 6.13: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question
2.
Refer to Figure
generator.
6.14,
Use
a base of 55 MVA and calculate the terminal voltage of the
Transformer 2
('2 + j9'6) o
kV
33/66
75 MVA
X=0,1
pu
Load
66/11 kV
90 MVA
24 MW
cos 0 = 0'707L
X=
lagging
BVo
{3
Consider the network in Figure 6.15. The load takes full load current at 0.936 pu volts,
Use a base of 700 kVA and calculate the terminal voltage on the generator.
6.6/11
kv
1.2 MVA
X=
9o/o
Transformer
Line
(2.24 + i0.36)
Load
11/3.3 kv
7BO KW
1.8 MVA
cos $
X=
lagging
7.5o/o
= 0'7193
Figure 6.15: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission network of Question 3
187
4"
Transformer 2 as base values and calculate the terminal voltage on the generator if the
load takes full load current at 0.92 pu volts.
kV
33/48
28 MVA
X = l2o/o
Transformer 2
Line
(1.05 + j1o.s)
Load
32.4 MW
cos $ = Q.399
lagging
4Bl11 kV
42 MVA
X
10olo
Figure 6,16: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 4
{r5.
'\-/1 210
MVA and calculate the resistance and inductance of the line.
Line
Vsen
= 15619.7"
kV
Transformer 2
132lBB kV
120 MVA
BB/33 kV
150 MVA
X=
B.Bolo
Load
51 MW
cos $ = Q.916
lagging
10.4o/o
6.
Transformer 1 as base values and calculate the resistance and reactance of the line if the
load takes full load current at 0.945 pu volts.
Vsen
Line
Transformer
Load
kV
60 MVA
33/5,6 kV
45 MVA
18 MW
cos 0 = 0.8
X=
X=
lagging
= 21,34623.7'kV 11/33
9o/o
8olo
Figure 5.18: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 6
1BB
7.
Refer
to the three-phase network shown in Figure 6.19.
Use
base of 48 MVA and
determine the value of the generator terminal voltage.
BBi66
kV
Transformer 2
Line
(1'15 + j11.s)
f,
78 MVA
54 MW
cos $ = Q.7gg
X=
lagging
66/11 kV
64 MVA
X = LZo/o
Load
9o/o
Figure 6.19: Single-line diagram for the three-phase network of Question 7

B.
Figure 6,20 shows
a schematic
diagram
of a radial
transmission
system. Use the
nameplate values of the transformer as base values and calculate the terminal voltage on
the generator if the load takes full load current at 0.915 pu volts.
Generator
Transformer
kV
Bolo
33/11
75 MVA
X=
Line
@.22
+ j2'2) o
6MW
cos $ = Q.399
lagging
Figure 5.20: Line diagram of the network for Question

9,
Figure 6,21 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission system, Use the
nameplate values of the generator as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for the
system.
66 kV
48 MVA
11/132 kV
32 MVA
18o/o
100/o
Transformer 2
Line
(0.24 + j2.4)
132/33 kV
60 MVA
X = 9o/o
Figure 5.21: Single-line diagram for the radial transmission system of Question 9
189
10. Figure 6.22 shows a schematic diagram of a radial transmission
system. Use the
nameplate values of Transformer 1 as base values and draw the equivalent circuit for the
system.
13.8 kV
7s MyA
11/BB
X=15o/o
kV
Transformer 2
Line
(0.18 + j1'B)
50 MVA
88/6,6 kV
90 MVA
X=11olo
X=
Bolo
11.
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in Figure
= 90 MVA dfld V6u." = BB kV in the transmission lines.
10
6.23.
Take
Sbur"
11 kV
BB/11 kV
60 MVA
60 MVA
X = 8o/o
l5o/o
13.8 kV
BB/11 kV
90 MVA
90 MVA
X = 100/o
18o/o
24 kV
150 MVA
X = 27o/o
BBl24 kV
150 MVA
X = L2o/o
(0,36 + j2.4)
j4.B
0.54 + j5.9
Figure 5.23: Line diagram of the network for Question
11
190
EXERCISE
1.1
1.2
z.
2.t
EXERCTSE
32
9.643r{54.8" f,)
4991.6321s4.8" VA
^#Stazvs.cz
4.2
4.3
5.1
9.789Z4L.340
3.4
1000.106 w
22.37 kw'...,,
9.712t-21.4" A
5..3ea;-rsz.tp n
4.1
9.2s91-76.73 4
4758.114 W
12.5551169.42 A
12.22t33.28
4.2
5.1
"
5.5091-158.04" A
10.703275.57, A
7.434t4933
1179.941 W
88r.047W
*571.105 W
4067.849/.42.69"
5.3
VA
2989.883 \jv
*2758,26 VA?
3.106r*138.49" A
1.5172-t2.62' A
202.00s
6.2
216.11 W
72.716 W
7472.73/r7A.53'
6.3
VA
490.83 W
-1388.532 VA?
76.2382-tt7.7
9.7r2t-51.4. A
7,1
5.484t177.9"
7.2
8.1
8.2
796.262t-rr2.55
29.5522t46.27"
8.05 {)
21.9125 mH
19.468 kW
2156.844 W
21.4805 W
6.1195 W
922W
18.2982103.060 A
15.
16.
17.
6.35352-83.62" A
18.
9376.598 W
29.543t-722,55a
19.
27.246/L20.97" A
21.A2rz-25.r20 AlA
kVA?
30.341242.74"
70.
21.
16945.922W
849.3115 W
1323.077 W
1186.937 W
6008.s31 W
2907.627 W
10,679 kW
10.679 kW
EXERCISE 2.2
948.1155 W
9209.2155 W
2.
3.1
8967.Jg4W
7.814tL37.76" A
47.6462-13;L98" A
264
6670,881 W
2919.3795 W
6860.620s W
16945.575 W
EXERCISE
47.7L6t44.64.
13.
78.2352158.41" A
19.033 kW
* 8.923
11.1
17V5.246W,
3250.254 W
5025.5 W
8.021 kW
3S06,933 W
17.7752-76.38 4
3Q.24621.940 A
10.2
0,9326 lagging
1.297 A
480 W
0.1985 lagglng
3.173 A
14.
72.266t27.44
o.5522-9s.29
4308,114 W
,
.
4955.35
11.1
11.2
11.3
12.1
12.2
12.3
16.2552-t.39
9.1
9.2
10.1
5.2
6.
7.
8.1
4.2
8.3
9.
10.
2.114t94.L9'A
6.1
228.3381-93.63" V
15.2382-87.2: A
22.8791-77.405. A
s.2,
,,:,
999.986 W
22.372]y.i$
10.6992-20.8050
9.4435t72.190 Q
2877.338 W
4078.8865 VA'r
3.
4,t
2.2 {CONTTNUED}
1.
635,473 VA'r
2.
9.672t0.480 E
50.17351*88.03" A
11,5.416.t-L5.78 A
EXERCISE 3 (CONTINUED)
75133" V
10.09.
EXERCISE
5.1
5.2
201.259t-109.91'V
201.259-z130.09' V
6.1
97,781tr34.39"
6.2
6.3
7.1
7.2
V
97.7811=105.61" V
s7]81tL439'
4.1
'
98,45282.69'n
60.631t36.42'A
4.2
29.74222.89 0
r353.472tt2.36"
5,1
37.375231.55' A
29.392t-147.51 4
7.3
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
585.2822123.3'V
s06.083143.3'v
9.1
VA
19,801143.39'A
5.7.
7.7
7.2
29.513128.86'A
31.501r-103.06' A
r4.L66t-123.925' A
33.598r*155.33'A
43.3865136.04'A
26.40L229.98'A
3.490
182.9805223.43' MVA
105.632263i34r MVA
2.55"
19.347 MW
0.162
lagging
'
76.74
441,288258.76' MVA
623.242230.95" MVA
8.t)71 MW
11.32"
5.723 MW
1208.1294'
925.7t6t34.95 MV4
s12.136260.85'MVA
840.7892-93.05" V
o.
4 (CONTINUED)
120.343 MW
LLV-726 MW
63.011 KVA'r
-24.959
MVA',?
1243.8031150.18'V
10.1
2.617 MW
2s.022 MVA"r
930.18243'MVA
381.704250.6" MVA
6.748177" A
856.644216.A4'V
t0.2
7.275
LL87.164271. V
10.3
11.1
353.817278.23 |,v1V4
40.875t4.73 MVA
9.2
9.3
416.8935138.64' MVA
TL,2
EXERCISE 4
1.1
12.1
171.3145 MW
164.999 MW
-52.499 MVA?
1.2
109.7482103.97' MVA
3s8.75t26.97" MVA
-2s.145 MVAI
1.2
175.005 MW
A:
receives 608.184 MW and

receives 292.259 MVA'r
B: sends 237.627 YIW and
sends 313.926 MVA?
0.9013 lagging
0.6035 lagging
2.2
5.935.
201.606274.89' MVA
552.7005111.45" MVA
2.3
5.1535 MW
3.1
89.90s MW
-10.88 MVA?
L2.2
3,6915 MW
13.1
88t29.21
L3,2
13.3
24.315 MW
t4.
6670.881 W
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
16.1
253.722255.47" MVA
kV
600.2252t02.r45 MV{
14.760/o
253.725t55.465" MVA
74.75t/o
37.563 I\4W
-177.92AMVA'I
12.355 MW
L6.2
-242.152MVA"r
25.208 MW
64.224 MVA"|
t6.4
667.25260.65' MVA
654.371225.805' MVA
22.92.
17.3
3.208%
r7.4
560.6s245.01' MVA
16.3
86.831 MW
-25.721 lt'lvA?
3.2
v9.801229.56"
J.J
3.4
363.6445t48.41" MVA
0.2028 lagging
3.074 MW
4,L
4.2
14.4725 MVt
MVA
'
393.872t42.99 MV{
7j3
265
EXER.CTSE4 (CONTTNUED)
LV.7
0.6945 lagging
L'1:,:::=,
''.;;:;;1;;., .,
0.7315 lagging
77:2
6,2340/0
352.217240:52? MYE:
19,1
19,2
..:-:.-::.:.:,.=..,,"
:.::,=.'':'
382.3Kw,''',
::
2"r
,:,.:.:-
IrIUA
R243140.54
4.
0;,7823 crn?
qt
5.2
:.
R248327.44
2.1
7.2
3.1
:,
,,,,,
:::::: :
5;r'..
::::=::::
,,.._:
7J
E_2
J.L
=t
1,331
0.9733
0.97
0.948
o.9167
0.3599 cm2
0.6769 cm
4.2
::.,
.1j5.364 i;_,
182.729 V :
170.802V
3116.11321.385" V
0.11
5.414s
833.123
821.12052*590 kVA
kVA'r
R341345.00
Rl1473,00:'
0.9614 lagging
227.708 kVA?
an579.33:.'
795 31_380 kv
5-tri3j_120kY
*
-*l
f{-E4{!
LJITS
sf; qf7
s-g?3c
tr13-4kl:J1e
41 .is-E-F 1Y
2842.65824.26V
3173,4M2L.O8V
9042.838 W
5.
a.&97_4,4r kY
]1E6
210,437 V
a::,204,947, V
2948.781/?.LLV
-#{17.560kv
*_
:,:a,a..:
221,.63v
4.L
ErmExsE6
7".
2L4.96f.V,,.
92.6345 A
30,6345 A
77;3655 A
209,3655 A
.'
:
4.7185 years
7-
,:
3.3, ,:::,::::,:=184;d98
V
.::
0.9736
*1
6:
:::.:) ) 2L6,362:ll:-
I --.:::219.801 V
0.394
0;9746
o,t
213;061 V
l:213;154 V
2.:2=.....:: zfiAA3V
:t,
559.7832-14.79e kVA
R5738.28 -t=,.;:,,.-
2r6.ore
,
::,:,:='::: t,,
',':::::,
-
EXERCISE 5
pt
228.27 V.
231.873 V:
:'::
542:006239.205' MVA
1g
236.672V
59.615 MVA1
.:*
551571 A
:,, 80,429 A
:,',lQfi,
=':,:=:
L.7
S:;W7-i
v29.429/4L.3'
1.1
11
'
18.1
18.2
18.3
2,978o/o.
EXERCISET
kv
1U76.561:{-0,01" V
1064.710:25e
6=
:::
1071,8410;18'V ,,
8.588/-179.39: A,,,
59:3181*40.84o A,l
::,
7.1
47:;$$$2:9.4o
7.2
28i.3792-r7;29e Y'

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ADVANCED ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

1.1.1 ONE-WATTMETER METHOD 2

TWO-WATTMETER METHOD OF OBTAINING THE POWER

- THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

BALANCED STAR-CONNECTED, THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

3.1.1 POSTTTVE PHASE_SEQUENCE

RESOLUTION OF AN UNBALANCED, THREE-PHASE

SiGNiFICANCE OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS IN PROTECNVE

THREE-PHASEINDUCTION REGULATOR 108

MOST ECONOMICAL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF A CONDUCTOR OT

GENEMTING COSTS L45

PER UNIT SYSTEMS

AND DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION

TROUBLE SHOOTING WITH

8.1.1 LAMPS 227

8.2.1 FAULT CONNECTION OF LAMP WIRES 224

LIGHTING DESIGN 226

LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY 233

LOCALISED MANUAL SWITCHING 247

SAFETY LIGHTING 248

9.1.1 STAR CONNECTION 25L

THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS WHICH

ANSWERSTO EXERCISES 264

THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

Figure 1.1: Connection of a wattmeter between two lines of

to measure ac power in three-phase systems is the

0 = the angle between the voltage and the current

= the load angle or the power factor angle

Figure 1.2: Wattmeter connections for the reversal of current

if the current coil is reversed, it

results in the network shown in

Figure 1.3: Single wattmeter connected in a balanced, three-phase, star-connected

Figure 1.4: Single wattmeter connected in a three-phase, delta-connected load to

Vu6.Iu. cos lY"b

Figure 1.6: Two wattmeters connected in a star-connected system to prove Blondell's

Figure 1.7: Two-wattmeter method of measuring three-phase power

The power delivered to a three-phase, three-wire, star- or delta-connected balanced or

Voltage across wattmeter

Total active power

= (Vun - Vnn)Iu + (V.n = Vab.Ia * Vs6.Is

= total active power measured by two wattmeters

1.1.3.1TWO-WATTMETER METHOD OF OBTAINING THE POWER FACTOR

When these equations are substituted into the previous equations:

For a negative phase sequence (cba):

L.L,4 THREE-WATTMETER METHOD

Figure 1.9: Three-wattmeter method of measuring power in a three-phase system

The power rneasured

negative phase sequence

g-"? il:":" #".11x",iil!"k;!,1i.fl: se, ro u r- w re, sta r.

Figure 1'10; Three

From Figure 1.10:

Figure 1.11: Three wattmeters connected to a three-phase, delta-connected load

ry 30" for a negntive phase

sequence. Thus, the reading on the wattmeter in

THREE.PHASE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Figure 2.1: connection of different supplies to a three-phase, four-wire system

More efficient use of copper wire for the distribution of power

Figure 2.2: Displacement of voltages in a three-phase system

Figure 2.3: Equivalent circuit of the stator windings of a three-phase generator