Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers and Geotechnics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compgeo

Stability analysis of slopes in soils with strain-softening behaviour

E. Conte a, F. Silvestri b, A. Troncone a,*
a
b

Dipartimento di Difesa del Suolo, Universit della Calabria, Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Idraulica, Geotecnica ed Ambientale, Universit Federico II, Napoli, Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 7 December 2009
Received in revised form 26 April 2010
Accepted 26 April 2010
Available online 23 May 2010
Keywords:
Strain-softening
Progressive failure
Slope stability
Non-local elasto-viscoplastic model

a b s t r a c t
This paper presents a numerical approach to analyse the stability of slopes in soils with strain-softening
behaviour. In these materials, a progressive failure can occur owing to a reduction of strength with
increasing strain. Such a phenomenon can be analysed using methods that are able to simulate the formation and development of the shear zones in which strain localises. From a computational point of view,
this presents many difficulties because the numerical procedures currently used are often affected by a
lack of convergence, and the solution may depend strongly on the mesh adopted. In order to overcome
these numerical drawbacks, in the present study use is made of a non-local elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model within the framework of the finite element method. The MohrCoulomb yield function is
adopted, and the strain-softening behaviour of the soil is simulated by reducing the strength parameters
with the increasing deviatoric plastic strain. To assess the reliability of the proposed approach, some
comparisons with the results obtained using other constitutive models for soils with strain-softening
behaviour are presented. Finally, a slope subjected to a prescribed process of weathering is considered,
and the effects of this process on the slope stability are discussed.
! 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The stability analysis of slopes in soils with strain-softening
behaviour is a very complex problem. In these materials, which
are characterized by distinct peak and residual strength parameters, a progressive failure can occur owing to a strength reduction
with increasing strain. The mechanism of progressive failure was
recognized at an early date by Terzaghi and Peck [1]. Skempton
[2] clearly evidenced its influence on slope stability, and Bjerrum
[3] highlighted that such a failure process results in a non-uniform
mobilisation of the shear strength along the slip surface. Specifically, some portions of the slope fail first with the strains generally
localised in a zone of limited thickness (shear zone). As strains increase within this zone, the soil strength reduces from peak towards residual. Owing to a re-distribution of stress, the shear
zone propagates within the slope and involves the adjacent soil.
Thus, a failure surface progressively develops along which the
average soil strength is less than the peak strength and greater
than the residual one. In conclusion, for progressive failure to play
a role in the collapse of a slope two conditions are necessary: soil
brittleness and non-uniform straining.
Considering that progressive failure is a strain-dependent process, the conventional stability analyses based on the limit equilibrium approach are in principle unsuitable for dealing with such a
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: troncone@dds.unical.it (A. Troncone).
0266-352X/$ - see front matter ! 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2010.04.010

phenomenon. A progressive failure process can be reliably analysed using methods that are able to simulate the formation and
development of shear zones in which strain localises. Numerical
solutions based on the finite element method are often used for
this scope. Applications of the finite element method were performed by several authors for capturing the development of the
shear zone and analysing the effect of the progressive failure on
the stability of slopes in soils with strain-softening behaviour
[47]. Major contributions were provided by Potts and his coworkers who analysed the failure of embankments and earth dams
[811] and the delayed collapse of cuts in stiff clays [12]. In these
studies, an elasto-plastic constitutive model of the MohrCoulomb
type was adopted, in which the strain-softening behaviour of the
material was accounted for by a reduction of the strength parameters with increasing a deviatoric plastic strain invariant. However,
the numerical solution achieved using this approach may be
affected by a lack of convergence or a dependence on the mesh
adopted [1318]. In addition, the use of a non-associated flow rule
within the framework of the elasto-plasticity theory may also contribute to cause numerical instabilities [1922]. Therefore, an analysis of this type requires particular care, especially when the
location and propagation of the shear zones cannot be pre-established on the basis of geological evidences. In other words, the difficulties of modelling the strain-softening behaviour of the soil
using the finite element method in conjunction with an elastoplastic model derive from the numerical instabilities caused by
the post-peak response experienced by these materials and the

711

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

controlled vertical displacement

v =10

-4

m/s

4m

10 m

2
Fig. 1. A relationship between the soil strength parameters, /0 and c0 , and the
p
r
parameter kshear with an indication of the strain thresholds, kshear and kshear .

Table 1
Soil parameters and strain thresholds assumed for the analysis of a simple slope
subjected to a prescribed deformation process at the boundary.
E
(kN/ (kPa)
m3)

20

15 m

p
r
c0r
w
/0p
/0r
kshear kshear
(kPa) (kPa) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)

c0p

10,000 0.25 30

35

35

Fig. 2. A simple slope subjected to a vertical displacement with constant rate

imposed at the upper surface.

0.04

proposed such as the viscoplastic model [2325], Cosserat model

[26] or other models based on the gradient and non-local theories
[2733]. An updated review on these models can be found in the
book by Vardoulakis and Sulem [21]. A different approach to alle-

development of shear zones in which plastic strain localises. To

overcome these drawbacks, suitable constitutive models were

750

(b) 750

600

600

vertical force (kN/m)

vertical force (kN/m)

(a)

450
7874 elements

300

9816 elements

7874 elements
9816 elements

450

300

150

150

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.02

(c)

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

vertical displacement (m)

vertical displacement (m)

750

vertical force (kN/m)

7874 elements
600

9816 elements

450

300

150

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

vertical displacement (m)

Fig. 3. Vertical force versus vertical displacement at the upper surface of the slope as calculated using the elasto-plastic model (a), the elasto-viscoplastic model (b) and the
non-local elasto-viscoplastic model (c).

712

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

Fig. 4. Plastic strain field of the slope as calculated using the elasto-plastic model for a mesh consisting of 7874 elements (a) and 9816 elements (b).

Fig. 5. Plastic strain field of the slope as calculated using the elasto-viscoplastic model for a mesh consisting of 7874 elements (a) and 9816 elements (b).

viating mesh dependence using finite element method is the

strong discontinuity method, which represents localised deforma-

tion as a slip surface within a plasticity model. This approach was

developed by Simo et al. [34] and successively extended by other

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

authors [3538]. In particular, Regueiro and Borja [38] formulated

a rate independent, non-associative, strain-softening DruckerPrager
plasticity model with strong discontinuity and implemented this
model within the framework of an enhanced strain finite element
method to analyse slope stability.
In the present study, a numerical approach based on the finite
element method is proposed for the stability analysis of slopes in
soils with strain-softening behaviour. This approach utilises a
non-local elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model in conjunction
with the MohrCoulomb yield function in which the strength
parameters are reduced with the accumulated deviatoric plastic
strain. Some applications of the method are shown. In particular,
the results of a case study in which a process of progressive strain
is imposed at the boundary of a slope are compared to those obtained using other constitutive models proposed in the literature
for soils with strain-softening behaviour. Moreover, the stability
of a slope of large extension which is subjected to a prescribed
weathering process is analysed.

Within the framework of the elasto-viscoplasticity and under

the assumption of small strains, the total strain rate tensor can
be written as follows:

e_ ij e_ eij e_ ijv p

where e_ ij is the total strain rate tensor, and e_ eij and e_ ijv p are the elastic
and the viscoplastic strain components, respectively. According to
the effective stress principle, e_ eij is defined as:

e_ eij C ijhk r_ 0hk

slip surface
(non-local elasto-viscoplastic model)

slip surface
(elasto-viscoplastic model)

Fig. 7. The slope considered with an indication of the potential sliding surfaces
defined on the basis of the finite element analyses.

classical Perzyna approach [39], the viscoplastic strain rate is delayed with time and is expressed by the equation:

e_ ijv p UF mij

2. The non-local elasto-viscoplastic model

where r_ 0hk is the effective stress rate tensor and C ijhk is the elastic
compliance tensor which is independent of time. Following the

713

where U(F) is the viscous nucleus that depends on the yield function F, and mij is the gradient to the plastic potential function, P
(i.e., mij @P=@ r0ij ). The gradient of P defines the direction of the
viscoplastic strain rate tensor, and the yield function influences
the modulus of this tensor by means of U. The viscous nucleus plays
a dominant role in describing the mechanical response of a material
with time. The following equation for U was proposed by di Prisco
and Imposimato [40]:

UF c! p0 eaF

! and a are constitutive parameters affecting strain rate, and

where c
p0 denotes the mean effective stress. Nevertheless, the use of this
model is not always adequate to avoid the dependence of the solution on the mesh when the materials with strain-softening

Fig. 6. Plastic strain field of the slope as calculated using the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model for a mesh consisting of 7874 elements (a) and 9816 elements (b).

714

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

behaviour are considered [16,29,30]. In a more advanced version of

the model, a non-local definition for U was provided by di Prisco
et al. [29] and di Prisco and Imposimato [30]. According to this latter formulation, Eq. (3) can be modified as follows:

^ mij
e_ ijv p UF

with

F^

V!

Fxi xxi $ x0i dV

where xi indicates the generic space variables (x, y, z), x0i denotes
the coordinates of a given point with respect to which F^ is calcu-

! is a spherical volume with centre in this point and radius

lated, V
R, and x(xi $ x0i) is a three dimensional bell shaped function expressed as:
xi $x0i 2
1
p e$ 2
p
2
xxi $ x0i Z
xi $x0i 2
1
p e$ 2 dV
!
2p
V

The above equations introduce a further constitutive parameter,

! The choice of R dewhich is the radius R of the spherical volume V.
pends on the problem under consideration. For example, a small
value of R is usually selected when strain localisation is analysed

vertical force (kN/m)

750

a bc

600

450

300

150

e
f

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

vertical displacement (m)

step a

step b

Fig. 8. Formation and development of the shear zone as generated by the deformation process imposed at the upper surface of the slope.

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

715

step c

step d

step e

step f

Fig. 8 (continued)

at the scale of the soil specimens tested in the laboratory. In these

cases, R may be empirically correlated to the grain size of the material [41]. In the slope stability analyses, a higher value of R should
be assumed even when a mesh refinement technique is used, so

that an adequate number of integration points falls within the

shear zone. In this connection, R could be assigned on the basis
of some structural features of the geological formation under consideration, such as for instance the presence of thin layers or levels

716

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

B
D

20

40 m

Fig. 9. Cross section of the slope considered in the analysis with an indication of
some benchmark points (AD).

20

15

c' (kPa)

1 0
1
r # r03 # r01 r03 sin /0 # c0 cos /0
2 1
2

where r01 and r03 are the major and minor principal effective stresses respectively, c0 is the cohesion intercept, and /0 is the angle of
shearing resistance of the soil. The flow rule is of non-associated
type, with the plastic potential function given by:

(a)

0
0

10

15

1 0
1
r # r03 # r01 r03 sin w
2 1
2

where w denotes the dilatancy angle of the soil. Following Potts and
his co-workers [812], the strain-softening behaviour of the soil is
simulated by reducing the strength parameters, c0 and /0 , with an
increase of the accumulated deviatoric plastic strain. In the present
study, this latter is expressed by the parameter kshear defined as:

10
5

20

kshear (%)

kshear

(b)

k_ shear dt

10

q
0:5e_ pij e_ pij

11

1 p
e_ dij
3 kk

12

where

30

' ()

of soil in which strain can localise [7]. As shown by di Prisco and

Imposimato [30] and Troncone [42], using this non-local approach
the numerical drawbacks caused by the solution dependence on
the mesh can be effectively overcome. In addition, the thickness
of the shear zone only depends on the assumed value of R. In particular, considering Eq. (7) this thickness is about 2R for twodimensional problems.
In the present study, it is assumed that the yield function F is
defined by the MohrCoulomb failure criterion. Following the sign
convention usually adopted in soil mechanics, according to which
compression is considered positive, this function can be written in
terms of the principal effective stresses as follows:

k_ shear

and e_ pij is the rate of the deviatoric plastic strain tensor which is provided by the equation:

20
10

e_ pij e_ pij #

0
0

10

15

20

kshear (%)
Fig. 10. c # kshear and / # kshear relationships assumed in the analysis.
0

Fig. 11. Incremental displacement field of the slope as obtained using the Plaxis
code [48].

in which dij is Kroneckers delta, and e_ pij is the rate of the plastic
deformation tensor. The main advantage of considering a model
of the MohrCoulomb type is that a few soil parameters need to
be determined. In summary, the material parameters required by
the proposed approach are: Youngs modulus E, Poissons ratio v,
the parameters expressing the peak /0p ; c0p and residual /0r ; c0r
strength of the soil, the angle of dilatancy w and the strain thresholds which define the assumed relationship between the mobilized
strength parameters and kshear. In this study, the relationship shown
p
r
in Fig. 1 is adopted, in which the thresholds kshear and kshear are indicated. These latter can be obtained from the results of conventional
tests [7,11]. A similar relationship may be employed for w. Lastly,
! and a appearing in the last term of Eq. (4) may be
the values of c
fictitiously assigned to reproduce a material with negligible viscous
properties. Consequently, the viscous component of the model is
considered as a device to regularise the numerical solution as suggested by Zienkiewicz and Cormeau [43], and not with the aim of
accounting for the real viscous behaviour of the material. In all
the analyses here performed, it was assumed that
c! 10#6 kPa s#1 and a = 61. These values were obtained by di Pri-

Table 2
Soil parameters and strain thresholds assumed for the analysis of the slope subjected to a prescribed weathering process.

Cover soil
Lower soil

c (kN/m3)

E (kPa)

c0p (kPa)

c0r (kPa)

/0p (degrees)

/0r (degrees)

w (degrees)

kshear

kshear

20
20

10,000
15,000

0.25
0.25

15
150

0
150

30
31

12
31

0
0

0
0

0.15
0

717

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

1.2

horizontal dislplacement (m)

sco and Imposimato [44] from creep tests on loose sand with very
low viscous characteristics, and were successfully adopted by Troncone [7] to analyse a landslide of large extension which occurred in
soils with strain-softening behaviour. In other words, although a
viscoplastic model is adopted in the present study, the material
behaviour is assumed to be essentially elasto-plastic and characterized by an immediate response. On the other hand, if the viscous ef! and a
fects have to be accounted for in the analysis, the values of c
should be obtained from specific tests.
The described non-local elasto-viscoplastic model was used in
the numerical analyses shown in the subsequent section. These
analyses were performed by the finite element code Tochnog [45].

two refinements

three refinements

0.8
0.6

0.4

0.2
0

C
0

10

I (%)
3. Applications
A process of progressive strain imposed at the boundary of a
simple slope consisting of homogeneous soil is considered
(Fig. 2). The initial stress field of this slope was reproduced by progressively increasing the gravity acceleration up to 9.81 m/s2. At
the end of the gravity loading stage, the resulting displacements
and strains were reset to zero. Then, a vertical displacement with
a constant rate of 10!4 m/s was imposed on a portion of the slope

Fig. 13. Calculated horizontal displacement at points AD versus the weakening

index, I.

surface the width of which is 4 m (Fig. 2). The soil parameters considered in the analysis are indicated in Table 1. As can be seen, the
strain-softening behaviour was simulated by reducing the cohesion intercept from c0p to c0r with increasing kshear. The associated
strain thresholds are also indicated in Table 1. On the other hand,

Fig. 12. The mesh initially adopted with an indication of the boundary conditions (a); the mesh resulting after two cycles of refinement (b); the mesh resulting after three
cycles of refinement (c).

718

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

the angle of shearing resistance was kept constant. Moreover, a

value of R = 0.76 m was selected to evidence the thickness of the
shear zone. A mesh consisting of simple elements of constant
strain triangle type was adopted, and the calculations were carried
out considering a different number of elements (7874 and 9816).
The analyses were performed using three strain-softening soil
models in which the above-specified c0 ! kshear relationship is included: the elasto-plastic model, the elasto-viscoplastic model
and the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model.
The results from these models are compared in Figs. 36. In particular, Fig. 3 shows the forcedisplacement curves in the vertical
direction as calculated at the portion of the upper surface where
the deformation process was imposed. In addition, the plastic
strain field of the slope at the final step of analysis is presented
in Figs. 46 in terms of kshear. As can be observed, the forcedisplacement curve obtained using the elasto-plastic model abruptly
interrupts close to the peak due to a lack of convergence of the
solution (Fig. 3a). As a consequence, this model is unable to simulate the failure process of the slope (Fig. 4a and b). The results obtained using the elasto-viscoplastic model show that a force
displacement relationship is clearly defined (Fig. 3b), but the plastic strain field is affected by the element number of the mesh
(Fig. 5a and b). The non-local elasto-viscoplastic model is able to
predict both the strain-softening response of the slope (Fig. 3c)
and the formation of the shear zone the thickness of which is
essentially independent of the mesh adopted (Fig. 6a and b). Moreover, it is worth noting that the results obtained using the elastoviscoplastic model and the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model
are rather different. Specifically, the shear zone location obtained
using the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model is slightly shallower
than that predicted by the elasto-viscoplastic model (Figs. 5 and
6). In addition, the peak of the forcedisplacement curve from
the elasto-viscoplastic model is slightly smaller than that calculated using the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model and also occurs
for a lower value of the soil displacement (Fig. 3b and c). Lastly, the
post-peak response is substantially different. In particular, the results from the elasto-viscoplastic model show that at the highest
values of displacement, the slope can carry a boundary force of
about 300 kN/m. In contrast, this force rapidly decreases to zero
when the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model is adopted. To clarify
this latter aspect, a simple stability analysis of the slope with no
force applied to the boundary was performed by the conventional
limit equilibrium method [46,47] considering the potential failure
surfaces shown in Fig. 7. They are located within the shear zone obtained using the elasto-viscoplastic model and non-local elastoviscoplastic model, respectively. The strength parameters along
these failure surfaces were assumed on the basis of the values of
kshear calculated within the shear zone at the final step of analysis
(Figs. 5b and 6b). As can be seen, for both the models these values
r
are greater than the strain threshold kshear indicated in Table 1

(i.e., 4%). Consequently, the mobilized soil strength parameters

are /0 = 35! and c0 = 5 kPa. In particular, this latter is the lowest value
that the cohesion intercept can take on the basis of the assumed
relationship between c0 and kshear (Table 1). The calculations conducted by the limit equilibrium method ([46,47]) provided a value
of the safety factor very close to unity for both the failure surfaces
considered. This implies that no force could be applied to the slope
boundary in the condition under consideration. This is consistent
with the results obtained by the non-local elasto-viscoplastic
model which provide a final force equal to zero (Fig. 3c), but conflicts with those predicted by the elasto-viscoplastic one according
to which the slope would be able to carry a force of about 300 kN/m
at the final time of analysis (Fig. 3b). Based on these analyses, it can
be concluded that the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model is more
reliable than the other models considered to analyse slope stability
in soils with strain-softening behaviour. For the sake of completeness, Fig. 8 shows the formation and propagation of the shear zone
within the slope, as obtained using the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model with a mesh consisting of 9816 elements.
3.1. Weathering as a triggering factor of progressive failure in slopes
with strain-softening behaviour
Weathering is a physical and chemical process that occurs in
natural slopes especially when they are located in wet regions. It
causes a progressive weakening of the soil because of loosening
or breaking of bonds between particles and aggregates. From a
mechanical viewpoint, weathering leads to a slow decrease in soil
stiffness and strength with time.
In this section, the effect of weathering on the stability of an
ideal slope with a complex geometry is analysed. The slope is about
245 m long and is characterized by an average angle of about 18!
with the horizontal plane. A cross-section is depicted in Fig. 9,
where the location of some benchmark points (A, B, C and D) is also
indicated. It is assumed that the subsoil consists of a upper layer
(cover soil) overlaying a soil formation with higher mechanical
characteristics. The soil parameters considered in the analysis are
indicated in Table 2. The behaviour of the cover soil was simulated
using the non-local elasto-viscoplastic model described in the previous section. The radius R was assumed to be 0.80 m. On the contrary, the elastic-perfectly plastic MohrCoulomb model was
assumed for the lower formation. In other words, it was supposed
that only the cover soil experiences a strain-softening behaviour,
which is described by the relationships shown in Fig. 10a and b between the soil strength parameters, c0 and /0 , and the parameter
kshear. All the materials have no tensile strength.
A stability analysis of the slope was first performed using the
peak strength parameters for both the upper layer and the lower
formation, that is, the condition considered when the weathering
effects are ignored. The calculations were conducted using the

Fig. 14. The final displacement field of the slope caused by the imposed weathering process.

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

finite element code Plaxis [48]. It is assumed that both soils behave
according to the elastic-perfectly plastic MohrCoulomb model.
The analysis provided a value of the safety factor of about 1.8 (obtained using the procedure incorporated in Plaxis which is based
on a progressive reduction of the shear strength parameters). This

719

means that the slope is stable when the weathering effects are ignored. For the sake of completeness, the incremental displacement
field is presented in Fig. 11 to evidence the potential failure mechanism of the slope. As can be seen, displacement only involves the
cover soil.

Fig. 15. Simulation of the failure mechanism of the slope caused by weathering.

720

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

In the analysis performed by the Tochnog code, the initial stress

field of the slope was established applying the gravity loading procedure described in the previous section, under the assumption
that the behaviour of both the upper layer and the underlying formation is described by the elastic-perfectly plastic MohrCoulomb
model.
After this stage, a weathering process was simulated by imposing a progressive reduction in the peak strength parameters of the
cover soil (the stiffness parameters were kept constant for simplicity). This generates a stress re-distribution within the slope and the
occurrence of plastic strains. Owing to the strain-softening behaviour of the cover soil, the weathering-induced plastic strains cause
a further reduction in the soil strength which can rapidly lead to a
general failure of the slope.
Considering the extension of the slope, a mesh refinement technique was adopted during the solution procedure. The technique
under consideration consists of discretizing only the zones in
which high plastic strains occur, by a finer mesh. Taking advantage
of this technique, a coarse mesh can be adopted initially and then
refined locally in the portions of the slope where the plastic strains
are high. Specifically, this refinement procedure consists of the following steps:

Step 1: when the parameter kshear exceeds a prescribed threshold in some portions of the slope (for instance, when kshear is
greater than 1.1 times its average value), a finer discretization
of these zones is carried out.
Step 2: stresses and strains calculated at the previous step are
reset to zero, while the new mesh is kept.
Step 3: the calculation restarts using the new mesh, and a further
refinement is eventually performed following steps 1 and 2.
The mesh initially adopted for the present case study, and that
resulting after two and three cycles of refinement are shown in
Figs. 12a, b and c, respectively.
Fig. 13 presents the horizontal displacement calculated at
points A, B, C and D (Fig. 9) as a function of a weakening index,
which expresses analytically the reduction in the soil strength
parameters caused by the prescribed weathering process. This index is defined in terms of the effective cohesion as follows:

Ic

c0p " c0
c0p " c0r

and in terms of the shearing resistance angle as

Fig. 16. Formation and development of a shear zone within the slope as a result of the prescribed weathering process.

13a

721

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

Fig. 16 (continued)

I/

/0p " /0

13b

/0p " /0r

In the present case study, it was imposed that Ic I/ I. The results

are presented for two and three cycles of mesh refinement. As can

be noted, with the exception of the early stage of the curves, the calculated displacements are practically independent on the mesh
adopted. As expected, displacement increases as the weakening index increases and attains a value of about 1.2 m at point D. The displacement field at I = 8.3% is shown in Fig. 14. It should be noted

failure surface

residual strength
intermediate strength (between peak and residual)
peak strength
0

20

40 m

Fig. 17. The slope with an indication of the potential failure surface and the portions of this surface where peak or residual strength is mobilized as well as those where the
strength parameters are intermediate between peak and residual.

722

E. Conte et al. / Computers and Geotechnics 37 (2010) 710722

that the highest displacements occur in the upstream zone of the

slope where the weathering effect is considerable. On the other
hand, this effect is attenuated at the toe of the slope where the induced displacements are much lower. The slope is affected by a failure process as documented by the snapshots of the deformed mesh
in Fig. 15. Fig. 16af shows the formation and development of a
shear zone within the slope as a result of the imposed weathering
process and the strain-softening behaviour of the cover soil. This
makes evident that a progressive failure occurs within the slope
as triggered by weathering. Based on these results a potential failure surface can be defined, extending from the top to the base of
the slope. Fig. 17 indicates the portions of this surface where peak
or residual strength is mobilized as well as those where the strength
parameters are intermediate between peak and residual, as established on the basis of the values of kshear calculated at the final step
of analysis in conjunction with the relationships shown in Fig. 10a
and b. This non-uniform mobilisation of the soil strength along
the failure surface corroborates the conclusion that a progressive
failure occurs in the slope.
4. Concluding remarks
A numerical approach based on the finite element method in
which a non-local elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model is incorporated, has been proposed for the stability analysis of slopes in
soils with strain-softening behaviour. The MohrCoulomb yield
function is adopted, and the strain-softening behaviour of the soil
is simulated by reducing the strength parameters with the increasing deviatoric plastic strain. Using this approach, the post-peak response of the soil is effectively captured and the location and
propagation of the shear zone is reliably simulated in a practically
independent mesh manner. Another advantage of the method is
that a few soil parameters are required as input data.
The stability analysis of a slope subjected to a prescribed weathering process has been performed. Considering the large extension
of this slope, a mesh refinement procedure has been also adopted.
The analysis has shown that weathering can trigger a progressive
failure in soils with strain-softening behaviour and cause a general
failure of the slope.
References
[1] Terzaghi K, Peck RB. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. New York: Wiley;
1948.
[2] Skempton AW. Long term stability of clay slopes. Gotechnique
1964;14(2):77101.
[3] Bjerrum L. Progressive failure in slopes of overconsolidated plastic clays and
clay shales. J Mech Found Eng Div ASCE 1967;93(5):149.
[4] Lo KY, Lee CF. Stress analysis and slope stability in strain-softening materials.
Gotechnique 1973;23(1):111.
[5] Chen Z, Morgenstern NR, Chan DH. Progressive failure of the Carsington Dam: a
numerical study. Can Geotech J 1992;29:97188.
[6] Sterpi D. An analysis of geotechnical problems involving strain softening
effects. Int J Numer Anal Methods Geomech 1999;23(13):142754.
[7] Troncone A. Numerical analysis of a landslide in soils with strain-softening
behaviour. Gotechnique 2005;55(8):58596.
[8] Dounias GT, Potts DM, Vaughan PR. Finite element analysis of progressive
failure: two case studies. Comput Geotech 1988;6:15575.
[9] Potts DM, Dounias GT, Vaughan PR. Finite element analysis of progressive
failure of Carsington embankment. Gotechnique 1990;40(1):79101.
[10] Dounias GT, Potts DM, Vaughan PR. Analysis of progressive failure and
cracking in old British dams. Gotechnique 1996;46(4):62140.
[11] Potts DM, Zdravkovic L. Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineering:
application. London: Thomas Telford; 1999.
[12] Potts DM, Kovacevic N, Vaughan PR. Delayed collapse of cut slopes in stiff clay.
Gotechnique 1997;47(5):95382.

[13] Pietruszczak ST, Mroz Z. Finite element analysis of deformation of strainsoftening materials. Int J Numer Methods Eng 1981;17:32734.
[14] Leroy Y, Ortiz M. Finite element analysis of strain localization in frictional
materials. Int J Numer Anal Methods Geomech 1989;13:5374.
[15] Larsson R, Runesson K, Sture S. Finite element simulation of localized plastic
deformation. Arch Appl Mech 1991;61:30517.
[16] Sluys LJ. Wave propagation, localisation and dispersion in softening solids. PhD
thesis Delft University; 1992.
[17] Brinkgreve RBJ. Geomaterial models and numerical analysis of softening. PhD
thesis Delft University; 1994.
[18] Pastor M, Mira P, Merodo JAF. Practical aspect of the finite element method.
Revue franaise de gnie civil 2002;6(6):114768.
[19] Rudnicki JW, Rice JR. Conditions for the localization of deformation in
pressure-sensitive dilatant materials. J Mech Phys Solids 1975;23:37194.
[20] Vermeer PA, de Borst R. Non associated plasticity for soils, concrete and rock.
Heron 1984;29(3):163.
[21] Vardoulakis
IG,
Sulem
J.
Bifurcation
analysis
in
geomechanics. Glasgow: Blackie Academic and Professional; 1995.
[22] Nova R. The role of non-normality in soil mechanics and some of its
mathematical consequences. Comput Geotech 2004;31:18591.
[23] Loret B, Prevost HJ. Dynamic strain localization in elasto-(visco-)plastic solids,
part 1. General formulation and one-dimensional examples. Comput Methods
Appl Mech Eng 1990;83:24773.
[24] Oka F, Adachi T, Yashima A. A strain localization analysis using a viscoplastic
softening model for clay. Int J Plast 1995;11:52345.
[25] Wang WM, Sluys LJ, de Borst R. Viscoplasticity for instabilities due to strain
softening and strain-rate softening. Int J Numer Methods Eng 1997;7:158199.
[26] de Borst R. Simulation of strain localization: a reappraisal of the Cosserat
continuum. Eng comput 1991;8:31732.
[27] Bazant ZP, Chang TP. Non local finite element analysis of strain-softening
solids. J Eng Mech Div ASCE 1984;110(12):144150.
[28] Pjaudier-Cabot G, Bazant ZP. Non local damage theory. J Eng Mech Div ASCE
1987;113:151233.
[29] di Prisco C, Imposimato S, Aifantis EC. A visco-plastic constitutive model for
granular soils modified according to non-local and gradient approaches. Int J
Numer Anal Methods Geomech 2002;26:12138.
[30] di Prisco C, Imposimato S. Non local numerical analyses of strain localisation in
dense sand. Math Comput Model 2003;37:497506.
[31] Zbib HM, Aifantis EC. A gradient dependent flow theory of plasticity:
application to metal and soil instabilities. Appl Mech Rev 1989;42:295304.
[32] Vardoulakis I, Aifantis EC. A gradient flow theory of plasticity for granular
materials. Acta Mech 1991;87:197217.
[33] Aifantis EC, Oka F, Yashima A, Adachi T. Instability of gradient dependent
viscoplastic model for clay. Int J Numer Anal Methods Geomech
1999;23:97394.
[34] Simo JC, Oliver J, Armero F. An analysis of strong discontinuities induced by
strain-softening in rate-independent inelastic solids. Comput Mech
1993;12:27796.
[35] Armero F, Garikipati K. An analysis of strong discontinuities in multiplicative
finite strain plasticity and their relation with the numerical simulation of
strain localization in solids. Int J Solids Struct 1996;33:286385.
[36] Callari C, Armero F. Finite element methods for the analysis of strong
discontinuities in coupled poroplasticity media. Comput Methods Appl Mech
Eng 2002;191:4371400.
[37] Borja RI, Regueiro RA. Strain localization in frictional materials exhibiting
displacement jumps. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 2001;191:255580.
[38] Regueiro RA, Borja RI. Plane strain finite element analysis of pressure sensitive
plasticity with strong discontinuity. Int J Solids Struct 2001;38:364772.
[39] Perzyna P. The constitutive equations for rate sensitive plastic materials. Quart
Appl Math 1963;20:32132.
[40] di Prisco C, Imposimato S. Static liquefaction of a saturated loose sand stratum.
Int J Solids Struct 2002;39:352341.
[41] Mhlhaus HB, Vardoulakis I. The thickness of shear-bands in granular
materials. Gotechnique 1987;37:27183.
[42] Troncone A. Analisi di stabilit dei pendii in terreni con comportamento strainsoftening. PhD thesis University of Calabria; 2004.
[43] Zienkiewicz OC, Cormeau IC. Viscoplasticity, plasticity and creep in elastic
solids. A unified numerical solution approach. Int J Numer Methods Eng
1974;8:82145.
[44] di Prisco C, Imposimato S. Time dependent mechanical behaviour of loose
sands. Mech CohesFrict Mater 1996;1:4573.
[45] Roddeman DG. TOCHNOG professional users manual FEAT, Heerlen, The
Netherlands; 2005.
[46] Morgenstern N, Price VE. The analysis of stability of generalised slip surfaces.
Gotechnique 1965;15:7993.
[47] Spencer E. A method of analysis of the stability of embankments assuming
parallel inter-slice forces. Gotechnique 1967;17:1126.
[48] Brinkgreve RBJ, Vermeer PA. PLAXIS finite elements code for soil and rock
analysis, Version 7.2. Rotterdam, The Netherlands; 1998.